English grammar

used to only exists in the past. • Use used to I didn't use to + verb to talk about things that happened repeatedly or were true for a long period of time in the past, but are usually not true now, e.g. things that happened when you were a child. • used to I did11.'t use to is the same for all persons. • Instead of used to you can use the past simple with an adverb of frequency. When / was a child, I often played in the street. used to or usually? used to only exists in the past. For habits in the present, use usually + present simple, NOT use to I usually cook in the evenings. NOT I useto cook in the evenings

+ When I was a child, I used to play in the street. My brother used to have very long hair. - Children didn't use to watch much TV when my father was young. My daughter didn't use to like vegetables, but now she loves them. ? Did you use to wear a uniform at school? Yes, I did. Did you use to like your teachers? No, I didn't.

will I won't (decisions, offers, promises) • Use will / won't + infinit ive for making decisions, offering and promising. I'll help you with those bags. NOT I help you • When an offer is a question, we use Shall I .... ? or Shall we .... ?

decisions l won't stay for dinner. I think I'll go home early. offers I' ll help you with your homework. Shall I open the window? promises I' ll always love you. I won't tell anybody. Shall I pay? Shall we do the washin up?

present simple for things you do every day, week, year, or for things with are generally true or always happen. Use don'tfdoesn't ro make negative sentences, and dofdoes to make quest ions.

l usually work at home. They don't live near here. Do you speak French? Yes. I do. f No. I don't Holly knows me very well. lr doesn't ofrcn rain here. Does Alice like jazz? Yes. she does. fJ o. she doesn't .

have to, don't have to, must, mustn't --have to, don't have to • Use have to + verb (infinitive) to talk about rules and obligations. • Use don't have to verb (infinitive) to say that there is no obligation or that something is not necessary. • Use do I does to make questions and negatives. Do I have to go? NOT Have I to go? • Don't contract have or has. I have to go NOT I've to go --must I mustn't • Use must + verb (infinitive without to) to talk about rules and obligations. • must / mustn't is the same for all persons. • Use mustn't + verb (infinitive without to) to say something is prohibited.

--have to, don't have to + I have to get up at even every day. She has to speak English at work. - We don't have to wear a uniform at this school. He doesn't have to work on Saturdays. ? Do I have to buy a grammar book? What time does she have to get up in the morning? must I mustn't + You must do your homework tonight. She must tidy her room before she goes out. - You mustn't leave your bags here. I mustn't forget to call her tonight. (mustn't= must not) ? Must I buy a grammar book? When must we register for the exam?

uses of the infinitive with to • The in finitive is the base form of the verb. It is often used with to. it can be positive (e.g. to be) or negative (e.g. not to be). • Use the infinitive with to: I after some verbs, e.g. wallt, need, would like, etc. 2 after adjectives. 3 after question words, e.g. what, where, when, etc. 4 to say why you do something. 1 came to this school to learn English. NOT for learn English. Infinitive without to Remember that we use the infinitive without to after auxiliary verbs (do / does / didn't) and after most modal verbs (can, could, will, would, etc.)

-uses of the infinitive with to 1 I need to buy some new clothes. Try not to talk about politics. 2 It 'll be nice to meet your parents. It's important not to be late. 3 I don"t know where to go or what to do. 4 A Why did you go to the party? B To meet new people. I went to the party to meet new people. -Infinitive without to Do you live near here? Can you help me? I won't forget What would you do?

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present perfect or past simple? (2) 1 Use the past simple to talk about a finished period of time in the past. 2 Use the present perfect to talk about a period of time from the past until now. • Compare the past simple and present perfect. Jack was married for ten years.= Jack is not married now. He's divorced or dead. Jack has been married for ten years. =Jack is married now.

1 A How long was Bob Marley a musician? B He was a musician for twenty years. A How many Grammys did he win? B He didn't win any. 2 A How long has Ziggy Marley been a musician? B He's been a musician since he was ten. A How many Grammys has he won? B He's won four.

uses of the gerund (verb + -ing) • The gerund is the base form of the verb + ing .lt can be positive (e.g. going) or negative (e.g. not going) • Use the gerund: 1 as the subject or object of a sentence. 2 after some verbs, e.g. like, love, hate, enjoy, etc 3 after prepositions.

1 Eating outside in the summer makes me feel good. My idea of happiness is getting up late and not going to work. 2 I love reading in bed. I hate not getting to the airport early. 3 l'm thinking of buying a new car. He left without saying goodbye.

be going to 1Use be Baing La+ infinitive to talk about future plans or intentions. 2 We use be goitlB to + infinitive to make a prediction when we know or can see that something is going to happen.

1 I'm going to work for an NGO He's going to meet me at the airport. 2 I'm sure England are going to lose tomorrow. it's going to rain tonight. It's winter there so it 's going to be cold. Look at that car! It's going to crash.

second conditional: if + past, would / wouldn't Use if + past to talk about an imaginary or hypothetical future situation and would / wouldn't + verb to talk about the consequence. • would / wouldn't is the same for all persons. • Contractions: 'd =would (l'd,you'd, he'd, etc.); wouldn't= would not. 2 The if - clause can come first or second. If the if - clause comes first, we usually put a comma before the next clause. 3 You can also use could + infinitivein stead of would + infinitive in the other clause.

1 If a bull attacked me, I'd run away. If you didn' t go to bed so late, you wouldn't be so tired in the morning. Would you take the manager's job if they offered it to you? 2 If I had more time I'd do more exercise. I'd do more exercise if I had more rime. 3 If we went by car, we could stop at places on the way.

superlatives 1 Use the + superlative adjective to say which is the biggest, etc. in a group. • After superlatives we use in+ names of places or singular words for groups of people, e.g. It's the noisiest city in the world. 2 We often use the + superlative adjective with the present perfect + ever.

1 It's the dirtiest city in Europe. It's the most popular holiday destination in the world . 2 It's the most beautiful city I've ever been to. It's the best fiIm I've seen this year. adjective /comparative/ superlative cold /colder /the coldest hot /hotter /the hottest pretty /prettier /the prettiest beautiful /more beautiful /the most beautiful good /better /the best bad /worse /the worst far /further /the furthest

comparatives • To compare two people, places, things or actions use: 1 comparative adjectives. 2 comparative adverbs (for actions). 3 less+ adjective or adverb. 4 (not) as+ adjective / adverb +as. My brother's taller than me. My brother's taller than I am. He's not as intelligent as her. He's not as intelligent as she is. short/shorter - one syllable: add -er big/bigger - one vowel + one consonant double final consonant busy/busier - consonant+ y: y+-ier relaxed/more relaxed - two or more syllables: more+ adjective

1 My brother's older than me. It's more dangerous to cycle than to drive. 2 People walk more quickly than in the past. 3 I'm less relaxed this year than I was last year. 4 The service in this restaurant isn't as good as it was. She doesn't drive as fast as her brother comparative adjectives: irregular good/better bad/worse far/further comparative adverbs: regular quickly /more quickly slowly /more slowly irregular hard/harder well/better badly/worse

review of tenses: present, past and future 1present simple - things that happen always or usually 2present continuous - things that are happening now or in the near future 3past simple - finished actions in the past 4past continuous - actions that were in progress at a past time 5be going to+ infinitive - future plans 6will / won't + infinitive -predictions/instant decisions/offers/promises 7present perfect - recently fi nished act ions (we don't say when)/past experiences

1 live in the city centre. she doesn't smoke. 2 He's looking for a new job. I'm leaving tomorrow. 3 We saw a good film last night We didn't do anything yesterday. 4 He was working in Paris. What were you doing at 7.00? 5 'm going to see Tom tonight. Look! It's going to rain. 6 You'll love New York. I' ll phone her later. I'll help you. I'll pay you back tomorrow 7 I've finished the book. Have you ever been to Iran?

first conditional: if + present, will / won't 1Use if + present to talk about a possible situation and will / won't + verb to talk about the consequence. 2 The if - clause can come first or second. if the if - clause comes first, we usually put a comma before the next clause. 3 You can also use the imperative or can + infinitive instead of will+ infinitive in the other clause.

1If I miss the last bus, I'll get a taxi. If you tell her the truth, she won't believe you. What will you do if he doesn't call you? 2 If you don't go, she won't be very pleased. She won't be very pleased if you don't go. 3 If you miss the last bus, get a taxi. If you miss the last bus, you can get a taxi.

past continuous: was I were+ verb + -ing • Use the past continuous to describe an action in progress at a specific moment in the past. • We often use the past continuous to describe the situation at the beginning of a story or narrative. • Use the past simple for a completed action in the past. • Use the past continuous for an action in progress before or at the time of the past simple action

1At 8.45 last Saturday I was working in my office. I wasn't doing anything important 2My friends were having breakfast. They weren't working. 3A Was it raining when you got up? B No, it wasn't. 4A What were you doing at II o'clock last night? B I was watching TV. 3 type 1 I was woking at 8 o'clock 2 I was working in my office when the boss walked in. 2I was having lunch when my sister arrived 3I was learning my school lessons while somebody was sleeping

Time sequencer • We use time sequencers to say when or in what order things happen. • We use when as a time sequencer and also to join two actions. I was watchinB TV when the phone rang. (two verbs joined by when) • Use because to express a reason. • Use so to express a result. • Use but and althouBh to show a contrast. • AlthouBh can go at the beginning or in the middle of a senteDce.

1On our first date we went ro rhe cinema. After that we started meeting every day. 1On Thursday I had an argument with my boss. Next day I decided to look for a new job. 1We sat down to eat. Two minutes later the phone rang. 1When I came out of the club he was waiting for me. 1The accident happened when I was crossing rhe road. 2 because and so She was driving fast because she was in a hurry. (reason) . She was in a hurry. so she was driving fast. (result) 3but and although 3She tried to stop the car. but she hit the man. 3Although she tried to stop the car. he hit the man. 3She was very tired. but she couldn't sleep. 3She couldn't sleep, although she was very tired .

present perfect yet, just, already • We often use yet,just and already with the present perfect. 1 Use yet in questions and negative sentences to ask if something has happened or to say if ir hasn't happened. Put yet at the end of the sentence. 2 Use just in + sentences to say that something happened very recently. Put just before the main verb. 3 Use already in + sentences to say that something happened before now or earlier than expected. Put already before the main verb.

A Have you done your homework yet? B No, nor yet . I haven't finished yet. 2 My sister's just started a new job. 3 A Do you want to see this film? B No, I've a lready seen it th ree time .

present simple or present continuous? • Use the present simple for things that are generally true or always happen. • Use the present continuous for an action happening now or at this moment.

A What do you do? B l'm work for Microsofr. A What are you doing? B I 'm checking my emails.

present perfect + for or since • Use the present perfect + for or since to talk about actions and states which started in the past and are still true now. I've lived in Manchester for twenty years.= I came to live in Manchester twenty years ago and I live in Manchester now. • Don't use the present simple in this type of sentence, e.g. NOT ·~ Manchester for twenty years • Use How long .. ? to ask questions about the duration of an action or a state. for or since? • Use for + a period of time, e.g. for two weeks ,for ten years ,for a long time, etc. I've had this car for three months. • Use since with the beginning of a period of time, e.g. since 1980, since last June, etc. I've been afraid of spiders since I was a child.

A Where do you live now? B In Manchester. A How long have you lived there? B I've lived there for twenty years. A Where do you work? B In a primary school. A How long have you worked there? B I've worked there since 2005.

defining relative clauses with who, which, where • Use defining relative clauses to explain what a person, thing or place is or does. • Use who for a person, which for a thing and where for a place. You can use that instead of who or which.

A cook is a person who makes food. That's the woman who won the lottery last year. A clock is something which tells the time. Is that the book which everybody's reading? A post office is a place where you can buy stamps. That's the restaurant where l had dinner last week.

present perfect or past simple? • We often use the present perfect to talk about past experiences in our lives when we don't specify a time. M1ike has been to Paris. =He went to Paris and came back. Mike has gone to Paris. = He's in Paris now. • Conversations often begin in the present perfect (with a general question) and then change to the past simple to ask for or give specific details, e.g. when, What, where, Who With, etc.

Have you ever been to a fancy dress party? She's seen that film twice. I've never met Nina's husband. A Have you ever been to Mexico? B Yes, I have. A When did you go there? B I went last year. A Haveyou seen his new film? B Yes, I have. A What did you think of it? B I loved it.

present continuous (future arrangements) • We often use the present continuous with a future meaning, especially for future arrangements, i.e. for plans we have made at a fixed time or place in the future. Don't use the present I'm leaving on Monday is more common t han I'm going to leave on Monday.

I'm seeing a friend tonight. She's arriving at lunchtime. She isn't leaving until Friday. They aren't coming to the party. What are you doing this evening? Is she meeting us at the restaurant?

present perfect • We often use the present perfect to talk about the recent past, not saying exactly when things happened • We often use the present perfect to give news • For regular verbs the past participle is the same as rhe past simple(+ -ed). For irregular verbs the past participle is somet imes the same as the past simple

I've finished my homework. She's cleaned the kitchen. He hasn' t done the washing up. A Has she turned off her phone? B No, she hasn't .

first or second conditional? Compare the first and second conditionals. • Use the first conditional for possible future situations. If I don't have to work tomorrow, I'll help you. (= It's a possibility. Maybe I will help you.) • Use the second conditional for imaginary or hypothetical situations. If I didn't have to work tomorrow, I'd help you. (=It 's a hypothetical situation. I have to work, so l can't help you.)

If I don't have to work tomorrow, I'll help you. If I didn't have to work tomorrow, I'd help you.

be in second conditionals With the verb be you can use were (instead of was) after I / he / she / it, e.g. Use were (not was) in the expression If I were you, ... We often use this expression for advice

If Jack was / were here, he'd know what to do. if I were you, I wouldn't take that job.

passive: be + past participle • You can often say things in two ways, in the active or in the passive. Josephine Cochrane invented the dishwasher. (active) The dishwasher was invented by josephine Cochrane. (passive) • In the active sentence, the focus is more on Josephine Cochrane. • In the passive sentence the focus is more on the dishwasher. • You can also use the passive when it isn't known or isn't important who does or did the action. My car was stolen last week. Volvo cars are made in Sweden. • Use by to say who did the action. The Lord of the Rings was written by Tolkien.

Present: am / is / are + past participle + Kevlar is used to make bullet-proof vests. - Tippex isn't used very much today. ? Are disposable nappies used all over the world? Past: was I were + past participle + The dishwasher was invented by Josephine Cochrane. - Windscreen wipers weren't invented until 1903. ? When was the washing machine invented?

be going to or present continuous? It's very common to use the present continuous with the expressions tonight, tomorrow, this weekend, etc. and with verbs describing travel arrangements, e.g. go, come, leave, arrive.

We can often use either with no difference in meaning, e.g. I'm going to see Anna on Tuesday. OR I'm seeing Anna on Tuesday. I'm leaving on Monday is more common t han I'm going to leave on Monday.

• Use might I might not + verb (infinitive without to) to say that perhaps you will or won't do something. We might have a picnic tomorrow .= Perhaps we will have a picnic tomorrow. • might I might 110t is the same for all persons. • might not is not usually contracted. may I may not You can also use may instead of might forpossibility, e.g. We may have a picnic tomorrow. I may not go to the party.

We might have a picnic tomorrow, but it depends on the weather. She might come with us. but she's not sure yet. I might not go to the parry. I haven't decided yet. You might not see him today. He's coming home late.

present simple adverbs and e xpressions of frequency We often use the present simple with adverbs of frequency (always, usually, often, sometimes, hardly ever, never). • Ad verbs of frequency go before the main verb. • Adverbs offrequency go after be Expressions of frequency (every day , once a week, etc.) usually go at the end of a sentence.

We often go our on Friday nighr. She doesn't usually srudy ar weekend I'm never ill. He's always late for work. She gets up early every day. We have English classes twice a week.

present continuous: be + verb + -ing • Use the present continuous: I for things rhar are happening now. ar rhis moment. 2 for temporary things that are happening now. this week, etc. 3 to describe a picture.

What areyoudoing? I'm sending a message ro Sarah. My brother is doing a rwo-monrh course in the UK. In rhis picture the woman is standing ncar the window.

possessIve pronouns • Use possessive pronouns to talk about possession. is it yours? Yes, it's mine. • Use Whose to ask about possession. Whose book is it? Whose is that bag? • Don't use possessive pro nouns with a noun. NOT - It's mine book • Don't use the with possessive pronouns, e.g. Is this yours? NOT Is tis the yours? subject pronouns object pronouns I - can come. She loves - me You you He him She her It it We us They them possessive adjectives possessive pronouns This is my seat it's mine your yours his his her hers its its our ours their theirs

Whose coat is it? It's my coat. It's mine. Whose jacket is it? It's your jacket. It's yours. Whose phone is it? It's his phone. It's his. Whose bag is it? It's her bag. Tt's hers. Whose dog is it? It's our dog. Tt's ours. Whose house is it? It's their house. It's theirs.

should I shouldn't • Use should / shouldn't + verb (infinitive without to) to give somebody advice or say what you think is the right thing to do. • should/ shouldn't is the same for all persons. • We often use I think you should .. . or I don't think you should ... N 0 T - I thing you shouldn't x ought to You can also use ought to / ought not to instead of should I shouldn't, e.g.

You should wear a suit to the interview. I think you should change your job. I don't think you should speak to her. He's very stressed. He shouldn't work so hard. You shouldn't drink coffee in the evening. It' ll keep you awake. You ought to wear a suit. He ought not to work so hard.

something, anything, nothing, etc. • Use somebody I someone, something, somewhere with a + verb when you don't say exactly who, what, or where. • Use anybody / anyone, anything, anywhere in questions or with a - verb. I didn't do anything last night. NOT I didn't do nothing: • Use nobody / no one, nothing, nowhere in short answers or in sentences with a + verb.

people + Somebody / Someone has taken my pen! - I didn't speak ro a nybody / a nyone. ? Did a nybody / anyone phone? x o. nobody / no one. Nobo dy I No o ne phoned. things + I bought some thing for dinner. - I didn't do anything at the weekend. ? Is there anything in the fridge? x No, nothing. There's nothing in rhe fridge. places + Let's go somewhere this weekend. - We didn't go anywhere this summer. ? Is there anywhere ro park? x No, nowhere. There's nowhere to park.

past simple: regular and irregular verbs • Use the past simple to talk about fi nished actions in the past. • The form of the past simple is the same for all persons • To make the past simple +of regular verbs add -ed. See the spell ing rules in the chart • Use the infinitive after did11 't for negatives and Did ... ? for questions. 1work \worked \add -ed 2stay \stayed \ add -ed 3like \liked \add -d if verb finishes in e 4study \studied \y > ied after a consonant 5stop\ stopped \if verb finishes inconsonant - vowel consonant, double the final consonant

regular : I stayed with friends I didn' t stay in a hotel. Did you stay for the weekend Yes. I did . Where did you stay? irregular : We went ro Brazil on holiday. We didn't go ro Sao Paolo. Did you go to Rio? No. we didn't. Why did you go there?

quantif iers too much, too many, too • Use too much, too many, too to say 'more than is good'. 1 Use too much + uncountable noun (e.g. coffee, time) or after a verb. 2 Use too many + countable noun (e.g. cakes, people). 3 Use too + adjective NOT I'm too much tired. enough 1 Use enough before a noun to mean 'all that is necessary'. 2 Use enough after a verb with no object. 3 Use enough after an adjective or adverb.

too much, too many, too 1 I'm stressed. ! have too much work. He talks too much. 2 My diet is unhealthy. I eat too many cakes and sweets. 3 I don't want to go out. I'm too tired. enough 1Do you eat enough vegetables? I don't drink enough water. 2 She doesn't sleep enough . 3 My fridge isn't big enough . I don't go to bed early enough

word order in questions use ASU ( auxiliary,subject,infinitive) and QUASI (Question word, Auxiliary, Subject, Infinitive ). and use be

where do you live with your parents where did you have a holiday last year where does your sister work when did you start studying English what did the talk about what are you hungry what is there a bank near here where was that noice where are you from where are you born