World Civ. Week 3- Intruders/Invaders, Ancient India

dharma

-" the eternal order" -is hinduism -there is order and purpose to the universe and human life -by accepting this order and living in accordance with it, one will experience life properly -is monotheistic with one god who is brahama (the self) -stressed individual self-worth, internal meditation, poverty, retreat from social customs

spread of buddhism (continued)

-2nd century CE-earliest religious daoist movements -in early korea and japan- believed that spirits inhabited natural features and that shamans could communicate with them -japan-yamato line claimed descent from sun deity, form state religion known as shinto -did not necessitate total and exclusive devotion to the religion -could make offerings at buddhist temple one day and temple of local popular deity the next -japan- simultaneously turned to buddhist and shinto rites -korea- buddhism adopted as state religion, court turned to shamans to perform divinations -did not spread through force of arms -religious pluralism in east asia- could spread without need to persuade people to abandon native beliefs -was necessary to translate buddhist scriptures from sanskrit to classical chinese -core buddhist texts consist of lectures from buddha -was transformed as it was adapted to different cultural environments -state patronage helped finance construction of temples -buddhist monasteries were granted land by the state -monasteries and temples were exempt from tax obligations -buddhist institutions were among the first to exploit woodblock printing for propaganda

maurya empire (322-185 BCE)

-326 BCE- alexander the great conquered persia and took armies to northern india- his troops threatened mutiny if he took them further and he retreated -cities along ganges plain had resisted persian and greek empires-formed first indigenous empire in indian history -5th century BCE- is often called "second urbanization" cuz each became powerful cultural centers -founding- chandragupta maurya -his son bindusara conquered whole of india -his son, ashoka, saw empire flourish- turned away from jainism and converted to buddhism -no forced conversions -lavish support of buddhist monasteries strained the gov financially and politically -one tax system, one admin system, one currency, open trade, massive army to suppress rebel lords -developed high quality wootz steel- formed into weapons -short-lived empire- after ashoka's death in 232 BCE, several weak rulers followed -middle period- five centuries when small kingdoms and empires governed various parts of india -is often referred to as part of the "classical" age of india -indian realms traded with imperial rome -buddhism and jainism spread to east asia -city-states became regular stops on emerging silk road

hellenistic age

-333-150 BCE -Alexander the great spread greek culture to every part of the world his armies went -influence is most importantly seen in Rome

classical age of greece

-500-333 BCE -inventive and creative time in philosophy, art, architecture, and literature, sponsored by the city-state government

epic of gilgamesh

-Oldest surviving written work in world history -Gilgamesh is believed to be an actual sumerian king who ruled uruk in present-day iraq around 2500 BCE -Survive in oral form until stories were recorded in akkadian on 12 cuneiform tablets -Best copy found in library ruins of assyrian king ashurbanipal -Story about tangling with monsters and serpents and defying gods -Gilgamesh was brutal and immoral and then meets heroic enkidu -Struggle with each other at first then become close companions and enkidu influences him to become better king -Lesson- sumerians viewed kindness, mercy, and mortality as essential leadership qualities -Lesson 2- man must not attempt to challenge or overcome the supernatural and natural order of things or he will bring ruin on himself -Lesson 3- man should be satisfied with good works in this life and not seek immortality -Had flood myth- deities punishing man for some transgression, one man or hero is saved so he can continue life and start over

crisis in hebrew culture and second diaspora (continued)

-63 BCE- jews came under control of roman republic -37 BCE- octavian (later august) and marc antony imposed local client king named herod -herod married hasmonean princess to bolster his power -taste for independence, heavy taxes, and desperation to control spiritual needs created religious prophets and political revolts -jesus of nazareth- local prophet, romans viewed him as political rebel -66 CE0- first and most important of jewish-roman warriors -factions of jewish rebels, called zealots- conquered and organized parts of palestine, defeated roman legions -senate chose general vespasian to put down revolt for good -vespasian and his son titus flavius began defeating rebel strongholds -vespasian was voted emperor, titus stayed and took jerusalem in 70 CE, destroying the second temple -jewish rebels fled to other strongholds in judea and were pursued and defeated -last stronghold- masada, could not be sieged cuz it was a high mountain with enough supplies and water for years -roman general lucius flavius silva- began assault on mountain and finally broke through, found 960 of the 967 had committed suicide -2 more revolts in 110 and 132 CE- led to severe depopulation -many jews were exiled, particularly rabbis and upper classes -jews began to immigrate to other parts of the mediterranean world-second diaspora -religious voice moved to local synagogues and their rabbis -organized campaign to return and create a jewish state- zionism- only became real in 19th century

archaic period

-800-500 BCE -greek empire began and phoenicians' empire declined

sumerians and the lament for ur

-Middle east- epicenter was mesopotamia -Mesopotamia- "between the rivers" -Formed the fertile crescent -Southern part- where sumerian civilization formed -Cities before year 4000 BCE included kish, nipur, ur, and more -Ur- founded around 3800 BCE and inhabited until 450 BCE -Was a port at the mouth of euphrate river and was well positioned to control and trade goods -Ur and other sumerian cities struggled with one another and occasionally captured and controlled each other's lands -Greatest dangers were climate and war-like groups that were attracted to its riches Ex: akkadians, amorites, elamites -First of these conquerors- sargon of akkad (formed first empire) -After 100 years of akkadian empire and another hundred of conquests by other invaders, the leader of city of Ur, ur-nammu, retook control of sumerian city-states -Ur-nammu and descendants- third sumerian dynasty and "golden age of sumer" -Ur-nammu's son shulgi formed own empire and organized a centralized bureaucracy and tax system, and built first massive symbol of theocratic state- ziggurat -Pacified enemies with network of marriage alliances -After his death, leadership unraveled -Nomadic amorites took over several provinces and broke through some of ur's defensive walls -Elamites captured, sacked, and burned ur in 2004 BCE

assyria

-acquired reputation for ruthless brutality -creation of empire was long process- began in 1400 BCE (about same time hittites made first conquests) -nomadic semitic people who settled in northern Mesopotamia around 2000 BCE -city of assur was important center of economic and political life and source of assyrians' own name -had fertile soil and regular rainfall- reliable crop yields -good pastureland for livestock -natural crossroads- trade routes -trade became vital between Anatolia and babylon -economic factors made them target for other people -became formidable warriors and ferocity grew -first military conquests around 1400 BCE-overthrew the Mitanni who dominated northern Mesopotamia, moved south and conquered babylon -followed by century of internal turmoil and chaos caused by sea people around 1100 BCE- new round of expansion then another period of stagnation -800 BCE-third and greatest round of conquests which included all of Mesopotamia, syria, Phoenicia, Egypt, and parts of arabia -rulers used systematic terror -ashurnasirpal II -around 800 BCE- mass deportation, most important purpose was to prevent resistance -governors appointed by king were essentially all-powerful at local level -little benevolence -extensive network of roads to facilitate communication -collapsed around 600 BCE- various conquered people arose and allied -other empires would rise to take its place

sumer

-agriculture: experimented with irrigation for hot, dry summers -surpluses generated more agriculture and allowed population expansion -society grew more complex -3000 BCE- over a dozen or so cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants -high level of urbanization due to economic and social opportunities, desire for safety -war: took place between rival cities over land, water, and other resources -also involved attacks by neighboring peoples attracted by region's wealth -sumerians built large, elaborate defensive walls -development of centralized monarchical gov -before 3000 BCE- city-states governed loosely by assemblies or councils -lugal- "big man", was leader during time of councils, passed power to others they selected as successors (usually from family) and began to claim authority over cities' affairs -warrior virtues: strength, courage, honor -epic of gilgamesh: hero is legendary king of ur -kings: responsible for protecting city, enlarging it by conquest, drafting and enforcing laws -2500 BCE: turned to legal agreements or contracts between private individuals

decline and disappearance of indus valley civilization

-around 1900- began to decline -some used to believe they were wiped out by aryans- no longer thought to be main cause -cities were slowly abandoned- river may have changed course or global temp change may have caused them to be consumed by the desert -disease may have ravaged the cities or flooding -changes in agricultural techniques or available crops- went out to live as farmers?

golden age of gupta empire (continued)

-chandragupta II was a great patron of art and culture -numerous charitable institutions, orphanages, hospitals -rest houses for travelers by the roadside -hinduism was experiencing a revival -gupta princes worshiped hindu faith but also tolerated and even encouraged jainism and buddhism by supporting the monasteries -hindu-arabic numerals- transmitted to west later through the arabs -symbol for zero was developed -geometry, trigonometry, cosmology -texts and atlases -surgical practices, inoculation -people were encouraged to learn sanskrit -several educational institutions -metallury- coins, statuary, architecture, jewelry -sophistication in vocal and instrumental music and dance

end of indian empires and islam

-chandragupta II's son kumaragupta was able to maintain peace but had strong challenges from a tribe -his son skandagupta- last of sovereign rulers of gupta dynasty, succeeded in preventing invasion of the huns -was great scholar and wise ruler -after his death, dynasty had domestic conflicts -huns eventually made empire collapse -imperial rule in north india was consolidated under harshavardhan- formed empire of harsha and reigned for 42 years -after his kingdom ended, india fragmented into small kingdoms -712 CE- muslim general conquered -city-states would be standard model of gov -various religions made unity difficult -small invasions of muslim rulers gradually took over north of india -two zones: islam in north and hinduism in south

vedic age (ca. 1500-500 BCE)

-corresponds roughly with shang and zhou dynasties in china and pre-classic age of persia, greece, rome, and third kingdom of egypt -no dominant imperial power, numerous city-states (janapadas) -ganges river plain of northeast india -vedic influence moved from north to south -took its name from oldest founding documents of hinduism- the vedas -vedas- composed in vedic sanskrit: the indo-aryan language -beliefs matured into the religion of sanatan dharma- " the eternal order" which is hinduism -caste system was developed- four classes (varnas) -fairly stable period and both hinduism and caste system reflect desire or belief to continue the safe and stable order of the universe -great urbanization and growing prosperity -many early city-states began to gain more power- kingdom of magadha -persian empire invaded in 530 BCE under cyrus the great -one of his successors, darius I, came under persian control -janapadas were able to resist persian domination -social upheaval and assimilation of persian culture may be responsible for hindu priests losing credibility -new religions rejected hindu external rituals and support for a wealthy and privileged priestly class -simultaneous rise of two great religious reformers- mahavira who started dharma (hinduism) and gautama (buddhism)

solomon

-david's son -his rule is considered a golden age of peace and prosperity

characteristics of the monotheistic jewish faith

-desert god yahweh (later jehovah) was god of everything and had unique relationship with hebrew people -david and solomon used beliefs to their benefit and united the tribes -god is eternal and the source of all creation in the universe -is transcendent- above nature and not part of nature -revelation was the cornerstone of the faith -bible emphasizes human experiences -humans could choose between good and evil -believed worship of idols would deprive them of freedom god had given them -distrusted political figures -special agreement- covenant, most important was mosaic (moses) covenant -ark of the covenant- believed to carry tablets with the ten commandments, god had given these to moses as he carried the hebrews out of egypt and was wandering through the desert -all people were to be treated equally under the law -individual was more important than his or her private property

hittites

-eclipsed Babylonian empire in size, power, wealth -introduced new features to process of state- and empire-building -indo-european-speaking nomadic groups who migrated out of what is today is Ukraine around 2000 BCE -had learned how to domesticate horses and harness them to wheeled vehicles -migrated to central Anatolia around 1800 BCE and established control of small farming communities there -war chariots helped with conquest -was not as agriculturally productive but had large accessible deposits of minerals such as iron ore -mineral wealth stimulated wide-ranging activity between Hittites and neighbors -became first people to use iron weapons on large scale- gave advantage over neighboring people -13th century BCE- empire covered most of Anatolia and syria and fought with new kingdom Egypt for dominance in palestine -left local rulers in place to serve as provincial governors who administered far away regions -nobles received estate for grants of land from the king to support themselves -kings were responsible for ensuring justice -penalties were generally less severe than those of babylon -stressed restitution rather than retribution, did not call for death or physical mutilation -collapsed around 1200 BCE- due to internal conflicts over royal success and military leaders' rebellions, most important cause was attacks by the "sea people" -sea people attacked capital city of hattusa

ancient hebrew civilization

-exerted perhaps the greatest influence on western society -hebrew bible- oral tradition recorded in 1250-150 BCE, includes the torah or "teaching" -canaan- the area of the middle east that would become israel and the home of the hebrews -had ambitions to control their own destiny -around 125-1200 BCE- widespread disruption and wars plagued the area -abraham came down from sumer at the beginning of the 2nd millennium with his hebrew tribe and settled in canaan -called themselves israelites after a descendant of abraham named jacob -book of exodus- 1300 BCE moses brought a tribe of hebrews out of egypt, later conquered the land of canaan under the leader joshua -these stories were recorded around 500 BCE -disputing tribes attempted to consolidate into a single unified kingdom -1020 BCE- king saul united the tribes into a kingdom called israel, followed by king david who selected jerusalem as the capital -solomon (his son) negotiated treaties with his neighbors, the phoenicians and egyptians -his rule is considered a golden age of peace and prosperity

babylon

-founded by semitic-speaking nomads (Amorites) who migrated into Mesopotamia from the western border regions -many served as mercenaries in the armies of Sumerian city-states, alter seized control of several -created capital around 1900 BCE -kings had only minimal authority at first until sixth king Hammurabi -ham created large empire through military tactic, clever diplomacy, and personal energy -conquered one region and used victory to persuade others to submit -soon controlled most of Mesopotamia from Persian gulf to borders of anatolia -documentation is scarce -saw himself as a benevolent ruler concerned with subjects' welfare -state spent considerable amount of revenue on constructing public works -stronger centralized authority and improved infrastructure increased economic prosperity -^^^ declined after ham died- successors lacked his energy and skills -ham instituted law code- an eye for an eye, appear harsher than earlier Sumerian codes -penalties for crimes varied depending on social status of perpetrator and victim -women had inferior status, though some had some protections

mesopotamia

-had series of interrelated economic, social, and political changes -created states that became empires -cities--> city-states with conflicts--> kingdoms--> empires -had different ethnic-linguistic groups within borders -monarchy became standard form of government in city-states of Sumerian, kingdoms and empires followed kings: divine authority and demanded obedience -admin systems evolved- military and civilian officials -local rulers and elites ruled over conquered people -babylonians-used benevolent aspects of their ruler to win support -assyrians- force and fear

crisis in hebrew culture and second diaspora

-hebrews under foreign rule due to lack of unity and were a small people living in a neighborhood of giant empires -jews tended to blame their misfortunes on themselves- thought insufficient faith -prophets isaiah, ezekiel, and jeremiah said babylonian captivity was god's punishment -often demonstrated faith through rebellion if empires tried to challenge their faith -after benevolent persian rule, macedonian king alexander overthrew persian empire and took over -332 BCE- his armies marched through jerusalem, he died young and without an heir, generals divided up his empire -palestine fell to alexandrian general seleucus -heirs of seleucus attempted to impose hellenic-greek culture on all kingdoms -hellenic culture had influence on jewish culture and prevented them from openly practicing faith-irritated them -jewish priest named matthathais the hasmonean killed a hellenistic jew making offerings to a greek god and he then fled to wilderness -eldest son, judah maccabee, led army in guerrilla campaign against seleucid army for over 2 decades -maccabee revolt ended in 143 BCE- seleucids forced to make truce with hasmonean empire (controlled by maccabees) -110 BCE-hasmonean empire was independent- some refer to it as independent kingdom of israel

ancient india

-indus valley river flourished in the bronze age- between 2600 and 1900 BCE, around the same time as ancient sumer and old kingdom egypt -19th century- british stumbled upon remains of the cities, sometimes plundered them for stones and bricks to construct railroads, realized historic value -archaeologists began exploring and digging up some of the sites in the 1920s -mortimer wheeler- led excavations in the 1930s and 1940s- a number of bronze age cities were unearthed -indus valley civilization also known as harappan civilization- first city to be discovered near town of harappa -mohenjo-daro- another important urban site

empire and golden age of india (1500 BCE-550 CE)

-indus valley, sumer, egypt- three great bronze age cradles of civilization -collapse introduced a period in which urbanized people of indus valley blended with pastoral people of indo-aryan culture -some theories suggest indo-aryans were indigenous to india -blending of cultures formed iron age vedic society- traditions of hinduism and caste were highly influential -empires were less common than an abundance of small city-states and regional monarchies -only 2 empires-maurya empire (322-185 BCE) and gupta empire (320-550 CE) -gupta empire- often called golden age, flourishing of arts and lit -after fall of gupta empire in 6th century- muslims conquered north of india, divided into two religions of islam and hinduism -would not be united by empire again until great britain took over india as a colony in the 19th century

zealots

-jewish rebels who conquered and organized parts of palestine -defeated roman legions

caste system

-kshatriya- warriors -vaishya-farmers and merchants -shudra- laborers -dalits- untouchables, handled meat and waste -was an occupational hierarchy that valued a person by what he or she did -became more rigid and was interpreted by a caste determined by birth that couldn't be changed by marriage

masada

-last stronghold- masada, could not be sieged cuz it was a high mountain with enough supplies and water for years -roman general lucius flavius silva- began assault on mountain and finally broke through, found 960 of the 967 had committed suicide -is now a historic landmark and modern national symbol of jewish resistance

persian king cyrus I

-maintained policy of tolerance toward many religious communities -allowed babylonian jews to return to jerusalem in 538 BCE -began building second temple in 516 BCE

gupta empire (320-550 CE)

-often called the golden age of india -emerged out of magadha, a region on the ganges plain -first great ruler, chandragupta, began conquest by taking over cities of the ganges plain -through marriage, received ownership of rich mines full of iron ore -wootz steel became powerful technological breakthrough -his son samudrgupta was a military genius- added valuable southeast city-states and their ports along the bay of bengal to his empire -empire spanned from himalayas in the north to the mouth of the krishna and godavari rivers -returned a kingdom to the original kings and collected taxes from them -his son ramagupta took throne but was then replaced by his brother chandragupta II -took care to strengthen the navy -encouraged trade by sea

spread of buddhism

-originated in north india -suffering is innate to life and one cannot escape even in death -attain enlightenment -bodhisattvas- enlightened ones who could intervene and alleviate suffering/protect people -good karma- lead to salvation by copying buddhist scriptures, making offerings, etc. -began under patronage of mauryan king ashoka in mid-3rd century BCE -silk road oases constituted early centers of buddhist learning -only in 4th century that it began to infiltrate chinese society -in tang dynasty- chinese critics treated it as a foreign cult -came to southeast china by merchants operating on maritime trade network, along with brahmanism, shaivism, etc. -was part of eclectic mix of indian cults -disappeared from its homeland of india -by end of first millennium, most inhabitants worshiped at buddhist temples at some point in their lives -remarkable spread- filled spiritual void? -first buddhist missionaries to east asia encountered rich religious landscape -chinese sacrificed to ancestors, tutelary spirits, and other popular deities who were though to impact fortunes of a family -great state rituals honoring heaven and earth- ensure cosmic harmony

classical period

-other empires arose, 500 BCE-500 CE -mesopotamia would cease to be home of empires, became object of conquest and foreign rule -foreign rulers adopted Mesopotamia political tradition, but would bring own unique styles and values

lament for ur

-poem about elamite destruction of the city, considered the finest of the genre -Conveys the belief that success and destruction were not intentions of man but of gods -Enlil- sumerian god, is allowing destruction -Foreign rulers vied for control of sumer until amorites of babylon took over southern meso and consolidated rule under their great king, hammurabi

failure of the kingdoms

-prophets like samuel warned that tribes binding together to form a kingdom might be violation of the faith -hebrews greatly feared tyranny of kings- hebrew royal government was unstable -israel broke into two kingdoms- israel to the north and judah to the south -israel- under constant threat from neo-assyrian empire -721 BCE- neo-assyrians destroyed israel and deported population -586- nebuchadnezzar of babylonia swept down into judah and sacked jerusalem, destroying solomon's temple -babylonian captivity and first diaspora- babylonians took hebrews back to babylonia -jews struggled to keep their faith alive -jews in babylon were the first to form synagogues, or groupings to discuss their faith -persian king cyrus I conquered babylonians- religious tolerance, built second temple -organized numerous projects to record and protect history of their people- stories of abraham and moses written down in this period -kingdoms of israel and judah were never reformed -jews remained subject to other rulers through most of the rest of their history until the 20th century- modern state of israel was formed

akkad

-ruler: sargon, afterwards empires became dominant form of political organization in Mesopotamia -were not Sumerian, but were semitic people who migrated to meso in small groups, originating in the desert areas of arabia and syria -were the first of many nomadic groups who ruled Mesopotamia -sargon conducted military campaigns and brought all of Mesopotamia under his rule -instead of looting and leaving, stayed to rule -akkadian troops were stationed in or near the cities -officials oversaw and taxed local agricultural production and trade -revenue sent to capital where they paid for upkeep of water and building projects such as roads and palaces -sargon ruled for nearly 50 years, his successors for another 100 -absorbed ideas and practices from people they conquered -began to worship Sumerian gods and adopt cuneiform -empire collapsed due to internal rebellions, attacks from the east, and economic difficulties -fall paved the way for a revival of Sumerian city-states -sargon's achievements served as inspiration and model for later empire-builders

the emergence of the indus valley civilization

-spread along the indus river which would bring rich sediments to the river valley -early indus period began from 3500 to 2600 BCE -proliferation of towns and small cities, composed of mud brick homes -some of the larger sites had citadels, artifical mounds where civic structures or homes of the elite were built -city of harappa- seemed to be commercial city that produced items like beads from local stones -by 2600 BCE- was a major metropolis -old settlements had been burned down and the cities were rebuilt in a more organized fashion -newly built around 2600 BCE- characterized as belonging to the mature indus or mature harappan period -laid out in way that suggests urban planning and organized gov sophisticated sanitation- each home had its own well and toilet -all homes had access to water and drainage -mohenjo-daro- similar access to water and sanitation, public bath -styles of jewelry, pottery, and statuary found at these sites are all very similar -citadels were expanded and may have housed the government or religious centers of cities -also boasted impressive docks, granaries, and brick buildings -few differences in lifestyle among the different classes -sophisticated agricultural systems-grew sesame, peas, wheat, and barley -domestication of animals -cotton was grown and spun for making clothes -took part in long-distance trade- advances in sailing technology -put seals on containers of trade goods- important source of evidence, contain images of animals which may have been sacred, men and women (gods and goddesses) as well as symbols and writing -no known temples- early forms of hinduism? -writing system- indus valley script, has not been deciphered

Greece and Phoenicia

-were two great sea powers, dominating in trade in the mediterranean -had superior ship technology, understanding of winds and tides -created first mercantile empires in the mediterranean -became rich and powerful city-states -had networks of trading posts and colonies that extended from eastern to western mediterranean -height of Phoenician trading empire: 1200-1800 BCE, continued to operate trading network for almost three more centuries -persians conquered them in 539 BCE, then Alexander the great in 332 BCE -greek empire- began around same time of Phoenicians' decline, known as archaic period -traded with one another but also spread own trade network -phoenicians eventually dominated southern shore and western parts, greeks active along northern shores and to east -rarely clashed except occasionally in Sicily -archaic period followed by classical age of greece -established several colonies in Italy -Alexander the great spread greek culture to every part of the world his armies went- hellenistic age, was across mediterranean and deep into near east as far as India -influence most importantly seen in rome -romans had cultural borrowings from greece in empire that lasted to 400 CE -greece is considered the seminal culture of western civilization -phoenicians did not have classical era and were deeply religious, may have influenced greek religion -spread the alphabet through the mediterranean- extended literacy beyond priestly cults -gov was more democratic and may have inspired greek constitution -art, lit, and architecture was similar to neighbors

first diaspora

babylonians took several thousand hebrews back to babylonia

Hammurabi of babylon

created the law code

Sargon of akkad

created the world's first empire

hasmonean empire

sometimes referred to as independent kingdom of israel

phoenicians

spread the alphabet

dharma (hinduism) and buddhism

stressed individual self-worth, internal meditation, poverty, retreat from social customs