Unit 6: Learning (AP Psych)

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

Students get a grade for a quiz that's given once a week. What is this an example of? (which reinforcement schedule)

classical conditioning

The simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two or more different stimulus

taste aversion

a learned response in which a person or animal establishes an association with particular food with being ill after consumed some of or all of it some time in the past

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

conditioned reinforcer (A.K.A secondary reinforcer)

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding/ ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one' stress reaction *when we believe we can't change a situation

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor *when we feel control over the situation

attribution therapy

attempts to facilitate the patient's ability to reattribute undesirable feelings and symptoms to something less threatening and more acceptable

rational emotive therapy (Ellis)

dysfunctional behavior is due to irrational beliefs; therapy focuses on the alternation of these irrational beliefs

problem-solving therapy

focuses of enhancing the patient's ability to make decisions and solve problems in stressful or difficult situations

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial

helpful, positive (behavior: helping each other with no reward)

meat powder

in Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, the US was ____________

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical cond. a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical cond., and originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

acquisition

in classical cond., the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggers the conditioned response. In operant cond., the strengthening of a reinforced response

discrimination

in classical cond., the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that don't signal an uncond. stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

over justification

leading people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing

observational learning (aka social learning)

learning by observing others

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it ex: people sightseeing in a new town

paradoxical intervention

patients are instructed to purposely perform undesirable symptomatic behaviors on command in an effort to demonstrate their ability to gain control over these behaviors

reinforcement schedule

pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

higher order conditioning (A.K.A second order conditioning)

procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus (CS) - ex: animal that has learned that tone predicts food might then learned that a light predicts the tones and begins responding to the light alone

insight

sudden realization of a problem's solution *construction worker and little kid (robin) problem

biofeed back

system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back info regarding a subtle physiological state ex: blood pressure or muscle tension

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards *often fluctuates (changes)

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioning response; occurs in classical conditioning when an uncond. stimulus (US) does not follow a cond. stimulus (CS); occurs in operant cond. when a response is no longer reinforced

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

timing of reinforcers

the sooner a reinforcer or punishment follows an action, the greater its effect

instinctive drift

the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. The concept originated with B.F. Skinner's former students Keller Breland and Marian Breland when they tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into a piggy bank

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

classical conditioning

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

violence viewing effect

when an individual viewing TV/film witnesses a scenario in which a violence act is not punished, the pain of the victim isn't shown, the violence act is portrayed as being justified or the individual committing the violence is physically attractive. results in individuals copying behavior or violence character or the developing a desensitization (diminished emotional) responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus after repeated exposure to it

B) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented only when the subject responds

1. How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning? A) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented whether or not the subject responds B) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented only when the subject responds C) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented before the subject responds D) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is paired and presented with an unconditioned stimulus

UCS: electric shock UCR: pain NS: horn CS: horn CR: remove hand

A participant is seated in an experimental chamber. A horn is sounded and the participant is given a mild electric shock through a metal plate on the armrest of the chair. After several trials, the horm is sounded without the electric shock given and the participant removes their hand. (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)

Fixed interval schedule

A scalloped response pattern, in which responses are slow at the beginning of a time period and then faster just before reinforcement happens, is typical of which type of reinforcement schedule?

Operant Conditioning

A student sometimes got A's on his midterm exams last year when he used his green pen to write the exams. Now he always takes his lucky green pens to exams. How did the student's superstitious behavior arise?

B. The CS is presented just before the UCS

Classical conditioning usually works best if which of the following occurs? (A) The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented just after the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (B) The CS is presented just before the UCS (C) The CS is presented many hours after the UCS (D) All of the above are equally effective

UCS: food UCR: saliva NS: bell CS: bell CR: saliva

Identify from Pavlov's experiment (saliva, food, bell) UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR

UCS: noise UCR: crying NS: rat CS: rat CR: fear

Identify from Watson's experiment (noise, rat, fear, crying) UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR

crying

In Watson's Baby Albert Experiment, the UR was _________

UCS: cut UCR: pain NS: tuna can CS: tuna can CR: refusal

Olivia was opening a can of tuna, when she cut herself on the sharp edges of the tin. Her hand began to bleed. Olivia now refuses to open any tin cans and gives it to her father to do it. (UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR)

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followers by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences becomes less likely (rewarded behavior- more likely)

false

UCS is a reflexive involuntary response (true or false?)

conditioned reflex

What is an automatic response that occurs as a result of experience?

B. Intermittent (partial)

What kind of reinforcement should you use if you want to a response to last without reinforcement long after it's been learned through operant conditioning? *A) continuous, B) intermittent, C) Either A or B D) neither A nor B

NS + UCS

What two key terms are associated together during the acquisition stage of conditioning in order to change behavior?

A) Giving a child money for doing his chores

Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? A) Giving a child money for doing his chores B) Spanking a child for walking into the street C) Taking away dessert if a child doesn't finish his dinner D) Taking away privileges if a child doesn't finish his homework

(D) All of the above

With respect to taste aversion, which of the following is true? (A) If taste is paired with other unconditioned stimuli, conditioning doesn't occur (B) Nausea paired with most other conditioned stimuli doesn't produce aversion to those stimuli (C) The pairing of taste and nausea produces conditioning even when there is a delay of several hours between the conditioned stimulus of the taste and the unconditioned stimulus of nausea (D) All of the above

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake *excessive rewards can destroy __________ __________

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment *most students

respondent behavior

actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus ex: salivating in response to meat powered and later in response to a tone

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

theory of mind

children's brains enable their empathy and their ability to infer another's mental state

operant chamber/ skinner box

in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking

variable- ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses *produces high rates of responding (ex: gamblers)

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed ex: ppl check more frequently for the mail as the delivery time approaches

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcing schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses ex: free coffee after buying 10 coffees

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement *person/animal responds to the CS only but not to any other stimulus which is similar to the CS

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior is follows ex for people: praise, attention, paycheck

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A neg. reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response *NOT punishment

chaining

method of connecting responses in a sequence of behaviors; at the end of the chain, there must always be a reinforcer and all behaviors must be previously conditioned into the organ's repertoire; the chain is constructed by beginning and the end and working backward

partial/ intermittent reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement *persistence because efforts are sometimes rewarded

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (learning occurs rapidly)

ecologically relevant

something similar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in the natural environment

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to repeat aversive (disgust) events

external locus of control

the perception that change or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate *Julian Rotter

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate *in study, "internals" have achieved more in school/work

cognitive behavior modification

the principles of learning theory are applied to alter undesirable thoughts rather than only observable behaviors

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring info or behaviors

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response