Absolutism in France

Disarming of the Castles

In 1626, Richelieu decreed the "disarming" of castles, effectively ending the old medieval liberties and virtual private armies and justice that nobles had long enjoyed in their various locales. This was so that there wouldn't be competition with the main ruling.

Ban on Dueling

Richelieu banned dueling, as dueling represented the nobility's ancient recourse to private justice and a major barrier to a uniform, orderly system of courts and laws.

The Divine Right of Kings

a. Another famous phrase equated with absolutism besides "Letat c'est moi" which translates to I am the state. b. Implied a belief that the King's power flowed from God - that God had obtained the governments of the earth. Because it was believed that God had established legitimate governments and countries, it was further believed that God had similarly ordained kings, those who ruled over governments. c. One of the most successful and political ideologies of the time. Combined religious and political ideas into a seamless whole. Orderly system with God at the helm, providing a basis for authority and hierarchy. Under Louis XIV, the Divine Right of Kings became a political dogma with a surprisingly modern feel.

Deficit in Absolutist France

a. Behind the general backdrop of mercantilist policies like those of Colbert loomed the critical financial problem of Absolutist governments. In France, great power politics along with the growth of domestic administration transformed the nature of its absolutist monarchies. Expenses exploded in exponential fashion with no corresponding increase in revenues, as they felt compelled to create new expensive enterprises such as royal navies and infantries, as well as supporting the growing infrastructure of royal judicial and legal administration. This led to the fact that French Absolutism was faced with debts and expenditures far outpacing incomes. b. Financial issues in France were closely intersected with political ones. Since the nobility in pre-Revolutionary France paid no taxes, reform of the tax system would have been an obvious solution to the problem. Nonetheless, such attempts were blocked by noble opposition. Even Louis XIV, one of the most powerful monarchs, failed to achieve this necessary reform. c. The mixture of fixed income streams inherited from medieval times and rising expenses led to France running virtually perpetual budget deficits. Colbert consistently advised Louis XIV about the risks of running deficits. One of his most notorious practices in reducing French debt was his arbitrary reduction in the interest payments owed on already outstanding bonds, which outraged bond investors relying on the income stream from bonds already purchased. However, it nonetheless enabled France towards closing her budget deficits and reducing her debts.

Bishop Bousset

a. Bishop Bossuet was one of the principle clerics of Louis XIV's reign and a champion of the Divine Right of Kings. He advocated absolutist government, though with a different set of principles and rationales underlying his views. b. He was considered a great pulpit preacher and popularized the ancient notions of the Divine Rights of Kings, placing them more in a historical context and updating them for modern audiences. c. For Bossuet, God had instituted the Earth's many governments since governments of longstanding reflected the test of time, nature's greatest sign of divine favor. He argued that all governments had drawbacks, and therefore legitimate governments are those that lasted for centuries. Time conferred legitimacy. Revolution against such a state was a revolution against God himself - against the sacred order of authority that God had established on earth.

Bullionism

a. Bullionism was arguably a fancy term for gold-fever - a 17th century manifestation of the ancient value placed on gold as a precious metal in absence of paper money. Bullionism meant that gold remained a central fixture of economic thinking. b. Many mercantilist ideas focused on "Bullionism" - a view that espoused gold as the ultimate source of value, and therefore sought to promote as much as possible the in-flow of gold into each respective nation. As opposed to the modern idea of economic growth, mercantilist/bullionist thinking saw wealth in relatively fixed terms- as a zero-sum game. However, much wealth one country amassed left that much left for other nations to acquire. c. Bullionist thinking famously affected the trade policies of mercantilist nations. Imports were the most obvious way to affect the inflow of gold into a nation. Similarly, exports naturally represented the outflow of gold into a country.

Jean Claude Baptiste Colbert

a. Colbert was both bourgeois and Protestant in origin and represented more than almost any other member of Louis XIV's council the royal desire to advance non-nobles into the highest rank of office. A banker by trade, he served chiefly as a financial advisor. b. He promoted and articulated the economic theory of "mercantilism", a view of commerce and money to the point where Mercantilism is sometimes known as "Colbertism". Colbert and other mercantilist planners hoped to harmonize national economic ideals, goals, rates and policies. This was reflective of Mercantilist belief that the state's economic interests were national in scope, and that uniformity would benefit the whole country. They sought to eliminate competition, redundancy and variation within a single country. Just as a nation competed militarily or diplomatically, they also competed economically and financially. The goal was thus to improve its economic position in relation to its rival nations. c. For Colbert and his fellow mercantilists, establishing a "favorable balance of trade" was an important national objective. This was reflective of Bullionist thinking which espoused gold as the ultimate source of value, and thus affecting the import/export trade policies of a nation.

Mercantilism

a. Economic arm of absolutism (one king, one law, one economy). Mercantilism was to economics what absolutism was to politics. It was a view of commerce and money promoted and articulated by Jean Colbert, which is why it is sometimes known as "Colbertism". Colbert and other mercantilist planners hoped to harmonize national economic ideals, goals, rates and policies. b. Mercantilists believed that the state's economic interests were national in scope. Economic activity should be nationalized as much as possible to benefit the country as a whole. To the extent possible, regional centers of economic activity and control should be made uniform and standardized. Mercantilists sought to eliminate competition, redundancy and variation within a single country. Just as a nation competed militarily or diplomatically, they also competed economically and financially. Each mercantilist nation sought to improve its economic position in relation to its rival nations. c. In light of flourishing trade relationships and markets during the age of the Atlantic economy of 16th century explores, and the idea of "Bullionism" - a view that espoused gold as the ultimate source of value, Mercantilists focused on the idea of a favorable balance of trade. They sought to promote as much as possible the in-flow of gold into each respective nation while controlling through tariffs and heavy regulation of manufacturers. Mercantilist policies led to large rivalries between nations who spent several centruies competing with each other for trade advantage.

Favorable Balance of Trace

a. For Colbert and his fellow mercantilists, establishing a favorable balance of trade was a critical national objective. b. In the age of new trading relationships and markets of the 16th century, the mercantilist struggle for advantages over rival trading nations while simultaneously exerting uniform national economic control led to tariffs and heavy regulation of manufacturers for a favorable balance of trade.

Huguenots vs. Catholics

a. French protestants are called Hugenots - more democratic. b. John Calvin was an example of an important protestant reformer with French ancestry. The Calvinist brand of Protestantism emphasized a sanctified class "elected" by God for favor and salvation. It appealed especially to the enterprising classes in a pre-industrial world of shop-keepers, artisans, schoolteachers, and other new occupational endeavors. Supporters of French Calvinism were known as Huguenots, and they made significant inroads in French society. Protestantism also proved relatively popular amongst the French nobility. Not only did Calvinism entail attractive religious precepts, but it also provided a mechanism for aristocratic opposition to royal power. c. Catholicism was generally divided into two factions- the Valois faction, which represented the ruling line in Paris and the "Catholic League", a union of families advocating a more militant brand of Catholicism than the easy-going Catholicism of the Valois. In general, the Catholic factions pitted against the Huguenots. The most notorious event was the infamous St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Beginning in Paris, orchestrated Catholic bands systematically targeted and attacked Huguenot people and communities, often targeting both key Protestant leaders, as well as rank and file Protestants.

Henry IV

a. Henry of Navarre, or later crowned as Henry IV, was the head of the House of Bourbon, and leader of the Huguenot cause. He rose to power when France's throne was vacant due to the death of the two primary Guise brothers as well as the last of the Valois princes descended from Catherine de Medici and Henry II. b. Although the only real claimant, he was faced with the prospect of having a Protestant monarch in France. The Catholic capitol Paris literally locked its doors to the advancing Henry, arguing that "Paris is worth a Mass". As a result, Henry attended Catholic services and received the Eucharist from a priest, converting to Catholicism. This was sufficient to encourage Parisians to welcome Henry into the Capitol, where he was crowned King of France, Henry IV. This moment marked the end of the Valois line, and the ascension of the House of Bourbon, which ruled until the French Revolution. c. Henry was a "Politique", believing that religion had dominated politics for too long and advocating for solutions that avoided the entanglement of politics and religion. By placing politics and secular power above religious confession and even his personal religious belief, Henry's conversion exhibited the new "political" thinking more than almost any other ruler. As a whole, Henry was a popular ruler, and there was little political and religious violence. He governed from the middle, ruling as a nominal Catholic while retaining sympathies for his Huguenot heritage.

The Edict of Nantes, 1598

a. Issued in 1958 by Henry IV's government, the Edict of Nantes was arguably one of the most important documents in the history of Western religion & politics. In essence, the Edict of Nantes established a working relationship between Protestants and Catholics that lasted for nearly 100 years before it was overturned by Louis XIV. b. Not very absolutist in a way - In many ways, the Edict foreshadowed much modern legislation, especially in terms of how states seek to protect various groups, or limit and regulate religious discrimination. c. Religious toleration & Huguenots allowed to be French - It established a classic compromise arrangement providing legitimacy and tolerance for both the Roman Catholic and Protestant communities in France. Catholicism was enshrined as state religion, implicit in Henry's required conversion before entering Paris, but protection & liberties were given to the Protestant minority. d. Huguenot towns & books, also to do with educating children - Protestant communities gained protection. For example, 100 fortified Huguenot towns established during the tumultuous years prior to Henry's ascension to power gained specific sanction, though the public Protestant worship was largely excluded from Catholic areas. Huguenot books were allowed to be published, but only in Huguenot areas. There were no bars for entry with regards to Protestants seeking entry into schools, including universities, and or hospitals. The Edict also prohibited each group from proselytizing children of the other group.

Paris is Worth a Mass

a. King of France must be in Paris, so convert to Catholicism. b. The only real claimant was Henry of Navarre, head of the House of Bourbon and the leader of the Huguenot caused. However, faced with the prospect of having a Protestant monarch in France, the Catholic capitol Paris literally locked its doors to the advancing Henry, quipping that "Paris is worth a Mass". c. As a result, Henry attended Catholic services and received the Eucharist from a priest, converting to Catholicism. This was sufficient to encourage Parisians to welcome Henry into the Capitol, where he was crowned King of France, Henry IV. This moment marked the end of the Valois line, and the ascension of the House of Bourbon, which ruled until the French Revolution.

Louis XIII and Richelieu

a. Louis XIII was Henry IV's son with his second wife, Marie de Medici (he divorced and remarried), and sealed Bourbon claims to the throne. When Henry was assassinated due to suspicions in the most ardent Catholics, Louis XIII ascended to the throne. He continued the trajectory towards absolutism that began during the stabilizing period under his father. b. During the early years of his reign, his mother governed, guided especially by Cardinal Richelieu, who served Louis as royal minister from 1624-1642. Richelieu was a highly competent albeit devious official, and crafted many policies that most directly ushered France into the Absolutist Age. He opposed any and all entities that posed a potential threat to royal, national power in France. This is seen by his propositions to disarming of the castles, banning dueling and fortifying towns. c. He guided France skillfully in international affairs, as best exemplified by The Thirty Years Wars (1618-48). Fought largely by the Roman Empire, it involved most of the European states and was one of the most destructive wars on Europe. Richelieu kept France on the sidelines for most of the war (nearly 20 years). France finally entered the war, its military might proved decisive. France's entry in the war reflected Richelieu's support towards the Protestant cause, as the possibility of having France surrounded by a triumphant Catholic Hapsburg dynasty was unacceptable to him. He is considered as the architect of one of the most important re-alignments in European international affairs since the fall of the Roman Empire.

Louis XIV

a. Louis XIV, born in 1638 and died in 1715, became the King at the age of 5 following the Treaty of Westphalia and the untimely death of his father. He was gifted with a naturally regal physical bearing and raised surrounded by the pomp and talents of Europe's most resplendent court. Although he lacked formal education, he was taught by personal tutors in the palace, mostly by Mazarin (Richelieu's successor), who taught him the ways of Kingship and trained him for his takeover from his mom and to rule France. Because of his devoutly Catholic mother (Anne of Austria), he learned to keep the Roman Catholic faith, attending daily Mass. b. Louis took active control of France in 1661, following his mother's death. He was a competent and relatively just ruler. Although some of his policies were controversial and he had enemies, most of the things he did as a King were for the greater interest of France. His success was not only due to his own merits, but also luck. Because of Richelieu's policies, a firm foundation for Absolutism was laid in France. c. His reign furthered the Absolutist ideals of government initiated by his predecessors. "L'Etat, C'est Moi" "I am the state". Simple statement of a belief in absolute, royal power. Thought that there should be one king, one faith and one law. France became Europe's model of absolutist ideal: efficient, centralized and coordinate national government, with limited competition and division between the internal regions and provinces of the country.

• Versailles

a. One of Louis XIV's first major endeavors following active control of France as King where he transferred the primary royal residence from downtown Paris to Versailles. It became one of the prized Jewels of French culture with its elegance and lavish gardens and furnishings. b. It helped to maintain and enhance the role of France as a trend-setter in Western culture as innovations in fashion and style spread from Versailles throughout the elite social circles of Europe, and often trickled dwon to common folk. c. Versailles was not only a luxurious royal dwelling, but also a very visible reminder for Louis of the glory he desired to characterize his reign. He understood that ostentation and show greatly enhanced the prestige, and therefore the power, of the monarchy. He also believed that because it was on the outskirts of Paris, as opposed to the city center, it was more secure as an environment for the royals. This was due to his witnessing of the Fronde as a young boy, where royals were attacked in the streets of Paris.

Fortified Towns

a. Richelieu chafed at the special liberties and protections enjoyed by the Huguenots, as guaranteed by the Edict of Nantes. While he never directly challenged Huguenot religious freedom, per se, he did abolish the militaristic territorial rights they had enjoyed. He specifically outlawed Huguenot towns featuring strong castle walls and heavy arsenals under local Protestant control. On the French Atlantic coast, La Rochelle was one of the most heavily fortified Huguenot towns. With its harbors easily accessible to support from the ships of Protestant England, La Rochelle represented an unacceptable threat to Richelieu's ideas of internal uniformity. After a bitter siege, the city was disarmed.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

a. The Edict of Nantes established a working, tolerant relationship between Protestants and Catholics for nearly 100 years under Henry IV's reign. In 1685, Louis XIV overturned the edict in its entirety - known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. b. Consequently, thousands of Huguenots either converted to Roman Catholicism - at least nominally - or fled the country in search of religious liberty, often landing in areas such as Amsterdam, or the New World colonies. c. This was an adherence to Louis XIV's Age of Absolutism, the call for cultural, legal and religious homogeneity from a core belief in a single, unitary monarch ruling over a unified national community "un roi, une loi, une foi" translating to - "one king, one law, one faith".

French Civil Wars

a. The French Civil Wars occurred in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, where France struggled to regain its footing after several decades of religious and political tumult. It broke down along religious lines established during the Reformation. Factions foreshadowing modern political parties emerged in France along religious lines, pitting French Protestants, called Huguenots and branded by John Calvin, against French Catholics. Protestantism was relatively popular among the French nobility. Not only did Calvinism entail attractive religious precepts, it also provided a mechanism for aristocratic opposition to power. There were pitched battles that occurred between the factions vying for power, numerous assassinations and untimely deaths which added to the turbulence of the era. b. Religious violence occurred in conjunction with political divisions. In the 16th century, Valois King Henry II's untimely death was coupled by his three young and inept sons attempting the rule for the next 30 years, leading to the princes' mother, Catherine de Medici, wielding the real power from behind the scenes. During her de-facto regency, France erupted into vicious and confusing factions that veered towards violence. Three primary groupings emerged. The first was the Valois faction which represented the ruling line in Paris, and were generally Catholic. In opposition, a rival faction emerged, championing the Protestant/Huguenot cause. The House of Bourbons emerged as de-facto leaders of the Huguenot cause, and the represented by Henry of Navarre. A third faction also entered into the mix, the "Catholic League", a union of families advocating a more militant brand of Catholicism than the easy-going Catholicism of the Valois. c. The French Civil Wars entailed a confusing blend of geography, religion and politics. In general, the areas around Paris - in the North and East parts of France, remained more heavily Catholic. Conversely, the southern and western areas of France held more Huguenot strongholds. Yet, simultaneously, in a true "civil war" fashion- most areas featured a mix of perspectives and loyalties.

Sweet Violence of Versailles

a. The Sweet Violence of Versailles is a phrase that implies that Versailles did real damage to the traditional noble strengths and prerogatives, but in a seductive and pleasant fashion, as opposed to the violent constitutional clashes that struggles between crown and court sometimes entailed. b. Versailles weakened the mobility of the nobles- something that Louis XIV's royal predecessors had long sought. Dazzled by the brilliance of the new royal palace, the haughty nobles succumbed to the attractive glamor and courtly living it represented. They thus went from being a warrior elite to a jet-set socialite class vying for position in the court and for coveted invitations to exclusive palace festivities. c. The phrase also encapsulates the beauty of Versailles as a façade, as living in Versailles was somewhat hollow and soulless. The palace was teemed with royal spies who reported every improper attitude or remark to Louis XIV.

L'Éetat C'est Moi

a. Translates directly to "I am the state"; absolute power. b. While the famous assertion is often cited as an example of his swaggering approach to power and his ego, it also reflects something deeper and more complex about the principles of absolutist governance. c. It summarized a complex theory of power simply, a theory that the state and public power was spiritually and sacredly embodied in the royal person. It was a simple statement of a belief in absolute, royal power. What was good for France was good for Louis XIV, and vice versa.