Psych 3 Exam
Explain several of the criticisms of Kohlberg's theory and discuss what research tells us about the validity of the criticism (if anything). There are seven; you should be able to write about at least five of them.
- Kohlberg's study has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough on moral behavior - Argues that a major flaw in Kohlberg's theory is his view that moral thinking is deliberative and that individuals go around all the time contemplating and reasoning about morality. -Kohlberg argued that emotion has negative effects ??????????
Explain (more than just a single sentence) and give examples of Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning. What specifics characterize individuals in each level? Be sure to talk about internalization as part of your answer.
-Level 1 Preconventional reasoning- the Lowest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. -Stage 1. Punishment and obedience orientation: is the first Kohlberg stage of moral development. at this stage, moral thinking is often tied to punishment. Example: Children and adolescents obey adults because adults tell them to obey. -Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange: This is the second stage in Kohlberg's model. At this stage, individuals pursue their own interests but also let others do the same. Thus, what is right involves an equal exchange. People are nice to others so that others will be nice to them in return. This stage has been described as reflecting an attitude of "what is in it for me". Example: -Level 2 Conventional reasoning- Is the second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others (external), such as parents or the law of society. In conventional reasoning, individuals develop expectations about social roles. This conventional reasoning level consists of two stages. -Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity: Kohlberg's third stage of moral development. At this stage, individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments. Children and adolescents often adopt their parents' moral standards at this stage, seeking to be thought of by their parents as a "good girl" or a "good boy." Example: Stage 4. Social systems morality: is the fourth stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty. For example, adolescents may say that, for a community to work effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that are adhered to by its members. Thus, in stage 4 reasoning, individuals engage in social perspective-taking that goes beyond intimate acquaintances to encompass the importance of being a good citizen. -Level 3 Postconventional stage- Is the highest level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level morality is more internal. the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a moral code. In postconventional reasoning, individuals engage in deliberate checks on their reasoning to ensure that it meets high ethical standards. The post-conventional level of morality consists of two stages. -Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights: The fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergrid or transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws and examines social systems in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values. Example: -Stage 6. Universal ethical principles: The sixth and the highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person will follow conscience, even though the decision might involve personal risk. Example:
Explain the three stages of the development of heterosexual romantic relationships, and give an example of each.
1. Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years of age- This initial stage is triggered by puberty. From 11 to 13 years old, adolescents become intensely interested in romance, and it dominates many conversations with same-sex friends. Developing a crush on someone is common, and the crush often is shared with a same-sex friend. Young adolescents may or may not interact with the individual who is the object of their infatuation. When dating occurs, it usually takes place in a group setting. 2. Exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years of age- At this point in adolescence, casual dating and dating in groups- two types of romantic involvement-- occur. Casual dating emerges between individuals who are mutually attracted. These dating experiences are often short-lived, last a few months at best, and usually endure for only a few weeks. Dating in groups is common and reflects embedded ness in the peer context. A friend often acts as a third-party facilitator of a potential dating relationship by communicating their friend's romantic interest and determining whether this attracting is reciprocated. 3. Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age- At the end of the high school years, more serious romantic relationships develop. This stage is characterized by strong emotional bonds more closely resembling those in adult romantic relationships. These Bonds often are more stable and enduring than earlier bonds, typically lasting one year or more.
1. What is sociometric status and how is it measured? 2. What skills and social outcomes are associated with popularity? 3. What does research show about neglected and rejected children?
1. Is used to describe the extent to which children and adolescents are liked or dislike by their peer group. Sociometric status is typically assessed by asking children to rate how much they like or dislike each of their classmates. Alternatively, it may be assessed by asking children and adolescents to nominate the peers they like the most and those they like the least. 2. Popular children have a number of social skills that contribute to their being well liked. Researchers have found that popular children give out reinforcements, listen carefully, maintain open lines of communication with peers, are happy, control their negative emotions, show enthusiasm and concern for others, and are self-confident without being conceited. A recent study of 13-23-year-olds revealed that early adolescent's pseudomature behavior (trying to appear mature or be "cool" among peers, such as in minor delinquency or precocious romantic involvement) was associated with a desire to be popular with peers. This study, early adolescent psudomature behavior was linked to long-term problems in close relationships, substance abuse, and a higher level of criminal behavior. 3. Neglected children engage in low rates of interaction with their peers and are often described as shy by peers. Rejected children often have more serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected. Rejected boys are more impulsive and have problems sustaining attention. As a result, they are more likely to be disruptive of ongoing activities in the classroom and in focused group play Rejected aggressive boys are more emotionally reactive. They are aroused to anger more easily and probably have more difficulty calming down once aroused. Because of this they are more prone to become angry at peers and attack them verbally and physically. Rejected children have fewer social skills in making friends and maintaining relationships with peer
Explain two or three of the ethnic variations in families across different cultures, as described in the textbook.
1. Large and extended families are more common among ethnic minority groups than among non-Latino White Americans. For example, more than 30 percent of Latino families consist of five or more individuals, African Americans and Latino children interact more with grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more distant relatives than do non-Latino White American children. 2. Single parent families are more common among African Americans and Latinos than among non-Latino White Americans. In comparison with two-parent households, single-parent households often have more limited resources of time, money, and energy. This shortage of resources can prompt parents to encourage autonomy among their adolescents prematurely. 3. A sense of family duty and obligation also varies across ethnic groups. Asian American and Latino families place a greater emphasis on family duty and obligation than do non-Latino White families. Researchers have found that more Asian American and Latino adolescents believe that they should spend time taking care of their siblings, helping around the house, assisting their parents at work, and being with their families than do adolescents with a European heritage. Researchers found that Asian Americans adolescents found that family obligation was linked to their adjustment and helped to buffer their negative influence of financial stress in lower-income families during the later high school years.
There are two distinct dimensions of parenting. Describe them. What are the four styles that result from the combination of these dimensions? Describe them, being sure to use the dimensions in your answer. (Figure 8.2 and the notes from class will help with this part of the answer.) What are the typical outcomes for adolescents from each style?
????(Amounts of each not specific one or the other) 1. Acceptance, warmth- 2. Demandingness, control- Four styles- 1. Authoritative- Encourage independence but sets limits and controls, verbal give and take, warm and nurturing 2. Authoritarian- Is restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts high or control low on warm 3. Neglectful- 4. Indulgent-
Why does authoritative parenting result in the most socially competent adolescents (discuss all three reasons)?
Allows adolescence to be independent but still places limits in controls on their actions. 1. Authoritative parents establish an appropriate balance between control and autonomy, giving adolescents opportunities to develop independence while providing the standards, limits, and guidance that children and adolescents need. 2. Authoritative parents are more likely to engage adolescents in verbal give-and-take and to allow adolescents to express their views. This type of family discussion is likely to help adolescents to understand social relationships and requirements for being a socially competent person. 3. The warmth and parental involvement provided by authoritative parents make the adolescent more receptive to parental influence.
According to Freud, what are the divisions of the superego and how do they affect moral feelings?
Ego Ideal- Component of the superego that involves ideal standards approved by parents, where as the An individuals ego-ideal rewards individuals by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the individual acts according to moral standards. Conscience- Is the component of the superego that involves behavior not approved of by parents The conscience punishes the individual for acting immorally by making the individual feel guilty and worth-less. In this way, self-control replaces parental control.
Explain three important characteristics of sibling relationships.
Emotional quality of relationship- Both intensely positive and intensely negative emotions are often expressed by siblings toward each other. Many children and adolescents have mixed feelings toward siblings. Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship- Siblings typically know each other very well, and this intimacy suggests that they can either provide support or tease and undermine each other, depending on the situation. Variation in sibling relationships- Some siblings describe their relationships more positively than do others. Thus, there is considerable variation in sibling relationships. We've seen that many siblings have mixed feelings about each other, but some adolescents mainly describe their siblings in warm, affectionate ways, whereas others primarily talk about how irritating and mean a sibling is.
Describe the social cognitive theory of moral development. Give an example. Does research support this view?
Emphasizes a distinction between adolescents' moral competence- the ability to produce moral behaviors- and moral performance- the enactment of those behaviors in specific situations. Competence, or acquisition, is primarily the outgrowth of cognitive-sensory processes. Competencies include what adolescents are capable of doing, what they know, their skills, their awareness of moral rules and regulations, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors. In contract, adolescents' moral performance, behavior, is determined by their motivation and the rewards and incentives to act in a specific moral way. Example- ?????? Overall, the findings are mixed with regard to the association of moral thought and behavior, although in one investigation with college students, individuals with both highly principled moral reasoning and high ego strength were less likely to cheat in a resistance-to-temptation situation than were their low-principled and low-ego-strength counterparts.
Describe the typical patterns and possible outcomes of parent-adolescent conflict. (Think about many different factors, including who the conflict is with, age-related changes in conflict, etc. when constructing your response.)
It is commonly believed that a huge gulf separates parent and adolescents in the form of a so called generation gap between the values and attitudes of adolescents and those of their parents. For the most part, the generation gap is a inaccurate stereotype. That said, the fact that remains that early adolescence is a time when parent-adolescent conflict escalates beyond levels experienced during childhood. This increase may be due to a number of factors already discussed involving maturation of the adolescent and maturation of the parent: Biological changes of puberty; cognitive changing involving increased idealism and logical reasoning; social changes focused on independence and identity; violation expectations; and physical, cognitive, and social changes in parents associated with middle adulthood. Rather, much of the conflict involves everyday aspects of family life, such as keeping a bedroom clean, dressing neatly, getting home by a certain time, not talking on the phone forever, and so on. The conflicts rarely involve major dilemmas like drugs and delinquency. Nearly all conflicts were resolved by adolescents' giving in to parents, but adolescent concession declined with age. There are more disagreements with their mothers than with anyone else-followed in order by friends, romantic partners, siblings, father, other adults, and peers. The majority of conflict was between mothers and daughters The prolonged intense conflict is associated with a number of adolescent problems-- moving away form home, juvenile delinquency, school dropout, pregnancy and early marriage, membership in religious cults, and drug abuse.
Describe the main findings and main points of each of the readings (Jones & Cassidy; Xia et al.; and Benner et al.) for this section of the course. You can count on these being part of the exam.
Jones, Cassidy- Research has been accumulated over the years that involves adult attachment theory styles. There were no significant links between parents self reported attachment styles and their observed secure base provision to their adolescent children. Studies provided the first evidence for a link between parental attachment styles and observed adolescent secure base use. The results suggest that this link may be better conceptualized as indirect, rather than direct. Through parent-reported hostile behavior and adolescents perceptions of their mother (but not father). Main points: Attachment theory and how we understand parent and child relationships. How parents self reported attachment styles relate to parental secure base provision and adolescent. Benner: Transition for adolescents vary in everything from dating to school. High school transition often disrupts students well-being as they learn to navigate larger physical spaces that bring together new groups of teachers and peers. Understanding key buffers of this transition is critical to designing intervention efforts that can best support students as they move from middle to high school and ensure students remain in school until graduation and beyond. Primary focus is centered on power of supportive relationships to buffer the potential negative effects of school transitions. All the support processes, school belonging appeared to play the most prominent buffering role, influencing positive transition experiences in relation to students depressive symptoms, loneliness, and school engagement as well as grades in the sensitivity analyses. Social support on students' socioemotional well being as they moved from middle to high school, we observed fewer effects of support on adolescents academic across the transition. Many adolescents struggle academically and/or socioemotionally as they transition from middle to high school, and whether certain students are potentially more vulnerable to this transition has not been well explored in the extent transition literature.
Describe three types of parental discipline that affect moral development. Give an example of each, and discuss Huffman's conclusions regarding effectiveness of each type. What does research say about this?
Love withdrawal- comes the closest to the psychoanalyti emphasis on fear and punishment and of losing parental love. It is a discipline technique in which a parents withholds attention of love from the adolescent, as when the parent refuses to talk to the adolescent or states a dislike for the adolescent. Example: A parent tells their adolescent that they are ashamed of them wished they were never born. Power assertion- Is a discipline technique in which a parent u attempts to gain control over the adolescent or the adolescent's recourses. Examples: include spanking, threatening, or removing privileges. Induction- Is the discipline technique in which a parent uses reason and explanation of consequences for others of the adolescent's actions. Example: "Don't hit him. He was only trying to help" and "Why are you yelling at her? She didn't mean to hurt your feelings." When a parent uses power assertion or love withdrawal, the adolescent may be so aroused emotionally that, even if the parents gives accompanying explanations about the consequences for others of the adolescent's actions, the adolescent might not attend them. Power assertion presents weak parents as weak models of self control- as individuals who cannot control how they express their own feelings. According, adolescents may imitate this model of poor self-control when they face stressful circumstances. The use of Induction, however, focuses the adolescent's attention on the action's consequences for others, not on the adolescent's own shortcomings. Furthermore, parent induction was linked to a higher moral identity in this study. Research on parental discipline techniques has found that in induction is more positively related to moral development than is love withdrawal or power assertion, although the findings vary according to developmental level of socioeconomic status.
Describe what we know from research about the links within families (including attachment and divorce) that are associated with later romantic relationships.
Parents may influence their children's peer relations in many ways, both direct and indirect. Parents affect their adolescents' peer relation through their interactions with them, how they manage their lives, and the opportunities they provide them. Some researchers found that parents and adolescents perceive that parents have little authority over adolescents' choices in some areas but more authority over their choices in other areas. Adolescents do show a strong motivation to be with their peers and become independent. However, it is not accurate to assume that movement toward peer involvement and autonomy is unrelated to parent-adolescent relationships. Researchers have provided persuasive evidence that adolescents live in a connected world with parents and peers, not one in which parents and peers are disconnected from each other. What are some of the ways that the worlds of parents and peers are connected? Parents' choices of neighborhoods, churches, schools, and their own friends influence the pool from which their adolescents select possible friends. For example, parents can choose to live in a neighborhood with playgrounds, parks, and youth organizations or in a neighborhood where houses are far apart, few adolescents live and youth organizations are not well developed. Attachment: One of the most consistent outcomes of attachment research is the finding that secure attachment to parents is linked to positive peer relations. A recent media-analysis found that the link between mother attachment and peer attachment was stronger than the relationship between father attachment and peer attachment. Although adolescent-parent attachment are correlated with adolescent outcomes, the correlations are moderate, and indication that the success or failure of parent-adolescent attachments does not not necessarily guarantee success or failure in peer relationships. Clearly, secure attachment with parents can be an asset for the adolescent, fostering the trust to engage in close friendships with others and providing a foundation for developing interpersonal skills. Notheless, a significant minority of adolescents from strong, supportive families struggle with peer relations for a variety of reasons, such as being physically unattractive, maturing late, and experiencing cultural and socioeconomic-status (SES) discrepancies. On the other hand, some adolescents from troubled families find a positive, fresh start with peer relations that can compensate for their problematic family backgrounds.
Explain several ways gender influences friendships. Please give examples.
Peer attachment: A recent meta-analysis concluded that adolescent girls show higher peer attachment, especially related to trust and communication, than do adolescent boys. Example: Girls may value friendships and relationships more than boys. Group sizes: From about 5 years of age onward, boys are more likely than girls to associate in larger clusters. Boys are more likely to participate in organized games and sports than girls are. Example: Girls like stated in previous chapters are more likely to have a select few close friends. Interaction in same -sex groups: Boys are more likely than girls to engage in competition, conflict, ego displays, and risk taking and to seek dominance. By contrast, girls are more likely to engage in "collaborative discourse" in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner. Example: Boys might settle an argument through physically fighting while girls may fight verbally.
How are friendships developmental advantages? Give examples. (Please base your answer on the research presented in the textbook.)
Positive friendships relationships in adolescence are associated with a host of positive outcomes, including lower rates of delinquency, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, and bullying victimization, and a higher level of academic achievement and exercise. An adolescent is friends with another adolescent who loves to play sports so in return they both do exercise activities together.
Describe the research on positive and negative peer relations and peer pressure. What factors are associated with increased likelihood of conforming to peers?
Positive- Adolescents explore the principles of fairness and justice by working through disagreements with peers. They learn to be keen observers of peers' interests and perspectives in order to smoothly integrate themselves into ongoing peer activities. Adolescents also learn to be skilled and sensitive partners in intimate relationships by forging close friendships with selected peers. They carry these intimacy skills forward to help form the foundation of later dating and marital relationships. Negative- A recent study revealed that of the various types of negative interpersonal event encountered by adolescents, including those involving parents (such as being yelled at by a parent), teacher (such as getting in trouble with a teacher), and peers, negative peer events (such as getting into a fight with or arguing with another kid, for example) were more likely to account for maintaining depressive symptoms across a two-year period in early adolescence. Another recent study found that college students with risky social networks (friends who drink, for example) were ten times more likely to engage in heavy drinking. One study also revealed that having friends who engage in delinquent behavior is associated with early onset and more persistent delinquency. Peer pressure- Positive: ??????????????? Negative: Adolescents are more likely to conform to peers when they are uncertain about their social identity, which can appear in the form of low self-esteem and high social anxiety, are most likely to conform to peers. This uncertainty often increases during times of transition at a new school or at home. Also, adolescents are more likely to conform when they are in the presence of someone they perceive to have higher status than they do.
How do psychologically healthy and unhealthy families vary in their responses to autonomy demands as adolescents get older? How can these changes affect the people involved? What about during the transition to college?
Psychologically healthy families adjust to adolescents' push for independence by treating the adolescents in more adult ways and including them more often in family decision making. Psychologically unhealthy families often remain locked into power-oriented parental control, and parents move even more heavily toward and authoritarian posture in their relationships with their adolescents. The adolescent's quest for autonomy and sense of responsibility create puzzlement and conflict for many parents. They often feel an urge to take stronger control as the adolescent seeks autonomy and personal responsibility. Heated, emotional exchanges might ensue, with either side calling names, making threats, and doing whatever seems necessary to gain control. Parents can become frustrated because they expected their teenager to heed their advice, to want to spend time with the family, and to grow up to do what is right. To be sure, they anticipated that their teenager would have some difficulty adjusting to the changes adolescence brings, but few parents are able to imagine and predict the strength of adolescents' determination to spend time with their peers to show that is is they, not the parents who are responsible for their success or failure. Leaving for college- High school to college transition involves increased autonomy for most individuals. For some, homesickness sets in; for others, sampling the privileges of life without parents hovering around feel marvelous. For the growing number of students whose families have been torn apart by separation or divorce, though, moving away can be especially painful. 1. Some adolescence feel they have the role of comforter, confidant, and even caretaker of their parent as well as their siblings. 2. For other students the independence of being a college freshman is somewhat stressful but not too difficult to manage. 3. Leaving for college is sometimes difficult for an adolescent due to lacking skills such as balancing ones own checkbook, making own plane reservations, doing laundry, and even waking up in the morning. These things usually were taken care of by parent.
Define and give an example of reciprocal socialization within the family. Distinguish between direct and indirect effects in this model.
Reciprocal socialization is the process by which children and adolescents socialize parents, just as parents socialize them. The epigenetic view emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment. For example, harsh hostile parenting is associated with negative outcomes for adolescents, such as being defiant and oppositional. That is the parents' harsh, hostile parenting and the adolescent's defiant, oppositional behavior may mutually influence each other. In this bidirectional influence, the parents' and adolescent's behavior may have genetic linkages as well as experiential connections. Example: Parents teach their children and in return the child teaches the parent how to teach An example of a direct effect is the influence of the parent's behavior on the adolescent. An example of an indirect effect is how the relationship between the spouses mediates the way a parent acts toward the adolescent. For example, marital conflict might reduce the efficiency of parenting, in which case marital conflict would have an indirect effect on the adolescent's behavior.
Discuss the research looking at adolescents' adjustment in divorced families. Look specifically at Hetherington's research. [Note: pay special attention to the final paragraph in this section of the text.]
Research shows that infants, children, adolescents, and emerging adults from divorced families show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in non divorced families. Many of the problems that children from divorced homes experience begin during the pre divorce period, a time when parents are often in active conflict with each other. Thus, when children from divorced homes show problems, the problems may be due not only to the divorce but to the marital conflict that led to it. Research done by Hetherington concluded with a longitudinal study that parental divorce in childhood and adolescence was linked to poor relationships with father, unstable romantic or marital relationships, and low levels of education in adulthood. There has been proposed that emotional security theory, which has its roots in attachment theory and states that children appraise marital conflict in terms of their sense of security and safety in the family. Despite the emotional problems some adolescents and emerging adults from divorce families have, the weight of the research evidence underscores that most adolescents and emerging adults cope successfully with their parents' divorce and that a majority of adolescents and emerging adults in divorced families do not have significant adjustment problems.
Explain how religion has been shown to have positive influences in adolescent's lives.
Researchers have found that various aspects of religion are linked with positive outcomes for adolescence. Grades- A recent study revealed a higher level of church engagement was related to high grades for male adolescents. Churchgoing may benefit students because religious communities encourage socially acceptable behavior, which includes doing well in school. Churchgoing also may benefit students because churches often offer positive role models for students. Religion also plays a role in the adolescent's health and whether they engage in problem behavior. A recent meta-analysis found that spirituality/ religiosity was positively related to well-being, self-esteem, and three of the Big Five factors of personality (Conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness) Those who were higher in religiosity were less likely to smoke, drink alcohol, use marijuana, be truant from school, engage in delinquent activities, and be depressed than were their low-religiosity counterparts. A study of ninth- to twelth-graders revealed that more frequent religious attendance in one grade predicted lower levels of substance abuse in the next grade.
What are secure and insecure attachment? Explain secure attachment and the three different styles of insecure attachment and what it looks like when an adolescent has each style. What are some of the research findings regarding attachment and well-being?
Secure attachment- In infancy, childhood, and adolescence, secure attachment usually involves an emotional bond between a child and a caregiver that benefits the child's exploration of the environment and further development. Insecure attachment- Infants, children, and adolescents either avoid the caregiver or show considerable resistance or ambivalence toward the caregiver. Insecure attachment is theorized to be related to difficulties in relationships and problems in later development. Styles of insecure attachment: 1. Dismissing/avoidant attachment- Is an insecure category in which individuals deemphasized the importance of attachment. This category is associated with consistent experiences of rejection of attachment needs by caregiver. One possible outcome of dismissing/avoidant attachment is that parents and adolescents mutually distance themselves from each other, a state that lessons parents' influence 2. Preoccupied/ambivalent attachment- Is an insecure category in which adolescents are hyperattuned to attachment experiences. This is thought to mainly occur because parents are inconsistently available to the adolescent. This state can result in a high degree of attachment-seeking behavior, mixed with angry feelings. Conflict between parents and adolescents in this type of attachment classification can be too high for healthy development. 3. Unresolved/disorganized attachment- Is an insecure category in which the adolescent has an unusually high level of fear and might be disoriented. This can result from traumatic experiences such as a parent's death or abuse by parents.
Describe Sullivan's ideas about intimacy in friend relationships. Are his ideas withstanding the test of time (explain)?
Sullivan argued that the need for intimacy intensifies during early adolescence, motivating teenagers to seek out close friends. If adolescents fail to forge such close friendships, they experience loneliness and a reduced sense of self-worth. Many of Sullivan's ideas have withstood the test of time. For example, adolescents report disclosing intimate and personal information to their friends more often than do younger children. Adolescents also say they depend more on friends than on parents to satisfy their needs to companionship, reassurance of worth, and intimacy. The ups and downs of experiences with friends shape adolescents' well-being.
Describe several ways that schools can influence moral development. Give an example of each. There are six; you should be able to write about at least four. (Do not include the integrative approach as one of these).
The Hidden Curriculum- The moral atmosphere is created by school and classroom rules, the moral orientation of teachers and school administrators, and text material. Recently, increased attention has been directed to the influence of classroom and school climate as part of the hidden curriculum. Classroom rules and peer relations at school transmit attitudes about cheating, lying, stealing, and consideration for others. And, by enforcing rules and regulations, the school administration infuses the school with a value system. Example: Character Education- Considerable interest has recently been shown in character education, a direct education approach that involves teaching students basic moral literacy to prevent them form engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others. The argument is that such behaviors as lying, stealing, and cheating are wrong and that students should be taught this throughout their education. Instructions in specified moral concepts, such as cheating, can take the form of example and definition, class discussions and role playing, or rewarding students for proper behavior. More recently encouraging students to develop a care perspective has been accepted as a relevant aspect of character education. Rather than just instructing adolescents to refrain from morally deviant behavior. advocates of a care perspective encourage students, to engage in prosocial behaviors such as considering others' feelings, being sensitive to others, and helping others. Example: Values Clarification- A second approach to providing moral education is values clarification, which involves helping individuals to clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for. Unlike character education, which tells students what their values should be, values clarification encourages students to define their own values and to understand the values of others. Example: Cognitive Moral Education- A third approach to moral education, cognitive moral education, is based on the belief that students should learn to value such things as democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops. Kohlberg's theory has served as the foundation for a number of cognitive moral education programs. In a typical program, high school students meet in a semester-long course to discuss a number of moral issues. The Instructor acts as a facilitator rather than as a director of the class. The hope is that students will develop more advanced notions of such concepts as cooperation, trust, responsibility, and community. Example: Cheating- A moral education concern is how extensive cheating is and how to handle the cheating if it is detected. Academic cheating can take many forms including plagiarism, using "cheat sheets" during an exam, copying from a neighbor during a test, purchasing papers, and falsifying lab results. Why do students cheat? Among the reasons students give for cheating include pressure to get high grades, time constraints, poor teaching, and lack of interest. In terms students are more likely to cheat when they perceive their teacher to be incompetent, unfair, and uncaring. A long history of research also implicates the power of the situation in determining whether students cheat. Students are more likely to cheat when they are not being closely monitored during a test; when they know their peers are cheating; when they know whether or not another student has been caught cheating; and when student scores are made public. Among the strategies for decreasing academic cheating are preventive measures such as making sure students are aware the importance of being a moral, responsible, individual who engages in academic integrity. Example: