The OT Manager Chapter 1 (rough)
Scientific management.
A classical system of management attributed to mechanical engineer Fredrick Taylor (1856-1915) that used time and motion studies and piece rate as a system to improve worker productivity
Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
A motivational theory by psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) that postulates that people in the workplace are motivated by a desire to satisfy a set of internal needs.
Bureaucracy.
A system of classical management and organizational design that promoted specialization in jobs and positions of authority. Bureaucracy provided a system of rules, hierarchical structure, impersonal superior-subor- dinate relationships, and excessive red tape.
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was a French engineer who was influential throughout Europe and the United States. He developed a systematic method of management that examined the organization from the top down
According to Fayol, business activities are composed of basic functions, such as technical activities, including production and manufacturing, and commercial activities, such as buying and selling or exchanging.
The learning organization is based on systems theory and the study of natural biological systems (Crist, 1996). According to advocates of the learning organization, the world is an inextricably connected system in which everything can affect everything else.
According to advocates of the learning organization, the world is an inextricably connected system in which everything can affect everything else
The contingency approach, also called the situational approach, was developed by professional groups who tried to apply the best available information (including computer-generated data) to make managerial decisions.
Advocates of the contingency approach argue that outcomes differ because situations differ; it is the manager's task to identify which technique will, in a particular situation, under particular circumstances, and at a particular time, best achieve the management goals.
Barnard also believed that executives had a responsibility to foster a sense of moral purpose in their employees. Bernard encouraged employees to think beyond their own self-interests and to make a commitment to provide a service to society
Barnard saw the organization as a collaborative group of individuals working together for a common cause. Or greater good
Business executive Chester I. Barnard (1886-1961) was opposed to some of the practices of classical management theory and set out to improve management of human activity by examining the underlying informal interpersonal relationships that exist within the organization
Barnard's major contribution is the recognition of the "informal organization" in management theory. Barnard emphasized work satisfaction and attention to workers' individual needs.
According to Weber, technical competence is highly valued and performance evaluations should be based entirely on merit.
Bureaucracy encourages compartmentalization; work tasks are divided into specialized jobs that emphasize mastery of a narrow job skill. bureaucracy created an inflexi and impersonal work environment.
Intrapreneurial.
Creating another service or product line within an organization to improve customer service or the performance of that product line.
1920s Pamela B. Blake, manager of a central sterile supply department in a large hospital in New York City, studied the operating room preparatory area to determine how long employees took to set up for a medical procedure to identify ways to save critical time during surgery
During this period, the humanistic movement was taking place, occupational therapy had become an official profession in 1917, and large occupational therapy departments were being developed to care for people with mental health issues and infectious diseases like tuberculosis
The behavioral science movement is the scientific study of human behavior in organizations to help managers be more effective.
Evidence shows that it is often beneficial to redesign routine jobs to allow a broader range of roles for employees. In addition, managers must be aware of the informal groups and the culture of an organization, especially if they are trying to produce change
Hawthorne studies.
Famous studies conducted between 1924 and 1933 at the Western Electric plant to determine the eff ects of the environment and work conditions on productivity. Th e study suggested that group dynamics and special attention paid to workers had a greater eff ect on productivity than external variables such as room illumination.
With respect to the management function, Fayol identified planning (developing a course of action), organizing (mobilizing human resources and materials), commanding (directing employees), coordinating (integrating activities toward a common goal), and controlling (following up to make sure the goals are carried out).
Fayol believed that sound management was the key to success in the workplace. From this basic insight, he drew up a list of 14 principles of management and insisted that management was a skill that could be taught once its underlying principles were revealed (
Social worker Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) built on classical management approaches and introduced concepts of human relations that further developed the emerging behavioral science approaches to management.
Follett is credited with the belief that management is "the art of getting things done through people" (Tonn, 2003, p. 53). She believed that the distinction between managers (order givers) and subordinates (order takers) obscured this natural partnership.
Theory Y proposed an entirely differ set of assumptions. Theory Y suggested that the occupation of work is as natural as rest and play, consistent with the holistic philosophy of occupational therapy. Theory Y suggested that people do not inherently dislike the occupation of work and are willing to seek out responsibility, with the capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity to provide a solution.
Furthermore, people exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of the organization if the objectives are in their zone of indifference. Theory Y takes a more positive view of the employee's intellectual capacity, which is believed to be only partially used in the workplace
Gilbreth was able to reduce the bricklaying process by 16 motions and invented an adjustable stand—an adaptive device—to hold bricks so workers would not have to bend over so often to pick up bricks. The
Gilbreths had 12 children and claimed to have used scientific management to efficiently organize tasks
Group decision strategies sometimes cause a phenomenon called groupthink. According to Janis (1972), when the thinking processes of group members become too homologous or homogeneous, decision making is compromised.
Groupthink can lead group members to reinforce stereotypic perceptions, fall prey to group pressure for compliance, and engage in self-censorship by not expressing alternative opinions—what Janis called unanimity (the false assumption that those who remain silent are in agreement with the group's decision).
Mechanical engineer Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919) redesigned Taylor's incentive system.
He discovered that the differential rate system had a negative impact on motivation. Gantt developed a incentive system in which workers who finished the day's workload would earn a 50-cent bonus. In addition, the supervisor also earned a bonus for each worker who exceeded the daily workload. To add more incentive, the worker's productivity was displayed on bar graphs so all of the workers could compare their productivity.
In 1968, psychologist Fredrick Herzberg (19232000) introduced a theory of motivation called the two-factor or motivation-hygiene theory.
Herzberg's theory has been widely applied by managers interested in motivation. Herzberg used qualitative research to explore the content, or experiences of the job, and the context, or factors surrounding the job. In essence, the research revealed two distinct types of motivational factors: satisfiers, or motivators, and dissatisfiers, or hygiene factors
the Industrial Revolution created the need for more structure in the workplace.
History has shown that coercion and punishment do not work as motivators for productivity (Szilagyi & Wallace, 1990); likewise, time-and-motion studies, monetary incentives alone, and authoritative relationships with subordinates do not enhance productivity.
2nd study found same confusing thing
Mayo and his colleagues finally concluded that the "social relationship" accounted for the increase in productivity; the employees received special attention that improved their performance, and the subtle changes in the environment were insignificant. This phenomenon is known as the Hawthorne effect and is a variable taken into account in randomized controlled studies
Human relations movement.
Movement that grew out of a reaction to the shortcomings of classical scientific management. It began in the 1920s and emphasized behavioral theory and the human aspects of productivity in the organization.
braham Maslow (1908-1970) was an educator, plant manager, and psychologist during his prolific career (Turban & Meredith, 1991). Maslow was interested in what motivates workers and proposed the hierarchy of needs theory.
People are motivated b y the need to satisfy a sequence of human needs, including physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs
unanimity (the false assumption that those who remain silent are in agreement with the group's decision).
Perhaps the most destructive outcome of groupthink is when group members "protect" the leader or key members of the group from information that might shatter the complacency of the group.
The most famous of these studies were the illumination studies, designed to see if better lighting had an impact on the productivity of workers. Elton Mayo (1880-1949) was invited to consult on the illumination project, which was already underway outside Chicago at the Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric.
Raising light and lowering light improved productivity. The researchers were confused and disappointed; they believed that they failed to find any relationship between illumination and productivity.
The "formula-driven" reimbursement system, fee-for-service regulations, prospective payment systems, and capitated contracts will continue to add stress to the workplace.
Rigid organizational systems can dampen the motivation for planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling to the extent that the system does not allow the flexible application of new management theory.
The systems approach departs from the segmented and hierarchical view of management and views the organization as a unified, purposeful system composed of parts that are all intimately related. This approach gives occupational therapy managers a way of looking at the organization as a whole and as a part of the larger, external environment.
Systems managers grasp the importance of the interconnectivity among working relationships in advancing their efforts within and beyond their organization.
The value of the Pareto Principle for the occupational therapy manager is to focus on which 20% of effort produces 80% of results. If one can identify and expand the 20%, it can improve the operation of the clinic or program. For example, if 80% of reimbursement comes from 20% of the occupational therapy practitioners, those individuals should be rewarded on a merit system.
T manager might analyze how the 20% do their documentation and billing and teach that method to the other 80% to improve efficiency.
In 1969, Laurence J. Peter and Raymond Hull introduced the concept that in a hierarchy, employees tend to rise to their level of incompetence; this has become known as the Peter Principle. I
The employee's incompetence is not necessarily the result of the position being more difficult; the job simply requires different skill sets from the job in which the employee previously excelled.
The organizational design of the learning community is flat rather than a top-to-bottom, hierarchical chain of command. There is transparency in the information held by people in management positions, and lines of communication are bidirectional (Crist, 1996; Hesselbein, Goldsmith, & Beckhard, 1997).
The learning organization embraces egalitarian thought; all members of the learning community are treated as equals and are seen as having something to offer the organization.
Barnard also observed that employees performed certain duties without questioning their manager's authority; he called this the employee's zone of indifference.
The more activities that fell within employees' zone of indifference, the better the organization functioned.
T occupational therapy manager can draw from management theory in placing a greater emphasis on strategic planning, mission, and goals for the greater good of the organization.
The occupational therapy manager must be skilled with group decision strategies and advocate continuing education and continuing competency to maintain licensed and certified practitioners in the workplace.
Taylor found that standardized tools and procedures improved work performance and prevented injury and that periods of rest are necessary for increased productivity. He also believed that money was a significant incentive to workers
The same principles are accepted today in the science of human engineering called ergonomics or human factors (Bovee et al., 1993).
Douglas M. McGregor (1906-1964) was a professor, college president, and consultant who specialized in psychology. Using social science theory, McGregor developed Theory X and Theory Y to depict two extreme examples of ways in which a manager could view employees.
Theory X represents a classical management view that employees are lazy; dislike work; and must be coerced to perform, controlled to eliminate waste, or threatened with punishment to increase their daily performance. In short, Theo X suggests that human beings naturally resist the occupation of work (
Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth (1868-1924 and 18781972) were a husband-and-wife team who collaborated to study work fatigue and motion (motion studies is the term used for time-and-motion studies) and looked at ways of protecting the individual worker from fatigue. To the Gilbreths, the goal was to help workers reach their full potential as human beings.
They tried to find the most economical motions for each task in order to upgrade performance and reduce fatigue.
Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German sociologist who conducted a systematic study of the social changes brought on by the Industrial Revolution
Weber considered bureaucracy to be the ideal organizational structure; offices and management positions are arranged in a hierarchy of authority, activities and objectives are rationally thought out, and divisions of labor are explicitly spelled out.
The manager should be capable of seeking grant funding and other resources of funding for practitioner training and retraining as deemed necessity
incentives-based planning and budgeting will become an increasingly popular way to allocate resources according to performance capacity and efficiency.
