ETHICS FINAL CHAPTER 1-13 not done yet
Divine Command Theory Advantages
1. Solves the old problem of the objectivity of ethics. 2. why we should bother with morality.
Two Versions of the Story
1. Thomas Hobbes (17th century): Leviathan 2. The "student's dilemma" (or prisoner's dilemma)
Name the four important concepts of Utilitarian Principles:
1. consequentialism- rightness of an action determined by its consequence 2. hedonism- identified w/ pleasures and absence of pain 3.Maximalism- greatest amount of good effects possible 4. Universalism- consequences considered as everyone invovled
Pros of Utilitarianism
1. difficult to deny reducing suffering is a good thing 2. hard to identify actions as either good or bad in themselves 3. irrational not to consider consequences of our actions 4. impartiality, rigid standard of equality 5. provides really clear solutions
defending utilitarianism
1. it seems that the consequences are far fetched and have vile consequences, this is rebuffed by the fact that utilitarianism should be able to stand on its own. 2.utilitarianism justifies common morality as when cases are extraordinary we can not trust our gut reaction.
Cons fo Utilitarianism
1. we may value other things than pleasure/happiness ---> creativity, love 2. ignores individual rights that some circumstances allow to kill a human being 3. difficult to determine the exact consequences 4. too demanding to be moral saints 5. undemines personal relationships
Rachels argument:
1.if morality of actions only relies on its consequences, what of rights ( violate the right of a person, such as their privacy) or justice (in sacrificing someone else to save many more lives) this leads to backwards thinking) 2. If happiness is all that matters, and happiness is what feels good, physically and mentally, this will lead to hedonism. 3.This is too demanding on a person, such that one can not give special consideration to ones family or friends.
classicical utilitarianism :
1.morality of action relies on its consequences 2.consequences only matter in terms of the over-all hapiness 3.each individual is to get equal consideration
Tracy Latimer
12 year girl with cerebral palsey killed by her father in 1973
Emotivism
1st fn: to express one's attitude 2nd fn: (for moral language) Making a statement to try to influence ppl's behaviour (attitude/conduct). - disagreements come in different forms (ie: having a disagreement about facts) - our moral judgements cannot be criticized because they aren't judgements at all - cannot explain the role reason plays in ethics - THEREFORE: its FLAWED b/c it casts doubt on the ethical subjectivism
How many Eskimos live scattered among North America and Greenland?
25,000
Autonomy
A person's ability to decide for themselves how to live their own lives, according to their own desires, and values
Altruism
A positive belief that we can do good in the world by helping other people.
What is act vs. rule utilitarianism?
ACT: choose the action in the circumstances, that will maximise utility. RULE: follow the rule which, if generally followed by people in circumstances like mine, will best serve utility.
Integrity
Acting in a consistent/sustained way in accordance with goals and values with which one identifies Wholeness of life: the ability to maintain projects
The Divine Command Theory
Actions that God commands are morally required; actions that God forbids are morally wrong; and all other actions are permissible or merely morally neutral.
Imperfect duties
Allow people to choose when to apply them
Categorical Imperative (2nd form)
Always treat others as ends in themselves, never as a means wrong to "use someone against their will" wrong to deceive/manipulate/force
Ayn Rand
An author and personal activist of the theory of Alturism and Ethical Egoism.
Identify the fallacy, if any, in the following argument: "You should give me at least a B in this class. If I don't get a B, my family will be so disappointed and I probably won't get into medical school."
Appeal to pity
Two reasons someone may opt to be a rule utilitarian over an act utilitarian
Calculation problems (not enough time, consequences unknowable and infinite) Intuitively wrong act can give morally unacceptable results. rule utilitarianism let us avoid the intuition based problems faced by act utilitariansim
Who ate the bodies of their dead fathers?
Callatians
Hypothetical Imperative
Commands to do an action on the basis of having a desired end. "If you want y, then do x."
3 features of utilitarianism
Consequentialism, hedonism, equity (utilitarian approach)
Reasons to reject a maxim
Contradiction in conception and in the will
One always does what makes one feel good.
Contrast argument: -Self interest and benevolence are not mutually exclusive -Some acts of benevolence lack self interested motives entirely -The feeling of satisfaction is a product, not the object of desire
One always does what one most desires to do
Contrast argument: -Somethings are done because we ought to, not desire to do -Acting on desire does not entail, looking out for self. It depends on the desire
(EE for argument) Altrivism is self defeating because we know the interests of others imperfectly; because its is degrading
Counter argument: -Non interference is analtrulstic principle it is in your interest for me not to interfere
(EE for argument) EE is compatible with common sense morality. All common sense duties are dervied from self interest. ( helps us all to get along reasonably)
Counter argument: -Altruism is not always to ones benefit -Self interest maybe a reason but not the only one
(EE for argument) Altruism devalues the individual; penalizes virtue to reward vice ( the person who is helping)
Counter argument: -This argument suggests altruism and EE are mutually exclusive; but there is a middle ground
What did the Greeks practice after death?
Cremation
The view that an action is right if one's culture approves of it is known as:
Cultural relativism.
What is Cultural Relativism?
DIFFERNENT CULTURES ACCEPT WHAT IS RELATIVE TO THEIR MORALITY There is no such thing as universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural codes, and nothing more. Cultural Relativism challenges our belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth.
Who found out that Callatians ate the bodies of their dead fathers?
Darius, ancient king of Persia
Describe Kant's analysis of the morality of lying promises (ch 9)
Decide what you want to do: Make a false promise to get a loan. Find the maxim: "I shall make a false promise whenever it suits me, as a way to obtain loans" Consider the perturbed world (A world where everyone has done this for some time) Can you conceive of acting on your maxim in the perturbed world? No, trust on the basis of a promise would have died out, therefore, you could not make promises anymore. There is a PERFECT DUTY not to act as contemplated. There is a contradiction in conception (we physically cant)
first stage of mills proof for utilitarianism
Denial that strict proof can be given Mill says that there is no strict proof of any principle related to morals but that it is possible to offer considerations that suffice rationally to persuade people to accept them "Questions of ultimate ends do not admit of proof"
Orgin of Natural Law
Derived from the ancient Greeks who believed that everything in nature has a purpose (telos).
moral codes
Different societies have different
What makes a sound argument¿?
Disagreement must contain truth & the conclusion must follow the truth of the disagreement. The conclusion must also be backed up by logic.
Perfect duties
Duties that must be followed at every opportunity
Why is impartiality necessary for moral judgments?
Each individual's interests are equally important; no one should get special treatment. At the same time, impartialityrequires that we not treat the members of particular groups as inferior, and thus it condemns forms of discrimination like sexism and racism.
Examples of higher pleasures
Education, fine music, Art, things which are only available to humans
Which of the following theories implies that there are no such things as 'moral facts'.
Emotivism
Strength of Bentham
Equity principle demands all people to be equally considered eliminating prejudices and selfishness
Who's wives were free to sleep with other men and vise versa?
Eskimos
Cultural relativism
Ethics is just a matter of particular cultural practices.
Greek term for Happiness?
Eudaimonia
Strengths of Kant
Everyone is equal, everyone acts moral and universally
Egoism's Answer
Everything to ourselves, nothing to others
3 criticisms of utilitarianism
Evil pleasures, difficulty of predicting consequences, and tyranny of the majority (utilitarian approach)
Immanuel Kant argued that it is ultimately the consequences of an action that determine whether or not that action is right or wrong.
False
Subjective relativism is the view that we only have ethical obligations to our relatives and close friends.
False
Describe Kant's analysis of the morality of helping others (ch 9)
Final example: refrain from helping others Maxim: I shall refrain to help others letting each person get on as best he can by himself Consider the perturbed social world: There is no contradiction in conception However, we cannot rationally will this world. Our will would be in conflict with itself as there are times when we will need the help of others. In these situations we would will that others help us. Therefore, we must will that people sometimes help each other. contradiction in will imperfect duty to help others
how did Mill advance on Bentham's utilitarianism
For Bentham, the source of the pleasure doesn't matter. It is prejudice and wrong to prefer "intellectual" pursuits to trivial games. Mill thought this was a mistake, as did contemporary critics, who labelled this^ form of utilitarianism 'a doctrine worthy of swine'. Mill preferred a doctrine that valued, for example, poetry above push pin; it is 'better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied'
stage 3 of mills proof
General happiness as desirable Each person's happiness is desired by him/her. Therefore, the general happiness is desired by everyone. "Each person's happiness is a good to that person, and the genera happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons."
Herodotus
Greek Historian
stage 4 of mills proof
Happiness is the only desirable good So far, Mill has a plausible statement that happiness is an end. He must now prove it is the only end. (End = morally valuable). he does this by denial of counter examples (further explained in separate card)
Example of imperfect duty
Helping others
How does Socrates define morality?
ITS how we ought to live" —and why Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. .
cultural relativism
Idea that a person's beliefs, practices, & values should be understood based on their own culture. As opposed to being judged against the criteria of another culture
Benefits Argument
If we can benefit someone without harming another, we ought to do so
Presumed Connection Between Morality and Religion
In popular thinking, morality and religion are inseparable. People commonly believe that morality can be understood only in the context of religion.
Difficulties with moral relativism:
Internal conflict, External conflict
Plato's Euthyphro
Is conduct right because God commands it or does God command certaing conduct because it is right?
Rachel's Arugment against EE
It endores wickedness by a non egotistic standard EE is logically inconsistenet EE is arbitrary- it violates the principle of equal treatment
Contradiction in conception
Its impossible to imagine universalising this maxim
explain how rule utilitarianism advocates irrational rule worship
JJC Smart's case of the desert island promise o You promise to give your companion's millions to his golf club. o Morally speaking, it is surely better to give the money to charity. o But, if in general people broke promises in this way, the results would be very bad: I. People would lose comfort of knowing what will happen to their money II. The practise of making promises may itself die out Rule utilitarianism ceases to be utilitarian because the action does not maximise utility
Who wrote the elements of moral philosophy?
James Rachels
What is William's first example illustrating the issue of integrity in utilitarianism
Jim and the indians: Jim given the chance to save 19 by killing 1. Utilitarian: simple, kill the 1 Moral intuition: not so simple, surely it is at least relevant that we have to take part in murder utilitarianism misrepresents moral complexities it may give the right answer but if the theory is correct then Jim;s revulsion of killing is the kind of attitude that should be eliminated as it is preventing him from doing what is right
Explain how Kant's ignorance of certain motives is an issue for his theory
Kant is explicitly early on, that what determines the moral worth of our action is simply whether it is done out of duty. It is not enough that it be in accordance with duty. The motivation needs to be the right one - namely, that duty requires this action. The action lacks moral worth in so far as it has any different motivation There is some intuitive attractiveness to this: we notice the positive moral value of struggling against evil inclinations and doing good despite temptation. However, actions done out of inclination may have just as much moral value, it is just less obvious. To say that actions done against/despite inclination have more moral value would be wrong. We wouldn't think it was a good policy to bring up children with wicked inclination, so that they could overcome them. Therefore, it seems we do ascribe moral worth to actions done from inclinations AS WELL AS actions against inclination.
With which ethical theory would you associate the principle that 'X is good because X is capable of being rationally universalized?'
Kantian ethics
Who met an eskimo woman who killed 10 out of 20 of her babies?
Knud Rasmussen
Slippery Slope
Letting slide one act that violates ethics can lead down the dangerous path that will create more ethics violations
Scientific View of the Universe
Man is the product of causes which had no prevision of the end they were achieving
Minimum Conception
Morality is the effort to guide one's conduct by reason while giving equal weights to the interests of each individual affected by one's decisions
"Is/Ought" Problem (Hume's law)
Moving from a descriptive statement to a prescriptive statement without further evidence. Considered a fallacy
Which of the following theories is based upon merging Christian theology with the ideas of Aristotle and Stoicism?
Natural Law Theory
Ends in themselves principle (autonomy)
Never treat as a mere means always an end in themselves
Primitive
Not developed from anything else
"Map" of cultural relativism
Objective vs. legitimacy
Moral ______ is the view that some moral principles are universal or valid for everyone.
Objectivism
James Rachels argues that.....
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM fails as an empirical doctrine.
Psychological Egoism
People always do whatever act they perceive to be in their own interest ^ Theory about how people "in fact" behace
Hobbes:
RESPONSIBLE FOR self-interested cooperation theory. an English philosopher, remembered today for his work on political philosophy.
Laws of nature both describe & prescribe
Rachel does agree with Natural Law Theory that reason has a substantial role in determining right & wrong
universal truth
Relates to the whole mankind of nature, addresses themes that are understood by a wide range of readers from a wide range of backgrounds and levels of experience
Maxim
Rule or principle of an action
Categorical imperatives
Rules or duties which must be followed (128)
Describe Kant's analysis of the morality of suicide (ch 9)
Second example: Kill yourself out of self-love Maxim: From self-love I shall kill myself if life promises more misery than pleasure Consider the perturbed world: Self-love is a natural psychological feature whose function is to preserve life (This stage can be challenged as Kant begs the question by defining self-love in a way that serves him for this example Self-love may be the function of choosing decisions that bring YOU the most happiness) A world where self-love was regularly used to terminate life, rather than to continue it, would be a world in contradiction with itself Therefore, we cannot conceive of acting on this action in the perturbed social world contradiction in conception perfect duty
Example of immoral motives
Self interest, emotion
Examples of lower pleasures
Sex, drinking, eating, as they are in common with animals
Reasons to be a relativist:
Simplicity,Tolerance
The idea that morality consists of rational rules governing behavior that people would accept, on the condition that others accept them as well, is known as: (means no natural rights given to us by God of nature)
Social Contract Theory
William Graham Sumner
Sociologist "The notion of right is in the folkways"
Contradiction in the will
Some maxims which are possible to imagine but not want
Means
Some moralists believed in the case of Baby Theresa "it is wrong to use people as _____________"
Handicap
Some people believed that Tracy's father was discriminating against the _________________.
Conscientious Moral Agent
Someone who is concerned impartially with the interests of everyone affected by what he or she does in a myriad of ways
Weakness of Bentham
Special responsibilities demands we treat strangers same as family
The Basic Story
State of Nature -> Social Contract -> normal society
Example of perfect duty
Telling the truth
Explain the issue of consequences relevance to kant's deontology
The axe murderer asks where your little sister is. Surely, its relevant that if you tell the truth, your sister will suffer horribly. But, Kant says that only duty and the universalizability of the maxim matters, producing intuitively immoral results . Kantian ethics fails to incorporate the virtues of other normative theories such as utilitarianism.
Sanctity of Life
The belief that life is holy and belongs to God, this was the argument behind the parents of Jodie and Mary. It is also a pillar of western morality.
Ethical Egoism
The belief that we should do what is necesarry to help others.
Alturism
The belief that you should treat others with respect and help each other if you can.
what is utilitarianism
The best known example of a consequentialist normative ethical theory. The right thing to do is the action (out of the available) that will maximize utility.
prescriptive egoism
The doctrine that in all conscious action you ought to seek your self-interest above all else
Descriptive egoism
The doctrine that maintains that in conscious action a person always seeks self-interest above all else
Ethical Skepticism
The doctrine that moral knowledge is not possible, and if there are moral standards, we dont know what the are.
universalistic ethical hedonism
The doctrine that one ought to seek, over everything else, the greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people (utilitarianism)
Descriptive Relativism
The doctrine that the moral standards people subscribe to differ from culture to culture and from society to society
Ethical Hedonism
The doctrine that you OUGHT to seek pleasure over all else
issue with stage 3 of mills proof
The fallacy of composition • Just because every person has a mother does not mean there is some individual woman who is everyone's mother. • Each person's happiness may be good for him/her without there being anything that is good for all people. • This is plainly, a fallacious form of argument, and the inference, as it is stated by Mill, is not legitimate.
explain not all universalisable maxims are moral and not all non universalisable maxims are immoral
The first is meant to involve observations such as: I can universalize the maxim, "I shall always tie my left shoelace before my right shoelace". However, the action in question is morally trivial. But this is powerless against Kant as he didn't say that all universalisable maxims are good. He just said that it is morally wrong to act on non-universalisable maxims. This is a misunderstanding and probably does not need to be mentioned in an essay. The second line is a better criticism: An example is homosexuality. A maxim may be, 'Whenever I have sex, it shall be with someone of the same sex'. This will have a contradiction in conception, as the species would die out so you cannot will that the maxim be acted on in the perturbed social world. Therefore, there is a perfect duty to never act on this maxim. However, having homosexual sex is not immoral. Michael Lacewing's example is the maxim, "I shall never sell, but only buy". This is not universalisable as there is a contradiction in conception (no one to buy from). But surely, it is not immoral to never sell and only buy.
Impartiality
The idea that each individual's interests are equally important, so nobody should get special treatment, nor should they be treated arbitrarily
special status
The moral code of our own society has no _____________ _________ ; it is but one among many.
Cyrenaicism
The philosophy of Aristippus and others who lived in Cyrene about Plato's time; it emphasized seeking a life of as many intense pleasures as possible
The conclusion of the cultural differences argument doesn't follow what?
The premise
solutions to save stages 2+3 of mills proof
The problems arise due to Mill's careless statement of his argument. 1. Every persons happiness is a good. There is no proof of this, but it has a good deal of intuitive plausibility: people behave as if they thought that their own happiness mattered. It's hard to believe that everyone is completely wrong about this. So it is fair to say they are correct. Mill's key point was that Utilitarianism agrees with ordinary commonsense moral thinking. It is a virtue of the theory that is describes what we already believe. 2. If my happiness is a good, then so, presumably, is yours. There is no obvious difference between me and you that would make it plausible that my happiness matters morally and yours doesn't. And this is true for all subjects capable of enjoying happiness and suffering pain. So, It's morally desirable that each of us be happy. And the more happiness, the better. SO the best state of affairs is the one in which people as a whole are as happy overall as can be.
second stage for mills proof
The proof that each person's happiness is a good Mill says: "the only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it... The sole evidence that it is possible to produce anything is desirable, is that people desire it"
Gyges' Ring thought experiment
The set up: A shepherd finds a ring that makes him invisible. He proceeds to murder the king of the land, seduce and marry the queen and seize absolute power over the realm using that power. The point: Suppose you had access to some power that permitted you to do whatever you wanted, without getting punished. You would be like a "god among men"... Or would you nonetheless refrain from using that power, for the sake of morality?
Moral Philosophy
The study of what morality is and what it requires of us
other problems w/ Natural law
The theory seems to involve a confusion of is and ought -: Just because sex can be for reproduction, it does not follow that sex ought or ought not to be engaged in only for that purpose.
Individual Relativism
The theory that what is right and wrong is what you believe is right and wrong
Issue of formulating maxims in kant's deontology
There is a vagueness in the application of Kant's first formulation. This vagueness arises due to two factors: 1. We cannot indisputably predict the outcomes within the perturbed social world 2. The restrictions in the wording of the maxim will make a difference to whether it is universalisable a. 'I shall steal whenever it suits me' b. 'I, being a philosophy teacher at D'Overb shall steal from Sainsbury's (Oxford) on Tuesdays when I am hungry' The second action is universalisable, the first is not. Making the action simultaneously moral and immoral. This seems incoherent, or at the least, vague. Kant could argue that the second maxim, makes an exception for oneself, this is exactly what the categorical imperative is aiming to stop you from doing. But how do we know what constitutes an exception?
objective standard
There is no ______________ ________________ that can be used to judge one society's code as better than another's.
Rational Defense
Things concerning ethical reasoning can be defended by this, not simple preferences
describe Kants analysis of the morality of not developing talents (ch 9)
Third example: Fail to develop your talents Maxim: I shall neglect gifts and talents, and devote myself to enjoyment Consider the perturbed social world: It is conceivable that this maxim can be adopted by all people However, we cannot rationally will for this world. • There is another weakness within this stage as some people would rationally will for this world According to Kant, there is an imperfect duty to develop talents contradiction in will imperfect duty to develop talents
God commands conduct because it is right
This alternative leads to the conclusion that right & wrong are independent of God
Conduct is right because God commands it
This alternative leads to the conclusion that that God's commands are arbitrary
We Always Do What We Want to Do
This an inherent belief that is against the basic principles of Altturism and Ethical Egoism.
"People are selfish. Therefore, we should act selfishly."
This argument commits the "Is/Ought" fallacy, because just because we have a tendency to act one way does not automatically mean that this is the best way to act, or the way we ideally should be.
What does Kant's view of good will lead him to
To have moral worth, action must be done from DUTY Motives for actions can be: duty, inclination or self-interest. Anything done due to the motivation of inclination or self-interest have NO MORAL WORTH. (A moral action has no worth if it is done out of inclination as opposed to duty. However, an action is still immoral even if it is done out of inclination as it goes against the categorical imperative.) Doing something in accordance with duty is a necessary but not sufficient condition for a moral action.
What is kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative
Treat humanity never merely as a means, but also as an end. ('So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end and never merely as a means only.') In the fare dodging scenario - you are using other people as a means to make your life easier as they are effectively paying for your fare.w
If cultural relativism were true, then any kind of 'moral progress' throughout history would be called into doubt.
True
Immanuel Kant argued that it is always morally wrong to use a person against his or her will, whatever the circumstances.
True
Jeremy Bentham argued that the capacity to suffer makes a being worthy of moral consideration.
True
The doctrine of double effect states that performing a good action may be permissible if it has bad effects that are unintended, but performing a bad action for achieving the purpose of good effects is never permissible.
True
Impartial Reason
Two main features of the "minimum conception of morality
Major Criticism of Social Contract theory
Unable to account for how we should treat certain groups that either have nothing to offer, not rational therefore cannot enter into contract ex. nonhuman animals, powerless/oppressed populations, future generations
explain conflicting duties as a criticism to kantian deontology
Under Kantian ethics, perfect duties can arise. There is an absolute, exceptionless duty to follow them (ban on lying). Such perfect duties can conflict: eg You may have promised to look after someone (eg Jews in occupied Amsterdam in WWII), but yet also cannot lie to the Gestapo when they visit. Therefore, we must NOT do one. Reply: By promising to look after the Jews, you have promised to lie to the Gestapo. Promising to lie is immoral. Therefore, the initial act of promising to look after someone was immoral in the circumstances. Also, conflicts of imperfect duties: eg Sartre's example - I ought to join the resistance to help my compatriots but I ought to stay home and look after my mother. The theory gives us no decision procedure, for which we ought to do.
What is the difference between utilitarianism, consequentialism, and Kantian deontology
Utilitarian - focuses on judging the motivation consequentialism - focuses on judging the moral worth of the results of the actions Kantian Deontology - focuses on judging the actions themselves
Essence of Morality
We must let our feelings be guided as much as possible by reason if we wish to discover the truth
Basic Question
What do we owe to ourselves, and what do we owe to others?
Internal conflict:
What happens if my values are in conflict with each other? If there is no objective hierarchy of moral values, any solution to inner conflict seems arbitrary.
External conflict:
What if my values conflict with another person's values? Violence becomes a legitimate way to resolve conflict, since my values have weak prescriptive power (or none at all).
Holocaust
When Altruism was in full swing and a Swedish banker helped Jewish people escape from the Holacoust.
The Righteous Among the Gentiles
When the government of Iseral recognizes
Who says "In the Folkways, whatever is, is right?"
William Graham Sumner
Example of catagorical imperative
You should never lie
What is the following statement an example of? - "If you want to get accepted to law school, then you should study hard to pass the LSAT."
a hypothetical imperative
The idea of universal truth in ethics is what?
a myth
What is a maxim?
a possible moral rule
Reconstruct the Cultural Differences Argument
a set of claims arranged so as to constitute an argument for Moral or Ethical Relativism. A certain form of argument. You begin with facts about cultures and end up drawing a conclusion
The State of Nature
a state of being where people are without any laws or government, before people come together to make any kind of social contract
Hedonic calculus
a way of measuring happiness to find the best action
what are the elements of plausibility in Mill's distinction of higher and lower pleasures
a) Better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied (seems right, provided that Socrates isn't permanently frustrated) b) No intelligent person would elect to be a fool Furthermore: c) We need to account for the fact that we value our shorter lives, including 'firework' movements of success/achievement or other extreme pleasures MORE HIGHLY than we would a much longer life of a singular, unvarying, mild sensation of pleasure Therefore: Utility shouldn't be thought of as a single type of sensation of which smaller chunks can be aggregated. (If this was the case, the oysters life would be better than ours). d) The sorts of experiential pleasure that we get from different activities are so different that it seems impossible to easily compare them on the same scale e) Masochists seem hard to fit into a conception of utility as experiential pleasure of any kind.
what are the two possible routes for Mill and his higher and lower pleasures
a) Claim some superiority (e.g. more fecundity) of intellectual over bodily pleasures in Bentham's utilitarianism. b) Mill's distinctive contribution: a qualitative evaluation among pleasures (making the difference intrinsic to the pleasures, whereas the first idea makes it extrinsic) It would be absurd to consider only quality and not quantity. You can use competent judges to decide the level of quality: one pleasure is higher than another if a majority of people with experience of both rate it as higher.
Explain our intuitions to not to plug into Nozicks machine
a) The experiences would be illusionary Even if they included 'achievement' these would not be real achievements of which we could be proud of, but hallucinations. b) The machine would be limited to the imagination of its designer c) There are explanations which don't challenge the view that, 'pleasure is what matters'. An example of one of these views is that the machine experience would be so good that it would render normal life a disappointment d) Some people do not share the intuition e) But the case throws up a strong intuition that authenticity matters
The greatest happiness principle
actions are morally permissible only if they produce at least as much overall happiness as any other available action (utilitarian approach)
2 reasons to defend act utilitarianism over rule utilitarianism
advocates irrational rule-worship seems to collapse into act utilitarianism
Non-moral Statement
aka Descriptive Statement describes the way things ARE or what the case IS ex. Sarah lied to John
The principle of universality demands that a moral statement that applies in one situation must apply in:
all other situations that are relatively similar
Moral Statement
also known as a Normative Statement makes claims on how the world should be ex. you ought to treat people the way you would like to be treated
The basic principle of utility is:
always maximize pleasure and minimize suffering
What is a normative ethical theory
an account of morality that is supposed to serbe as a guide to action - one that sets out rules or guidelines governing action
Instrumental end
an act performed as a means to other ends
Intrinsic end
an act performed for its own sake
impartiality
an inclination to weigh both views or opinions equally
Baby Theresa
anencephalactic baby born in florida that wasn't able to donate organs due to state moral laws
Deontology
any kind of ethical theory based on duty or obligation to principles rather than consequences
explain how rule utilitarianism seems to collapse into act utilitarianism
arguments for rule utilitarianism seem to assume its a simple choice between two rules (do/dont) however this is artificial, there is always a third rule (do unless/if/when) the third rule always maximises utility therefore, the third rule should be the rule the rule utilitarian follows however the third rule amounts to say - do what the act utilitarian would do
mean between extremes
aristotle's virtues are midpoints between extremes between everything and nothing of something (courage/fear) (161)
It is mere ______________ for us to judge the conduct of other people. We should adopt an attitude of ____________ towards the practices of other cultures
arrogance, tolerance
Act Utilitarianism
assesses each separate act according to whether it maximizes overall happiness
Despite its many shortcomings, cultural relativism is useful in reminding/warning us of something,..namely:
assuming that our own moral beliefs are based on a fully rational standard... Look up
What do William's examples illustrating the issue of integrity in utilitarianism cause us to conclude
better act leads to worse outcome and vice versa utilitarian: only look at outcome moral intuition: act complicates things, suggesting it is a morally relevant factor there is an overdemandingnescs in utilitarianism we must always carry out the action maximising utility, regardless of our views and projects this means we are virtually always doing wrong this cannot be right
Suppose culture X believes it is immoral to eat animal flesh. Culture Y disagrees. What follows from this fact?
both cultures must be wrong. Look up
Which of the following is the second form of the categorical imperative? a. Always maximize pleasure and minimize suffering b. happiness is the ultimate end of life c. none of these d. a goodwill is the only good thing without qualification
c.
Explain how pleasure is not the only good is a criticism of utilitarianism
can only be applied to hedonistic versions situations like masochists, well-being seems to include features of health, access to education etc as well as pure pleasure seem to challenge hedonism Nozicks experience machine (Anarchy state utopia) 1) Imagine a machine that we could plug ourselves into, that would stimulate our brains so as to generate whatever sorts of pleasure we wanted. 2) Assume that the machine could give us more pleasure than 'real' life can 3) If pleasure were all that was of value, it would be rational of us to plug in 4) BUT we have good reason NOT to plug in 5) THF pleasure is not the only that is of value to us
Tyranny of the majority
choosing the many over the few so the majority wins even if its an unfair circumstance - utilitarianism would support "the tyranny of the majority" (utilitarian approach)
Jodie & Mary
conjoined twins, separating them meant saving the stronger one and killing the weaker one
Equity
considering everyone's happiness as equally important (utilitarian approach)
The strategies of cultural relativists is to argue from the facts about the differences between what?
cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality
Any ethical theory based on duty or obligation to principles rather than consequences is a ______________ theory. a. Utilitarian b. relativistic c. teleological d. none of these
d.
Simplicity:
deciding what is right depends only on knowing your own desires (ethical egoism) or knowing your culture's practices (cultural relativism).
moral code
determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society.
To possess a virtue a person must possess:
developed habit of rational choise between excess and deficiency Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean
"be governed by reason"
dictates that you be temperate, courageous, wise, and just.
The theory that God exists and is an absolute lawgiver is known as: a. divine command theory b. emotivism c. utilitarianism d. virtue theory
divine command theory
Evil pleasures
doing something because it maximises your or someone else's happiness but is actually a wrongful act (utilitarian approach)
Natural law theorists argue that conflicts between duties are possible, but claim that they can be resolved by applying what is known as the principle of:
double effect
is something right/good because God says it is? or is it said by god to be right/good because it actually is?
either god's moral prescriptions are arbitrary, or god is not the ultimate source of goodness.
Mary judges the practice of suicide bombing to be morally wrong, but claims she isn't saying anything true or false,..just expressing her feelings or attitude towards it. Which theory best describes her judgment?
emotivism
Nietzsche's "slave morality"
emphasizes virtues like compassion and warmheartedness as glorifying weakness
The philosophical study of morality is:
ethics
Second Corollary
evil is unreal
intellectually virtuous
exercise actively our reasoning abilities
morally virtuous
exercise our rational capacity by controlling our impulses and appetites
According to Natural Law Theory, all of the following are basic human inclinations, except:
experience of sensory stimuli
Louise Brown
first test tube baby
explain Mills denial of counter examples in stage 4 of his proof
for anything that seems to be a counter example, it is intact a means to happiness or a part of happiness "The ingredients of happiness are many and each is to be desired for itself." "It is not contrary to their being desired for themselves that they should be part of the utilitarian end". he says that things can move from one purpose to another : things desired in the first instance as a means to happiness can become a part of happiness (e.g. money)
At the heart of cultural relativism there is a certain what?
form of argument
What is Williams second example illustrating the issue of integrity in utilitarianism
george the bio-scientist Offered a job by a company developing bio-weapons. George is morally opposed but reasons: if I take the job, I can slow the development, if I don't, an enthusiast will accelerate production utilitarian: simple, take job moral intuition: idk, id have to lie, i have my own projects in life If the stakes are high enough, you may have to abandon your principles, but they are nonetheless a factor.
Deductive Argument
gives logically conclusive support to its conclusion premises must be true and the conclusion must follow from them
apex of all Forms
goodness (the good)
According to Immanuel Kant, the only good thing in the world without qualification is a:
goodwill
Aristotle on happiness
happiness consists of two things: pleasure and the exercise and development of the capacity to reason
Aristotle
happiness is activity in accordance with virtue virtue ethics
Moral motivation
having good intentions and a sense of duty (167)
Ethical Subjectivism
idea that our moral opinions are based on our feelings and nothing more. There's no subjectivity of right and wrong. (ie. we call actions "evil" = we have negative feelings about it).
According to the author of the textbook, what makes a moral judgment 'true'?
if it is backed by better reasons than the alternatives
Explain the intentions of an agent as an issue with utilitarianism
if you attempt to kill many people but instead end up making them laugh this would be considered a moral action by a utilitarian the consequences are not the whole moral store, it ignores the morally relevant fact that the intentions were bad in moral assessment utilitarianism shares the weakness of all act based theories as it fails to give weight to the intentions of an agent (it is impossible to be a good agent committing a bad act)
definition of utilitarian approach :
in all circumstances to create the most general happiness and least unhappiness
where is the sophistication in jeremy bentham's utilitarianism
in the variables that are taken into account in the calculation intensity, duration, certainty (how likely the good/bad consequence is given the action(s) under consideration), propinquity (how close in time it is), fecundity (fertility= how likely the current pain is likely to generate further pleasure e.g. jabs/operations/education etc.), purity (likelihood the pleasure will cause pain or vice versa).
Which of the following is a logical implication of subjective relativism (if it were true)?
individuals could never be wrong in their view of any moral issue
infanticide
intentional killing of infants
What is the fundamental mistake in the cultural differences argument?
it attempts to derive a substantial conclusion about morality from the fact that people disagree about it
Which of the following is a reason why ethical egoism is rejected by most philosophers?
it fails to respect the basic principles of impartiality and equal treatment
Jeremy Bentham quote
it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong (utilitarian approach)
Considering the case of Baby Theresa, which of the following was offered as an argument against immediate transplant?
it is wrong to use people as a means to other people's ends
Two formulations of categorical imperative
it is wrong to use people as means to other people's ends (3) and if she could tell us what she wants, what would she say? (preferences) (4)
according to utilitarianism what is the function of the law?
it should premote the welfare of the citizen while limiting their freedoms as little as possible, no activity should be outlawed unless it is dangerous or harmful to another human being
Which of the following is a common criticism of Natural Law Theory?
its worldview is not in accord with modern science
Aesara of Lucania
key to a good life: well ordered, virtuous and the just soul (the balanced and harmoniously functioning psyche)
Problem of the Theory of Natural Law
laws of nature' describe not only how things are but also how things ought to be -Natural' acts are morally right, and 'unnatural' acts are morally wrong. -The world is in harmony when things serve their natural purposes
the evaluation of Mill
lean towards preference utilitarianism
issues with mills second stage of proof
line of reasoning is flawed (visible = capable of being seen but desirable does not equal capable of being desired) it would strictly prove the moral end (which he said was impossible) Moore also has a criticism of the naturalistic fallacy, that we cannot define 'good' (but Mill didn't even do this and we don't believe in this fallacy)
The ______ ________ of our ______ _________ has no special status, it is merley one among many
moral code; own society
Different societies have different what?
moral codes
Objection of categorical imperatives by phillappa foot
moral obligations are hypothetical - they that depend on our subscription to certain schools of thought. hypothetical imperatives can be withdrawn if a person lacks a relevant desire as hypothetical imperatives say an action is requires as a means to an end kant thought hypothetical statements are non moral and categorical statements are moral but categorical statements of etiquette are categorical but societal not morally relevant Since this is so, it cannot be the 'categorical' nature of certain statements that distinguishes moral from non-moral imperatives kant is right, morality is thought to have some special binding force. however, on analysis, we cannot see this binding force in the external world it is not rationality as it is not irrational to be immoral therefore, foot thinks there is nothing objectively binding, it is education and tradition lack of objective binding means imperative is subject to subscription of social laws Therefore, the moral laws are hypothetical
Realism is also called:
moral universalism or objectivism.
Cultural Relativism is a theory about the nature of ____________
morality
moral realism
morality is or should reveal underlying human truths that apply to everyone regardless of cultural and social conventions.
moral relativism
morality is simply social convention.
Scriptures
never condemn abortion by name
Tolerance:
no one presupposes the right to judge any other person's actions or another culture's beliefs about right and wrong.
neitzsche's master morality
nobles who are egotistic and intolerant, define harm on what is harmful to themselves
Which of the following actions would probably NOT violate Kant's ethical principles?
non-violent protest
Any ethical theory based on duty or obligation to principles rather than consequences is a ______________ theory.
none of these
Which of the following is the second form of the categorical imperative?
none of these
There is no _________ _________ that can be used to judge one societal code better than another
objective standard
Inductive Argument
offers probable support to its conclusion works backwards: starts with the conclusion and then gives premises that support it ex. 90% of men have a combined SAT score of 1400. Therefore, John probab;y has a combined SAT score over 1400
ethical egoism
one ought to pursue self interest exclusively
Ehtical Egoism
one ought to pursue self-interest exclusively (what is right is pursuing your own interest)
Egoistic ethical hedonism
one ought to seek his or her own pleasure over other things
Hobbes on Egoism
one seeks to promote ones self interest (seeking survival) above all else
What does cultural relativism challenge?
our ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth
neitzsche
peace renders one weak, "what doesnt kill you makes you stronger"
Ethicists
people employed by universities, hospitals and law schools to decide upon morality
Competent judges
people who have experienced both higher and lower pleasures, and will prefer higher
Contentious Agent
person concerned with impariality
Divine Command Theory
philosophic approach where morality is whatever God (or the gods) command. God says what's right or wrong.
Jeremy Bentham thought that all human activity is shaped by:
pleasure and pain
6 criticisms of utilitarianism
pleasure is not the only good (experience machine) Fairness distribution and desert (tyranny of majority) Calculation problems (practical and theoretical) Bernard williams and integrity Partiality Intentions of the agent
Explain the calculation problems associated with utilitarianism
practical: - no time - consequences are infinite - consequences unknown theoretical: - incommensurability of values (can't compare) beings: - animals and us
Which of the following is NOT a moral theory, but a theory about human nature?
psychological egoism
hedonism
pursuit of pleasure
what kind of utilitarianism is jeremy bentham's?
quantitative hedonistic utiltiariansim Starts with the factual observation that human beings seek pleasure and seek to avoid pain (psychological) hedonism. Utility = pleasure in the absence of pain. Moral claim : we should act to maximize utility - with everything that can suffer being taken into consideration, all counting equally
The first chapter of the text stresses two main points about morality. First, that moral judgments must be backed by good reasons, and secondly, that morality:
requires the impartial consideration of each individual's interests
What is a 'negative responsibility'?
responsibility for our non-action
Kant
scientific inquiry can never reveal to us the principles that we know hold without exception or reveal moral principles, bu moral principles hold without exception
Descriptive Ethics
scientific study of moral beliefs and practices explains how people actually behave and think when dealing with moral issues and arguments
According to psychological egoism, all human action is motivated by:
self interest
According to Thomas Hobbes, a __________ is needed to overcome the state of nature.
social contract
According to Thomas Hobbes, a __________ is needed to overcome the state of nature and why?
social contract Because he believed we were motivated by our desires & aversions
Which of the following is a logical implication of cultural relativism?
social reformers of any kind must be wrong
Realist ethical theories assume that........
some actions and some principles that can be justified upon universal (objective) grounds to always be "right" or always be "wrong."
Issues with kant's illustrations (ch 9)
some examples aren't great (eg suicide) this is significant as he cannot find 4 concrete moral rules by his theory we need more moral rules Kant's system (formal test: can the maxim be universalized) may not be sufficient to provide us with enough concrete moral guidelines
Suppose Bob and Joe are arguing over a moral issue. At one point, Joe says, "well..what's right for you might not be right for me and vice versa." Which of the following views is he appealing to?
subjective relativism
Rule Utilitarianism
supports rules that on balance produce the greatest good
Categorical imperative (1st form)
tells us we should do something regardless of our wants and needs. express a command ex. do not steal MUST be applied universally to a maxim in order for it to be morally acceptable
The Greek term for purpose or goal
telos, teleological or purposeful
The basic principal of Natural Law Theory is
that natural laws are built into human nature
The basic principle of Natural Law Theory is:
that natural laws are built into human nature
What does Kant say about good will
that nothing is intrinsically valuable other than good will nothing "can be regarded as good without qualification, except a good will" • Other things are only good instrumentally (e.g. wealth, virtues and health) Reason: virtues affect your ability to achieve your goal; but your goal may be bad e.g. affable thief: charm is not always good - as charm can be used to deceive, therefore, charm, in itself, is not intrinsically good Good in terms of the end it achieves
the Cultural Differences Argument is not sound
that the conclusion does not follow from the premise
Utilitarianism
the belief that an act is only right if the outcome is that it maximizes happiness for the greatest number. (utilitarian approach)
Explain fairness as a criticism of utilitarianism
the doctrine takes no account of the distribution 100:-5:-5:-5 > 20:20:20:20 a) even if we don't demand exact equals, there should be justification to inequalities of distribution there is no reference to desert in distribution b) we believe it is immoral to deprive people of rights. but utilitarianism says that if this maximises utility it is moral The failure to consider distribution leads to the 'tyranny of the majority' Sherriff case and Omegas case (happiness of ideal society bought at the price of the misery of a child)
Psychological Hedonism
the doctrine that all action IS motivated by the desire to maximize pleasure
the minimum conception of morality
the effort to guide one's conduct by reason—that is, to do what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one's decision.
Meta-Ethics is the study of
the meaning and logical structure of moral beliefs. ex. HOW can a moral principle be justified?
what determines what is right within a society?
the moral code of that society
If Bill argues that it is wrong to eat veal because the method of veal production causes calves to be kept in impoverished conditions that result in much suffering, then what moral principle is he appealing to?
the principle of utility
ethics
the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions
Normative ethics is the study of:
the principles, rules, or theories that guide our actions and judgments
Descriptive ethics is:
the study of how people actually behave and think about moral issues
egoism
the tendency to see things in relation to oneself
Psychological egoism
the view that the motive for all our actions is self-interest. to promote our own welfare (I feel better about myself ofr helpng others)
Theory of Natural Law
the world has a rational order, with values and purposes built into its very nature
Which of the following is a common criticism of divine command theory?
there are multiple religions with different authoritative texts
First Corollary
things are less "real" the less they partake in Goodness
plato on the soul
three different elements: raw appetites, drives, and reason/thought
Which of the following was cited by St. Thomas Aquinas as one of humanity's natural inclinations?
training and education of offspring
According to Thomas Hobbes, life in the state of nature would be nasty, brutish, and short until a social contract is agreed upon.
true
There is no __________ _____________ in ethics
universal truth
The Principle of Equal Consideration
universalism, no persons/groups are any more important/valuable than another. impartiality
If Divine Command Theory is interpreted as suggesting that God recognizes goodness and then commands it, God's commands become:
unnecessary
Of the theories we've studied thus far, which one seems to give the most consideration to the treatment of nonhuman animals?
utilitarianism
Which moral theory claims that it may be morally right to kill an innocent person if it brings about the greater good for all involved?
utilitarianism
Which theory would rule in favor of harvesting and transplanting the organs of an anencephalic infant?
utilitarianism
According to Kant what does an act have worth through
via its maxim, not its outcome or purpose (motivation matters)
what is the main issue with accepting Mills distinction
we are tempted towards preference utilitarianism as utility is not seen as a sensation it is seen as the satisfaction of peoples desires However: there are obvious issues with preference utilitarianism (Junkie's desire for heroin)
Disagreement in belief
we believe in different things, both of which cannot be true (ie: disagreeing if the Kennedy got killed by one guy or a group of guys).
Which of the following would be an argument offered in favor of harvesting and transplanting the organs of an anencephalic infant?
we can benefit someone without harming anyone else
The difficulty of prediction
we cant accurately predicate what the outcomes of an action will be (utilitarian approach)
Which of the following is a common criticism of utilitarianism?
we value things other than pleasure
disagreement in attitude
we want different outcomes, both of which cannot occur (ie: you want team A to win, but I want team B to win). (we may disagree in attitude but not in believe).
Explain partiality as an issue with utilitarianism
we would think it morally repugnant if a parent did not favour his/her child in a 'burning bus' situation this suggests partiality is desirable also doesn't consider MY happiness as more important than others, this is surely relevant responses could be: a) partial attitudes are wrong HOWEVER these relationships holding value is so deeply ingrained in our nature that it must be relevant b) Create a rule 'favour loved ones' HOWEVER this leads to irrational rule worship - ceasing to be utilitarian
divide-command ethics
what i ought to do? what god ordains, i ought to do.
Relativism Ethics
what i ought to do? what my society thinks i ought to do
Virtue Ethics
what i ought to do? what the virtuous person would do (what kind of person i ought to be?)
Deotological ethics
what i ought to do? whatever is in my moral duty to do
Why does the 'cultural differences argument' mentioned in the text fail?
what is actually the case may be different from what some people believe
subjectivist
whit is believed to be right or wrong is entirely up to the person (subject) or culture (multiple subjects)
Benefits Argument (Baby Theresa)
"If we can benefit someone without having to hurt someone else , we ought to do so".
Relativist ethical theories assume that.......
"right" and "wrong" are relativeto personal opinion or to particular cultures.
Ethical egoism
*moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest* differs from PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM, which claims that people can only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from RATIONAL EGOISM, which holds that it is rational to act in one's self-interest.
Ethical Egoism & Conflicts of Interest
- A "conflict of interest" occurs when people's interests conflict with each other (e.g. two people want the same thing and can't both have it) - Argument: Ethics is suppose to be about resolving such conflicts, but ethical egoism fails to do so. It tells people to fight it out - Rachels: Objection doesn't work because the ethical egoist could just reply that he doesn't conceive of ethics as a way of resolving conflicts
State of Nature
- A world in which there was no morality, law, courts, police, etc. - The people are agreeing to terms of social cooperation, to a "social contract"
Arguments for Ethical Egoism
- Altruism is self-defeating. People are better off helping themselves, not having do-gooders interfere in their lives - Rachels: There is sometimes truth in this, but there are times when we can help others - There is not ethical egoism at all; it is an altruistic view with the odd notion tacked on that trying to help others always backfires
Incoherence of Ethical Egoism
- Argument: it is wrong to stop someone from doing what he in fact ought to do - The case of D & R: Ethical egoism tells R to stop D (because it is in R's interest) but also tells R not to stop D (b/c that would stop D from doing what D should do) - Rachels: objection doesn't work because the ethical egoist doesn't have to accept the assumption at the beginning of the argument
Arbitrary of Ethical Egoism
- Basic rule: we may not draw arbitrary distinctions between persons - Ethical egoism violates this rule by drawing an arbitrary distinction between myself (who I should always help) and the rest of the world (who doesn't count) - Rachels: this objection works
Hobbes: Objections & Replies
- Can we trust others to obey and leave us in peace? ^ Hobbes: there will be some lawbreakers, but rational people will see that crime does not pay - Can we trust the sovereign? We gave him so much power. ^ The sovereign could turn out to be bad, but the risk is worth it; the worst society is better than the misery of our natural condition
Another Argument for Ethical Egoism
- Ethical egoism just restates commonsense morality - e.g. "Honesty is the best policy." "What goes around comes around." ^ If we follow commonsense moral rules, we will make ourselves well-off - Rachels Argument: it gets moral reasoning wrong; we should be reasoning about how to help others, not just ourselves
Rachels' Replies
- Even if we do have a self-interested motive, that does not rule out the existence of an altruistic motive - Often out motives have nothing to do with feeling good. We may feel good as a side effect, but feeling good was not the motive
Paradox of Egoism
- Friendship is one of the great human goods, but true friendship involves willingness to sacrifice one's self-interest for one's friend - An ethical egoist can never do this, so by trying to exclusively advance his own good, he cuts himself off from an important part of the human good
Arguments Against Ethical Egoism
- It has bad, unacceptable implications - If someone could benefit himself by performing the most awful acts, he should do so?
Simple Subjectivism
- It implies that we're ALWAYS right. - is honestly representing your own feelings, Your moral judgements will always be Correct.. - moral language is about stating facts, it reports the speaker's attitude, & it isn't for DISPUTE. - interprets moral disagreement as disagreement in Believe. - interprets moral judgements as statements that can be true or false. THEREFORE: It's A Flawed theory.
Social Contract: Possible Problems
- It never happened. I never entered into a contract, so why should I live by its terms? ^ Hobbes' possible response: the whole story is an imaginative device to show you your own enlightened self-interest - Is there too much reliance on self-interest? - Limited to morality that can be contained in an agreement between parties. no "duties to oneself" - What about those who can't make a contract?
Odd Consequence of Ethical Egoism
- It would not be in the ethical egoist's interest to let anyone know that he or she was an ethical egoist, so he should go around pretending to be altruistic
Types of Utilitarianism defining utility differently
- Pure quantitative hedonistic (pleasure vs pain) - Qualitative hedonistic (higher and lower pleasures) - Non-hedonistic (preference utility as well as 'well-being' where this is broader than mere 'pleasure and lack of pain'
Why Accept Psychological Egoism?
- Simplicity - Self-interest is a strong motivator of humans; why not suppose it is the only interest? - Theory is practical and realistic, not naive
Ayn Rand's View
- The "Virtue of Selfishness" - Ethical egoism is the only theory that takes the "individual" seriously - Our duty is to make a project of ourselves; to make ourselves as great as we can be - Altruism interferes with this project and undermines one's status as an individual - But, t is not in our interest as asocial beings to exploit, enslave, or otherwise harm other people
Hobbes: Implications
- The purpose of morality is to preserve life and gain the comforts of society - We should be moral out of enlightened self-interest; essentially a psychological egoist - Basic moral rule is to obey to sovereign; if it's the law, it's right
Rachels Argument Against Rand
- There is some truth in her view; we could try to better ourselves - But, we can sometimes sacrifice some of that project in order to help others along the way; Rand's view is too extreme
The Point of the Story
- To find the reasons for social and political institutions - To possibility find the content of ethics or of what justice demands of us
Ethical Egoism Rule
- Tries to sum up all of ethics in one rule - The rule: you should always do what is in your own interest, always
Arguments for Psychological Egoism
- We always do whatever we most want to do, so out actions are clearly self-interested - Rachels: No, we don't always do what we most want. Sometimes we override out wants in favor of what we knows to be right - Rachels: Even when we do what we want, what we want is sometimes altruistic
Another Argument for Psychological Egoism
- We always do whatever will make us feel good. We are pleasure-seeking beings, so we always act out of self-interest - Strategy of reinterpreting motives ^ People sometimes seem to act altruistically, but if one looks deeper, they may find that something else is going on - Abraham Lincoln rescuing the pig from drowning because he would have thought about it all day if he had not; gave him peace of mind
Ethical Egoism Clarifications
- You should act exclusively in your own interest - This does not mean you cannot help others, if helping them will advance your own interest - Look to long term (not just short term) interest - It is not merely acceptable to act only in your own interest, it's morally required. Altruistic behavior is immoral.
Reason in Ethics
- a moral judgement/any kind of value judgement must be supported by good reason -
The Utilitarian Approach
- the belief that an act is only right if its in line with a set of rules which would produce the most happiness if everyone followed it - utilitarians do not believe in "bad pleasures
Consequentialism
- the outcomes or consequences of an action, the right action is the one which produces the most positive outcome. - what i ought to do? whatever has the most desirable consequences (utilitarian approach)
What does Aristotle believe the purpose/goal of life is?
-Happiness -our purpose is to use our reason because the rational life is the happiest life
Moral Virtue
-acquired through habit -mastering practical knowledge
Intellectual Virtue
-educational virtue that we can be taught without doing -mastering theoretical knowledge
As a theory, utilitarianism seems unconcerned with:
-individual rights -consequences
Many think of morality & religion as inseparable
1) Clergy are often viewed as the source of moral wisdom & counseling 2) Rachel argues that morality does not depend on religion 3) It is unacceptable to base morality on religion
Ways of relating morality to religion
1) Divine Command Theory 2) Theory of Natural Law
This alternative leads to the conclusion that right & wrong are independent of God
1) God is the transmitter rather than the creator of morality 2) Thus, moral knowledge could be achieved without God 3) We need to support our moral beliefs with reasons
Rachel's conclusion
1) In fact, moral principle are dictates of reason, says Rachel 2) The only way we can discover what we should do is through the use of our reason
Don't church teaching & scripture provide clear moral guidance on all moral issues?
1) Sometimes it is difficult to find clear specific moral guidance in scripture 2) Consider the passages of scripture that appear relevant to the abortion issue or that people claim are relevant 3) Has church traditions (Catholic Church teachings) stayed consistent
Dilemma
1) There are 2 alternatives & both lead to unacceptable conclusions 2) & yet both Divine Command Theory & Natural Law Theory represent the 2 options offered by the "Euthyphro" question
This alternative leads to the conclusion that that God's commands are arbitrary
1) There is no basis for saying that God is good 2) God commands what is good = God commands what God commands
What must moral judgments be backed by
1, Must be backed by good reasons 2. Morality requires the impartial consideration of each individual's interests.
Divine Command Theory Disadvantages
1. Atheists don't accept it 2. Plato's argument pg. 52 1. Conception of morality is mysterious 2. This conception of morality makes God's commands arbitrary. 3. provides wrong reasons for moral principles
Main 6 criticisms of kantian deontology
1. Clashing/competing duties 2. Not all universalisable maxims are distinctly moral; not all non-universalisable maxims are immoral 3. The view that consequences of actions determine their moral value 4. Kant ignores the value of certain motives, e.g. love friendship kindness 5. Morality is a system of hypothetical, rather than categorical imperatives (Philippa Foot) 6. (Issue of developing maxims)
3 Arguments for Ethical Egoism
1. It helps people in need and when you need to help them. 2. We as human beings need to be kind to others in our time of need. 3. It is also in debate whenever it is in our nature to even help people.
issues with Mills competent judges
1. It is not clear that competent judges will have consistent preferences of the sort that Mill thinks his criterion will yield. e.g. honest people will probably say they prefer sex to poetry 2. The reality, in any case, is that judges' preferences will vary from time to time. REASONS WHY: • We like variety • Diminishing marginal utility • Inability to enjoy one indefinitely • Limitations of our physical nature • Delaying pleasure can itself be a pleasure anticipation keeping things special
