Unit 6: Learning (AP Psych)
fixed interval reinforcement schedule
Students get a grade for a quiz that's given once a week. What is this an example of? (which reinforcement schedule)
classical conditioning
The simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two or more different stimulus
taste aversion
a learned response in which a person or animal establishes an association with particular food with being ill after consumed some of or all of it some time in the past
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
conditioned reinforcer (A.K.A secondary reinforcer)
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding/ ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one' stress reaction *when we believe we can't change a situation
problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor *when we feel control over the situation
attribution therapy
attempts to facilitate the patient's ability to reattribute undesirable feelings and symptoms to something less threatening and more acceptable
rational emotive therapy (Ellis)
dysfunctional behavior is due to irrational beliefs; therapy focuses on the alternation of these irrational beliefs
problem-solving therapy
focuses of enhancing the patient's ability to make decisions and solve problems in stressful or difficult situations
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
prosocial
helpful, positive (behavior: helping each other with no reward)
meat powder
in Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, the US was ____________
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical cond. a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical cond., and originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
acquisition
in classical cond., the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggers the conditioned response. In operant cond., the strengthening of a reinforced response
discrimination
in classical cond., the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that don't signal an uncond. stimulus
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
over justification
leading people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing
observational learning (aka social learning)
learning by observing others
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it ex: people sightseeing in a new town
paradoxical intervention
patients are instructed to purposely perform undesirable symptomatic behaviors on command in an effort to demonstrate their ability to gain control over these behaviors
reinforcement schedule
pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
higher order conditioning (A.K.A second order conditioning)
procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus (CS) - ex: animal that has learned that tone predicts food might then learned that a light predicts the tones and begins responding to the light alone
insight
sudden realization of a problem's solution *construction worker and little kid (robin) problem
biofeed back
system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back info regarding a subtle physiological state ex: blood pressure or muscle tension
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards *often fluctuates (changes)
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioning response; occurs in classical conditioning when an uncond. stimulus (US) does not follow a cond. stimulus (CS); occurs in operant cond. when a response is no longer reinforced
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
timing of reinforcers
the sooner a reinforcer or punishment follows an action, the greater its effect
instinctive drift
the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. The concept originated with B.F. Skinner's former students Keller Breland and Marian Breland when they tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into a piggy bank
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
classical conditioning
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
operant conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
violence viewing effect
when an individual viewing TV/film witnesses a scenario in which a violence act is not punished, the pain of the victim isn't shown, the violence act is portrayed as being justified or the individual committing the violence is physically attractive. results in individuals copying behavior or violence character or the developing a desensitization (diminished emotional) responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus after repeated exposure to it
B) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented only when the subject responds
1. How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning? A) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented whether or not the subject responds B) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented only when the subject responds C) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented before the subject responds D) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is paired and presented with an unconditioned stimulus
UCS: electric shock UCR: pain NS: horn CS: horn CR: remove hand
A participant is seated in an experimental chamber. A horn is sounded and the participant is given a mild electric shock through a metal plate on the armrest of the chair. After several trials, the horm is sounded without the electric shock given and the participant removes their hand. (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)
Fixed interval schedule
A scalloped response pattern, in which responses are slow at the beginning of a time period and then faster just before reinforcement happens, is typical of which type of reinforcement schedule?
Operant Conditioning
A student sometimes got A's on his midterm exams last year when he used his green pen to write the exams. Now he always takes his lucky green pens to exams. How did the student's superstitious behavior arise?
B. The CS is presented just before the UCS
Classical conditioning usually works best if which of the following occurs? (A) The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented just after the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (B) The CS is presented just before the UCS (C) The CS is presented many hours after the UCS (D) All of the above are equally effective
UCS: food UCR: saliva NS: bell CS: bell CR: saliva
Identify from Pavlov's experiment (saliva, food, bell) UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR
UCS: noise UCR: crying NS: rat CS: rat CR: fear
Identify from Watson's experiment (noise, rat, fear, crying) UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR
crying
In Watson's Baby Albert Experiment, the UR was _________
UCS: cut UCR: pain NS: tuna can CS: tuna can CR: refusal
Olivia was opening a can of tuna, when she cut herself on the sharp edges of the tin. Her hand began to bleed. Olivia now refuses to open any tin cans and gives it to her father to do it. (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followers by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences becomes less likely (rewarded behavior- more likely)
false
UCS is a reflexive involuntary response (true or false?)
conditioned reflex
What is an automatic response that occurs as a result of experience?
B. Intermittent (partial)
What kind of reinforcement should you use if you want to a response to last without reinforcement long after it's been learned through operant conditioning? *A) continuous, B) intermittent, C) Either A or B D) neither A nor B
NS + UCS
What two key terms are associated together during the acquisition stage of conditioning in order to change behavior?
A) Giving a child money for doing his chores
Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? A) Giving a child money for doing his chores B) Spanking a child for walking into the street C) Taking away dessert if a child doesn't finish his dinner D) Taking away privileges if a child doesn't finish his homework
(D) All of the above
With respect to taste aversion, which of the following is true? (A) If taste is paired with other unconditioned stimuli, conditioning doesn't occur (B) Nausea paired with most other conditioned stimuli doesn't produce aversion to those stimuli (C) The pairing of taste and nausea produces conditioning even when there is a delay of several hours between the conditioned stimulus of the taste and the unconditioned stimulus of nausea (D) All of the above
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake *excessive rewards can destroy __________ __________
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment *most students
respondent behavior
actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus ex: salivating in response to meat powered and later in response to a tone
coping
alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
theory of mind
children's brains enable their empathy and their ability to infer another's mental state
operant chamber/ skinner box
in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking
variable- ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses *produces high rates of responding (ex: gamblers)
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed ex: ppl check more frequently for the mail as the delivery time approaches
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcing schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses ex: free coffee after buying 10 coffees
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement *person/animal responds to the CS only but not to any other stimulus which is similar to the CS
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior is follows ex for people: praise, attention, paycheck
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A neg. reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response *NOT punishment
chaining
method of connecting responses in a sequence of behaviors; at the end of the chain, there must always be a reinforcer and all behaviors must be previously conditioned into the organ's repertoire; the chain is constructed by beginning and the end and working backward
partial/ intermittent reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement *persistence because efforts are sometimes rewarded
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (learning occurs rapidly)
ecologically relevant
something similar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in the natural environment
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to repeat aversive (disgust) events
external locus of control
the perception that change or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate *Julian Rotter
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate *in study, "internals" have achieved more in school/work
cognitive behavior modification
the principles of learning theory are applied to alter undesirable thoughts rather than only observable behaviors
learning
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring info or behaviors
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response