ETHICS FINAL CHAPTER 1-13 not done yet

Divine Command Theory Advantages

1. Solves the old problem of the objectivity of ethics. 2. why we should bother with morality.

Two Versions of the Story

1. Thomas Hobbes (17th century): Leviathan 2. The "student's dilemma" (or prisoner's dilemma)

Name the four important concepts of Utilitarian Principles:

1. consequentialism- rightness of an action determined by its consequence 2. hedonism- identified w/ pleasures and absence of pain 3.Maximalism- greatest amount of good effects possible 4. Universalism- consequences considered as everyone invovled

Pros of Utilitarianism

1. difficult to deny reducing suffering is a good thing 2. hard to identify actions as either good or bad in themselves 3. irrational not to consider consequences of our actions 4. impartiality, rigid standard of equality 5. provides really clear solutions

defending utilitarianism

1. it seems that the consequences are far fetched and have vile consequences, this is rebuffed by the fact that utilitarianism should be able to stand on its own. 2.utilitarianism justifies common morality as when cases are extraordinary we can not trust our gut reaction.

Cons fo Utilitarianism

1. we may value other things than pleasure/happiness ---> creativity, love 2. ignores individual rights that some circumstances allow to kill a human being 3. difficult to determine the exact consequences 4. too demanding to be moral saints 5. undemines personal relationships

Rachels argument:

1.if morality of actions only relies on its consequences, what of rights ( violate the right of a person, such as their privacy) or justice (in sacrificing someone else to save many more lives) this leads to backwards thinking) 2. If happiness is all that matters, and happiness is what feels good, physically and mentally, this will lead to hedonism. 3.This is too demanding on a person, such that one can not give special consideration to ones family or friends.

classicical utilitarianism :

1.morality of action relies on its consequences 2.consequences only matter in terms of the over-all hapiness 3.each individual is to get equal consideration

Tracy Latimer

12 year girl with cerebral palsey killed by her father in 1973

Emotivism

1st fn: to express one's attitude 2nd fn: (for moral language) Making a statement to try to influence ppl's behaviour (attitude/conduct). - disagreements come in different forms (ie: having a disagreement about facts) - our moral judgements cannot be criticized because they aren't judgements at all - cannot explain the role reason plays in ethics - THEREFORE: its FLAWED b/c it casts doubt on the ethical subjectivism

How many Eskimos live scattered among North America and Greenland?

25,000

Autonomy

A person's ability to decide for themselves how to live their own lives, according to their own desires, and values

Altruism

A positive belief that we can do good in the world by helping other people.

What is act vs. rule utilitarianism?

ACT: choose the action in the circumstances, that will maximise utility. RULE: follow the rule which, if generally followed by people in circumstances like mine, will best serve utility.

Integrity

Acting in a consistent/sustained way in accordance with goals and values with which one identifies Wholeness of life: the ability to maintain projects

The Divine Command Theory

Actions that God commands are morally required; actions that God forbids are morally wrong; and all other actions are permissible or merely morally neutral.

Imperfect duties

Allow people to choose when to apply them

Categorical Imperative (2nd form)

Always treat others as ends in themselves, never as a means wrong to "use someone against their will" wrong to deceive/manipulate/force

Ayn Rand

An author and personal activist of the theory of Alturism and Ethical Egoism.

Identify the fallacy, if any, in the following argument: "You should give me at least a B in this class. If I don't get a B, my family will be so disappointed and I probably won't get into medical school."

Appeal to pity

Two reasons someone may opt to be a rule utilitarian over an act utilitarian

Calculation problems (not enough time, consequences unknowable and infinite) Intuitively wrong act can give morally unacceptable results. rule utilitarianism let us avoid the intuition based problems faced by act utilitariansim

Who ate the bodies of their dead fathers?

Callatians

Hypothetical Imperative

Commands to do an action on the basis of having a desired end. "If you want y, then do x."

3 features of utilitarianism

Consequentialism, hedonism, equity (utilitarian approach)

Reasons to reject a maxim

Contradiction in conception and in the will

One always does what makes one feel good.

Contrast argument: -Self interest and benevolence are not mutually exclusive -Some acts of benevolence lack self interested motives entirely -The feeling of satisfaction is a product, not the object of desire

One always does what one most desires to do

Contrast argument: -Somethings are done because we ought to, not desire to do -Acting on desire does not entail, looking out for self. It depends on the desire

(EE for argument) Altrivism is self defeating because we know the interests of others imperfectly; because its is degrading

Counter argument: -Non interference is analtrulstic principle it is in your interest for me not to interfere

(EE for argument) EE is compatible with common sense morality. All common sense duties are dervied from self interest. ( helps us all to get along reasonably)

Counter argument: -Altruism is not always to ones benefit -Self interest maybe a reason but not the only one

(EE for argument) Altruism devalues the individual; penalizes virtue to reward vice ( the person who is helping)

Counter argument: -This argument suggests altruism and EE are mutually exclusive; but there is a middle ground

What did the Greeks practice after death?

Cremation

The view that an action is right if one's culture approves of it is known as:

Cultural relativism.

What is Cultural Relativism?

DIFFERNENT CULTURES ACCEPT WHAT IS RELATIVE TO THEIR MORALITY There is no such thing as universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural codes, and nothing more. Cultural Relativism challenges our belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth.

Who found out that Callatians ate the bodies of their dead fathers?

Darius, ancient king of Persia

Describe Kant's analysis of the morality of lying promises (ch 9)

Decide what you want to do: Make a false promise to get a loan. Find the maxim: "I shall make a false promise whenever it suits me, as a way to obtain loans" Consider the perturbed world (A world where everyone has done this for some time) Can you conceive of acting on your maxim in the perturbed world? No, trust on the basis of a promise would have died out, therefore, you could not make promises anymore. There is a PERFECT DUTY not to act as contemplated. There is a contradiction in conception (we physically cant)

first stage of mills proof for utilitarianism

Denial that strict proof can be given Mill says that there is no strict proof of any principle related to morals but that it is possible to offer considerations that suffice rationally to persuade people to accept them "Questions of ultimate ends do not admit of proof"

Orgin of Natural Law

Derived from the ancient Greeks who believed that everything in nature has a purpose (telos).

moral codes

Different societies have different

What makes a sound argument¿?

Disagreement must contain truth & the conclusion must follow the truth of the disagreement. The conclusion must also be backed up by logic.

Perfect duties

Duties that must be followed at every opportunity

Why is impartiality necessary for moral judgments?

Each individual's interests are equally important; no one should get special treatment. At the same time, impartialityrequires that we not treat the members of particular groups as inferior, and thus it condemns forms of discrimination like sexism and racism.

Examples of higher pleasures

Education, fine music, Art, things which are only available to humans

Which of the following theories implies that there are no such things as 'moral facts'.

Emotivism

Strength of Bentham

Equity principle demands all people to be equally considered eliminating prejudices and selfishness

Who's wives were free to sleep with other men and vise versa?

Eskimos

Cultural relativism

Ethics is just a matter of particular cultural practices.

Greek term for Happiness?

Eudaimonia

Strengths of Kant

Everyone is equal, everyone acts moral and universally

Egoism's Answer

Everything to ourselves, nothing to others

3 criticisms of utilitarianism

Evil pleasures, difficulty of predicting consequences, and tyranny of the majority (utilitarian approach)

Immanuel Kant argued that it is ultimately the consequences of an action that determine whether or not that action is right or wrong.

False

Subjective relativism is the view that we only have ethical obligations to our relatives and close friends.

False

Describe Kant's analysis of the morality of helping others (ch 9)

Final example: refrain from helping others Maxim: I shall refrain to help others letting each person get on as best he can by himself Consider the perturbed social world: There is no contradiction in conception However, we cannot rationally will this world. Our will would be in conflict with itself as there are times when we will need the help of others. In these situations we would will that others help us. Therefore, we must will that people sometimes help each other. contradiction in will imperfect duty to help others

how did Mill advance on Bentham's utilitarianism

For Bentham, the source of the pleasure doesn't matter. It is prejudice and wrong to prefer "intellectual" pursuits to trivial games. Mill thought this was a mistake, as did contemporary critics, who labelled this^ form of utilitarianism 'a doctrine worthy of swine'. Mill preferred a doctrine that valued, for example, poetry above push pin; it is 'better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied'

stage 3 of mills proof

General happiness as desirable Each person's happiness is desired by him/her. Therefore, the general happiness is desired by everyone. "Each person's happiness is a good to that person, and the genera happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons."

Herodotus

Greek Historian

stage 4 of mills proof

Happiness is the only desirable good So far, Mill has a plausible statement that happiness is an end. He must now prove it is the only end. (End = morally valuable). he does this by denial of counter examples (further explained in separate card)

Example of imperfect duty

Helping others

How does Socrates define morality?

ITS how we ought to live" —and why Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. .

cultural relativism

Idea that a person's beliefs, practices, & values should be understood based on their own culture. As opposed to being judged against the criteria of another culture

Benefits Argument

If we can benefit someone without harming another, we ought to do so

Presumed Connection Between Morality and Religion

In popular thinking, morality and religion are inseparable. People commonly believe that morality can be understood only in the context of religion.

Difficulties with moral relativism:

Internal conflict, External conflict

Plato's Euthyphro

Is conduct right because God commands it or does God command certaing conduct because it is right?

Rachel's Arugment against EE

It endores wickedness by a non egotistic standard EE is logically inconsistenet EE is arbitrary- it violates the principle of equal treatment

Contradiction in conception

Its impossible to imagine universalising this maxim

explain how rule utilitarianism advocates irrational rule worship

JJC Smart's case of the desert island promise o You promise to give your companion's millions to his golf club. o Morally speaking, it is surely better to give the money to charity. o But, if in general people broke promises in this way, the results would be very bad: I. People would lose comfort of knowing what will happen to their money II. The practise of making promises may itself die out Rule utilitarianism ceases to be utilitarian because the action does not maximise utility

Who wrote the elements of moral philosophy?

James Rachels

What is William's first example illustrating the issue of integrity in utilitarianism

Jim and the indians: Jim given the chance to save 19 by killing 1. Utilitarian: simple, kill the 1 Moral intuition: not so simple, surely it is at least relevant that we have to take part in murder utilitarianism misrepresents moral complexities it may give the right answer but if the theory is correct then Jim;s revulsion of killing is the kind of attitude that should be eliminated as it is preventing him from doing what is right

Explain how Kant's ignorance of certain motives is an issue for his theory

Kant is explicitly early on, that what determines the moral worth of our action is simply whether it is done out of duty. It is not enough that it be in accordance with duty. The motivation needs to be the right one - namely, that duty requires this action. The action lacks moral worth in so far as it has any different motivation There is some intuitive attractiveness to this: we notice the positive moral value of struggling against evil inclinations and doing good despite temptation. However, actions done out of inclination may have just as much moral value, it is just less obvious. To say that actions done against/despite inclination have more moral value would be wrong. We wouldn't think it was a good policy to bring up children with wicked inclination, so that they could overcome them. Therefore, it seems we do ascribe moral worth to actions done from inclinations AS WELL AS actions against inclination.

With which ethical theory would you associate the principle that 'X is good because X is capable of being rationally universalized?'

Kantian ethics

Who met an eskimo woman who killed 10 out of 20 of her babies?

Knud Rasmussen

Slippery Slope

Letting slide one act that violates ethics can lead down the dangerous path that will create more ethics violations

Scientific View of the Universe

Man is the product of causes which had no prevision of the end they were achieving

Minimum Conception

Morality is the effort to guide one's conduct by reason while giving equal weights to the interests of each individual affected by one's decisions

"Is/Ought" Problem (Hume's law)

Moving from a descriptive statement to a prescriptive statement without further evidence. Considered a fallacy

Which of the following theories is based upon merging Christian theology with the ideas of Aristotle and Stoicism?

Natural Law Theory

Ends in themselves principle (autonomy)

Never treat as a mere means always an end in themselves

Primitive

Not developed from anything else

"Map" of cultural relativism

Objective vs. legitimacy

Moral ______ is the view that some moral principles are universal or valid for everyone.

Objectivism

James Rachels argues that.....

PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM fails as an empirical doctrine.

Psychological Egoism

People always do whatever act they perceive to be in their own interest ^ Theory about how people "in fact" behace

Hobbes:

RESPONSIBLE FOR self-interested cooperation theory. an English philosopher, remembered today for his work on political philosophy.

Laws of nature both describe & prescribe

Rachel does agree with Natural Law Theory that reason has a substantial role in determining right & wrong

universal truth

Relates to the whole mankind of nature, addresses themes that are understood by a wide range of readers from a wide range of backgrounds and levels of experience

Maxim

Rule or principle of an action

Categorical imperatives

Rules or duties which must be followed (128)

Describe Kant's analysis of the morality of suicide (ch 9)

Second example: Kill yourself out of self-love Maxim: From self-love I shall kill myself if life promises more misery than pleasure Consider the perturbed world: Self-love is a natural psychological feature whose function is to preserve life (This stage can be challenged as Kant begs the question by defining self-love in a way that serves him for this example Self-love may be the function of choosing decisions that bring YOU the most happiness) A world where self-love was regularly used to terminate life, rather than to continue it, would be a world in contradiction with itself Therefore, we cannot conceive of acting on this action in the perturbed social world contradiction in conception perfect duty

Example of immoral motives

Self interest, emotion

Examples of lower pleasures

Sex, drinking, eating, as they are in common with animals

Reasons to be a relativist:

Simplicity,Tolerance

The idea that morality consists of rational rules governing behavior that people would accept, on the condition that others accept them as well, is known as: (means no natural rights given to us by God of nature)

Social Contract Theory

William Graham Sumner

Sociologist "The notion of right is in the folkways"

Contradiction in the will

Some maxims which are possible to imagine but not want

Means

Some moralists believed in the case of Baby Theresa "it is wrong to use people as _____________"

Handicap

Some people believed that Tracy's father was discriminating against the _________________.

Conscientious Moral Agent

Someone who is concerned impartially with the interests of everyone affected by what he or she does in a myriad of ways

Weakness of Bentham

Special responsibilities demands we treat strangers same as family

The Basic Story

State of Nature -> Social Contract -> normal society

Example of perfect duty

Telling the truth

Explain the issue of consequences relevance to kant's deontology

The axe murderer asks where your little sister is. Surely, its relevant that if you tell the truth, your sister will suffer horribly. But, Kant says that only duty and the universalizability of the maxim matters, producing intuitively immoral results . Kantian ethics fails to incorporate the virtues of other normative theories such as utilitarianism.

Sanctity of Life

The belief that life is holy and belongs to God, this was the argument behind the parents of Jodie and Mary. It is also a pillar of western morality.

Ethical Egoism

The belief that we should do what is necesarry to help others.

Alturism

The belief that you should treat others with respect and help each other if you can.

what is utilitarianism

The best known example of a consequentialist normative ethical theory. The right thing to do is the action (out of the available) that will maximize utility.

prescriptive egoism

The doctrine that in all conscious action you ought to seek your self-interest above all else

Descriptive egoism

The doctrine that maintains that in conscious action a person always seeks self-interest above all else

Ethical Skepticism

The doctrine that moral knowledge is not possible, and if there are moral standards, we dont know what the are.

universalistic ethical hedonism

The doctrine that one ought to seek, over everything else, the greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people (utilitarianism)

Descriptive Relativism

The doctrine that the moral standards people subscribe to differ from culture to culture and from society to society

Ethical Hedonism

The doctrine that you OUGHT to seek pleasure over all else

issue with stage 3 of mills proof

The fallacy of composition • Just because every person has a mother does not mean there is some individual woman who is everyone's mother. • Each person's happiness may be good for him/her without there being anything that is good for all people. • This is plainly, a fallacious form of argument, and the inference, as it is stated by Mill, is not legitimate.

explain not all universalisable maxims are moral and not all non universalisable maxims are immoral

The first is meant to involve observations such as: I can universalize the maxim, "I shall always tie my left shoelace before my right shoelace". However, the action in question is morally trivial. But this is powerless against Kant as he didn't say that all universalisable maxims are good. He just said that it is morally wrong to act on non-universalisable maxims. This is a misunderstanding and probably does not need to be mentioned in an essay. The second line is a better criticism: An example is homosexuality. A maxim may be, 'Whenever I have sex, it shall be with someone of the same sex'. This will have a contradiction in conception, as the species would die out so you cannot will that the maxim be acted on in the perturbed social world. Therefore, there is a perfect duty to never act on this maxim. However, having homosexual sex is not immoral. Michael Lacewing's example is the maxim, "I shall never sell, but only buy". This is not universalisable as there is a contradiction in conception (no one to buy from). But surely, it is not immoral to never sell and only buy.

Impartiality

The idea that each individual's interests are equally important, so nobody should get special treatment, nor should they be treated arbitrarily

special status

The moral code of our own society has no _____________ _________ ; it is but one among many.

Cyrenaicism

The philosophy of Aristippus and others who lived in Cyrene about Plato's time; it emphasized seeking a life of as many intense pleasures as possible

The conclusion of the cultural differences argument doesn't follow what?

The premise

solutions to save stages 2+3 of mills proof

The problems arise due to Mill's careless statement of his argument. 1. Every persons happiness is a good. There is no proof of this, but it has a good deal of intuitive plausibility: people behave as if they thought that their own happiness mattered. It's hard to believe that everyone is completely wrong about this. So it is fair to say they are correct. Mill's key point was that Utilitarianism agrees with ordinary commonsense moral thinking. It is a virtue of the theory that is describes what we already believe. 2. If my happiness is a good, then so, presumably, is yours. There is no obvious difference between me and you that would make it plausible that my happiness matters morally and yours doesn't. And this is true for all subjects capable of enjoying happiness and suffering pain. So, It's morally desirable that each of us be happy. And the more happiness, the better. SO the best state of affairs is the one in which people as a whole are as happy overall as can be.

second stage for mills proof

The proof that each person's happiness is a good Mill says: "the only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it... The sole evidence that it is possible to produce anything is desirable, is that people desire it"

Gyges' Ring thought experiment

The set up: A shepherd finds a ring that makes him invisible. He proceeds to murder the king of the land, seduce and marry the queen and seize absolute power over the realm using that power. The point: Suppose you had access to some power that permitted you to do whatever you wanted, without getting punished. You would be like a "god among men"... Or would you nonetheless refrain from using that power, for the sake of morality?

Moral Philosophy

The study of what morality is and what it requires of us

other problems w/ Natural law

The theory seems to involve a confusion of is and ought -: Just because sex can be for reproduction, it does not follow that sex ought or ought not to be engaged in only for that purpose.

Individual Relativism

The theory that what is right and wrong is what you believe is right and wrong

Issue of formulating maxims in kant's deontology

There is a vagueness in the application of Kant's first formulation. This vagueness arises due to two factors: 1. We cannot indisputably predict the outcomes within the perturbed social world 2. The restrictions in the wording of the maxim will make a difference to whether it is universalisable a. 'I shall steal whenever it suits me' b. 'I, being a philosophy teacher at D'Overb shall steal from Sainsbury's (Oxford) on Tuesdays when I am hungry' The second action is universalisable, the first is not. Making the action simultaneously moral and immoral. This seems incoherent, or at the least, vague. Kant could argue that the second maxim, makes an exception for oneself, this is exactly what the categorical imperative is aiming to stop you from doing. But how do we know what constitutes an exception?

objective standard

There is no ______________ ________________ that can be used to judge one society's code as better than another's.

Rational Defense

Things concerning ethical reasoning can be defended by this, not simple preferences

describe Kants analysis of the morality of not developing talents (ch 9)

Third example: Fail to develop your talents Maxim: I shall neglect gifts and talents, and devote myself to enjoyment Consider the perturbed social world: It is conceivable that this maxim can be adopted by all people However, we cannot rationally will for this world. • There is another weakness within this stage as some people would rationally will for this world According to Kant, there is an imperfect duty to develop talents contradiction in will imperfect duty to develop talents

God commands conduct because it is right

This alternative leads to the conclusion that right & wrong are independent of God

Conduct is right because God commands it

This alternative leads to the conclusion that that God's commands are arbitrary

We Always Do What We Want to Do

This an inherent belief that is against the basic principles of Altturism and Ethical Egoism.

"People are selfish. Therefore, we should act selfishly."

This argument commits the "Is/Ought" fallacy, because just because we have a tendency to act one way does not automatically mean that this is the best way to act, or the way we ideally should be.

What does Kant's view of good will lead him to

To have moral worth, action must be done from DUTY Motives for actions can be: duty, inclination or self-interest. Anything done due to the motivation of inclination or self-interest have NO MORAL WORTH. (A moral action has no worth if it is done out of inclination as opposed to duty. However, an action is still immoral even if it is done out of inclination as it goes against the categorical imperative.) Doing something in accordance with duty is a necessary but not sufficient condition for a moral action.

What is kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative

Treat humanity never merely as a means, but also as an end. ('So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end and never merely as a means only.') In the fare dodging scenario - you are using other people as a means to make your life easier as they are effectively paying for your fare.w

If cultural relativism were true, then any kind of 'moral progress' throughout history would be called into doubt.

True

Immanuel Kant argued that it is always morally wrong to use a person against his or her will, whatever the circumstances.

True

Jeremy Bentham argued that the capacity to suffer makes a being worthy of moral consideration.

True

The doctrine of double effect states that performing a good action may be permissible if it has bad effects that are unintended, but performing a bad action for achieving the purpose of good effects is never permissible.

True

Impartial Reason

Two main features of the "minimum conception of morality

Major Criticism of Social Contract theory

Unable to account for how we should treat certain groups that either have nothing to offer, not rational therefore cannot enter into contract ex. nonhuman animals, powerless/oppressed populations, future generations

explain conflicting duties as a criticism to kantian deontology

Under Kantian ethics, perfect duties can arise. There is an absolute, exceptionless duty to follow them (ban on lying). Such perfect duties can conflict: eg You may have promised to look after someone (eg Jews in occupied Amsterdam in WWII), but yet also cannot lie to the Gestapo when they visit. Therefore, we must NOT do one. Reply: By promising to look after the Jews, you have promised to lie to the Gestapo. Promising to lie is immoral. Therefore, the initial act of promising to look after someone was immoral in the circumstances. Also, conflicts of imperfect duties: eg Sartre's example - I ought to join the resistance to help my compatriots but I ought to stay home and look after my mother. The theory gives us no decision procedure, for which we ought to do.

What is the difference between utilitarianism, consequentialism, and Kantian deontology

Utilitarian - focuses on judging the motivation consequentialism - focuses on judging the moral worth of the results of the actions Kantian Deontology - focuses on judging the actions themselves

Essence of Morality

We must let our feelings be guided as much as possible by reason if we wish to discover the truth

Basic Question

What do we owe to ourselves, and what do we owe to others?

Internal conflict:

What happens if my values are in conflict with each other? If there is no objective hierarchy of moral values, any solution to inner conflict seems arbitrary.

External conflict:

What if my values conflict with another person's values? Violence becomes a legitimate way to resolve conflict, since my values have weak prescriptive power (or none at all).

Holocaust

When Altruism was in full swing and a Swedish banker helped Jewish people escape from the Holacoust.

The Righteous Among the Gentiles

When the government of Iseral recognizes

Who says "In the Folkways, whatever is, is right?"

William Graham Sumner

Example of catagorical imperative

You should never lie

What is the following statement an example of? - "If you want to get accepted to law school, then you should study hard to pass the LSAT."

a hypothetical imperative

The idea of universal truth in ethics is what?

a myth

What is a maxim?

a possible moral rule

Reconstruct the Cultural Differences Argument

a set of claims arranged so as to constitute an argument for Moral or Ethical Relativism. A certain form of argument. You begin with facts about cultures and end up drawing a conclusion

The State of Nature

a state of being where people are without any laws or government, before people come together to make any kind of social contract

Hedonic calculus

a way of measuring happiness to find the best action

what are the elements of plausibility in Mill's distinction of higher and lower pleasures

a) Better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied (seems right, provided that Socrates isn't permanently frustrated) b) No intelligent person would elect to be a fool Furthermore: c) We need to account for the fact that we value our shorter lives, including 'firework' movements of success/achievement or other extreme pleasures MORE HIGHLY than we would a much longer life of a singular, unvarying, mild sensation of pleasure Therefore: Utility shouldn't be thought of as a single type of sensation of which smaller chunks can be aggregated. (If this was the case, the oysters life would be better than ours). d) The sorts of experiential pleasure that we get from different activities are so different that it seems impossible to easily compare them on the same scale e) Masochists seem hard to fit into a conception of utility as experiential pleasure of any kind.

what are the two possible routes for Mill and his higher and lower pleasures

a) Claim some superiority (e.g. more fecundity) of intellectual over bodily pleasures in Bentham's utilitarianism. b) Mill's distinctive contribution: a qualitative evaluation among pleasures (making the difference intrinsic to the pleasures, whereas the first idea makes it extrinsic) It would be absurd to consider only quality and not quantity. You can use competent judges to decide the level of quality: one pleasure is higher than another if a majority of people with experience of both rate it as higher.

Explain our intuitions to not to plug into Nozicks machine

a) The experiences would be illusionary Even if they included 'achievement' these would not be real achievements of which we could be proud of, but hallucinations. b) The machine would be limited to the imagination of its designer c) There are explanations which don't challenge the view that, 'pleasure is what matters'. An example of one of these views is that the machine experience would be so good that it would render normal life a disappointment d) Some people do not share the intuition e) But the case throws up a strong intuition that authenticity matters

The greatest happiness principle

actions are morally permissible only if they produce at least as much overall happiness as any other available action (utilitarian approach)

2 reasons to defend act utilitarianism over rule utilitarianism

advocates irrational rule-worship seems to collapse into act utilitarianism

Non-moral Statement

aka Descriptive Statement describes the way things ARE or what the case IS ex. Sarah lied to John

The principle of universality demands that a moral statement that applies in one situation must apply in:

all other situations that are relatively similar

Moral Statement

also known as a Normative Statement makes claims on how the world should be ex. you ought to treat people the way you would like to be treated

The basic principle of utility is:

always maximize pleasure and minimize suffering

What is a normative ethical theory

an account of morality that is supposed to serbe as a guide to action - one that sets out rules or guidelines governing action

Instrumental end

an act performed as a means to other ends

Intrinsic end

an act performed for its own sake

impartiality

an inclination to weigh both views or opinions equally

Baby Theresa

anencephalactic baby born in florida that wasn't able to donate organs due to state moral laws

Deontology

any kind of ethical theory based on duty or obligation to principles rather than consequences

explain how rule utilitarianism seems to collapse into act utilitarianism

arguments for rule utilitarianism seem to assume its a simple choice between two rules (do/dont) however this is artificial, there is always a third rule (do unless/if/when) the third rule always maximises utility therefore, the third rule should be the rule the rule utilitarian follows however the third rule amounts to say - do what the act utilitarian would do

mean between extremes

aristotle's virtues are midpoints between extremes between everything and nothing of something (courage/fear) (161)

It is mere ______________ for us to judge the conduct of other people. We should adopt an attitude of ____________ towards the practices of other cultures

arrogance, tolerance

Act Utilitarianism

assesses each separate act according to whether it maximizes overall happiness

Despite its many shortcomings, cultural relativism is useful in reminding/warning us of something,..namely:

assuming that our own moral beliefs are based on a fully rational standard... Look up

What do William's examples illustrating the issue of integrity in utilitarianism cause us to conclude

better act leads to worse outcome and vice versa utilitarian: only look at outcome moral intuition: act complicates things, suggesting it is a morally relevant factor there is an overdemandingnescs in utilitarianism we must always carry out the action maximising utility, regardless of our views and projects this means we are virtually always doing wrong this cannot be right

Suppose culture X believes it is immoral to eat animal flesh. Culture Y disagrees. What follows from this fact?

both cultures must be wrong. Look up

Which of the following is the second form of the categorical imperative? a. Always maximize pleasure and minimize suffering b. happiness is the ultimate end of life c. none of these d. a goodwill is the only good thing without qualification

c.

Explain how pleasure is not the only good is a criticism of utilitarianism

can only be applied to hedonistic versions situations like masochists, well-being seems to include features of health, access to education etc as well as pure pleasure seem to challenge hedonism Nozicks experience machine (Anarchy state utopia) 1) Imagine a machine that we could plug ourselves into, that would stimulate our brains so as to generate whatever sorts of pleasure we wanted. 2) Assume that the machine could give us more pleasure than 'real' life can 3) If pleasure were all that was of value, it would be rational of us to plug in 4) BUT we have good reason NOT to plug in 5) THF pleasure is not the only that is of value to us

Tyranny of the majority

choosing the many over the few so the majority wins even if its an unfair circumstance - utilitarianism would support "the tyranny of the majority" (utilitarian approach)

Jodie & Mary

conjoined twins, separating them meant saving the stronger one and killing the weaker one

Equity

considering everyone's happiness as equally important (utilitarian approach)

The strategies of cultural relativists is to argue from the facts about the differences between what?

cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality

Any ethical theory based on duty or obligation to principles rather than consequences is a ______________ theory. a. Utilitarian b. relativistic c. teleological d. none of these

d.

Simplicity:

deciding what is right depends only on knowing your own desires (ethical egoism) or knowing your culture's practices (cultural relativism).

moral code

determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society.

To possess a virtue a person must possess:

developed habit of rational choise between excess and deficiency Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean

"be governed by reason"

dictates that you be temperate, courageous, wise, and just.

The theory that God exists and is an absolute lawgiver is known as: a. divine command theory b. emotivism c. utilitarianism d. virtue theory

divine command theory

Evil pleasures

doing something because it maximises your or someone else's happiness but is actually a wrongful act (utilitarian approach)

Natural law theorists argue that conflicts between duties are possible, but claim that they can be resolved by applying what is known as the principle of:

double effect

is something right/good because God says it is? or is it said by god to be right/good because it actually is?

either god's moral prescriptions are arbitrary, or god is not the ultimate source of goodness.

Mary judges the practice of suicide bombing to be morally wrong, but claims she isn't saying anything true or false,..just expressing her feelings or attitude towards it. Which theory best describes her judgment?

emotivism

Nietzsche's "slave morality"

emphasizes virtues like compassion and warmheartedness as glorifying weakness

The philosophical study of morality is:

ethics

Second Corollary

evil is unreal

intellectually virtuous

exercise actively our reasoning abilities

morally virtuous

exercise our rational capacity by controlling our impulses and appetites

According to Natural Law Theory, all of the following are basic human inclinations, except:

experience of sensory stimuli

Louise Brown

first test tube baby

explain Mills denial of counter examples in stage 4 of his proof

for anything that seems to be a counter example, it is intact a means to happiness or a part of happiness "The ingredients of happiness are many and each is to be desired for itself." "It is not contrary to their being desired for themselves that they should be part of the utilitarian end". he says that things can move from one purpose to another : things desired in the first instance as a means to happiness can become a part of happiness (e.g. money)

At the heart of cultural relativism there is a certain what?

form of argument

What is Williams second example illustrating the issue of integrity in utilitarianism

george the bio-scientist Offered a job by a company developing bio-weapons. George is morally opposed but reasons: if I take the job, I can slow the development, if I don't, an enthusiast will accelerate production utilitarian: simple, take job moral intuition: idk, id have to lie, i have my own projects in life If the stakes are high enough, you may have to abandon your principles, but they are nonetheless a factor.

Deductive Argument

gives logically conclusive support to its conclusion premises must be true and the conclusion must follow from them

apex of all Forms

goodness (the good)

According to Immanuel Kant, the only good thing in the world without qualification is a:

goodwill

Aristotle on happiness

happiness consists of two things: pleasure and the exercise and development of the capacity to reason

Aristotle

happiness is activity in accordance with virtue virtue ethics

Moral motivation

having good intentions and a sense of duty (167)

Ethical Subjectivism

idea that our moral opinions are based on our feelings and nothing more. There's no subjectivity of right and wrong. (ie. we call actions "evil" = we have negative feelings about it).

According to the author of the textbook, what makes a moral judgment 'true'?

if it is backed by better reasons than the alternatives

Explain the intentions of an agent as an issue with utilitarianism

if you attempt to kill many people but instead end up making them laugh this would be considered a moral action by a utilitarian the consequences are not the whole moral store, it ignores the morally relevant fact that the intentions were bad in moral assessment utilitarianism shares the weakness of all act based theories as it fails to give weight to the intentions of an agent (it is impossible to be a good agent committing a bad act)

definition of utilitarian approach :

in all circumstances to create the most general happiness and least unhappiness

where is the sophistication in jeremy bentham's utilitarianism

in the variables that are taken into account in the calculation intensity, duration, certainty (how likely the good/bad consequence is given the action(s) under consideration), propinquity (how close in time it is), fecundity (fertility= how likely the current pain is likely to generate further pleasure e.g. jabs/operations/education etc.), purity (likelihood the pleasure will cause pain or vice versa).

Which of the following is a logical implication of subjective relativism (if it were true)?

individuals could never be wrong in their view of any moral issue

infanticide

intentional killing of infants

What is the fundamental mistake in the cultural differences argument?

it attempts to derive a substantial conclusion about morality from the fact that people disagree about it

Which of the following is a reason why ethical egoism is rejected by most philosophers?

it fails to respect the basic principles of impartiality and equal treatment

Jeremy Bentham quote

it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong (utilitarian approach)

Considering the case of Baby Theresa, which of the following was offered as an argument against immediate transplant?

it is wrong to use people as a means to other people's ends

Two formulations of categorical imperative

it is wrong to use people as means to other people's ends (3) and if she could tell us what she wants, what would she say? (preferences) (4)

according to utilitarianism what is the function of the law?

it should premote the welfare of the citizen while limiting their freedoms as little as possible, no activity should be outlawed unless it is dangerous or harmful to another human being

Which of the following is a common criticism of Natural Law Theory?

its worldview is not in accord with modern science

Aesara of Lucania

key to a good life: well ordered, virtuous and the just soul (the balanced and harmoniously functioning psyche)

Problem of the Theory of Natural Law

laws of nature' describe not only how things are but also how things ought to be -Natural' acts are morally right, and 'unnatural' acts are morally wrong. -The world is in harmony when things serve their natural purposes

the evaluation of Mill

lean towards preference utilitarianism

issues with mills second stage of proof

line of reasoning is flawed (visible = capable of being seen but desirable does not equal capable of being desired) it would strictly prove the moral end (which he said was impossible) Moore also has a criticism of the naturalistic fallacy, that we cannot define 'good' (but Mill didn't even do this and we don't believe in this fallacy)

The ______ ________ of our ______ _________ has no special status, it is merley one among many

moral code; own society

Different societies have different what?

moral codes

Objection of categorical imperatives by phillappa foot

moral obligations are hypothetical - they that depend on our subscription to certain schools of thought. hypothetical imperatives can be withdrawn if a person lacks a relevant desire as hypothetical imperatives say an action is requires as a means to an end kant thought hypothetical statements are non moral and categorical statements are moral but categorical statements of etiquette are categorical but societal not morally relevant Since this is so, it cannot be the 'categorical' nature of certain statements that distinguishes moral from non-moral imperatives kant is right, morality is thought to have some special binding force. however, on analysis, we cannot see this binding force in the external world it is not rationality as it is not irrational to be immoral therefore, foot thinks there is nothing objectively binding, it is education and tradition lack of objective binding means imperative is subject to subscription of social laws Therefore, the moral laws are hypothetical

Realism is also called:

moral universalism or objectivism.

Cultural Relativism is a theory about the nature of ____________

morality

moral realism

morality is or should reveal underlying human truths that apply to everyone regardless of cultural and social conventions.

moral relativism

morality is simply social convention.

Scriptures

never condemn abortion by name

Tolerance:

no one presupposes the right to judge any other person's actions or another culture's beliefs about right and wrong.

neitzsche's master morality

nobles who are egotistic and intolerant, define harm on what is harmful to themselves

Which of the following actions would probably NOT violate Kant's ethical principles?

non-violent protest

Any ethical theory based on duty or obligation to principles rather than consequences is a ______________ theory.

none of these

Which of the following is the second form of the categorical imperative?

none of these

There is no _________ _________ that can be used to judge one societal code better than another

objective standard

Inductive Argument

offers probable support to its conclusion works backwards: starts with the conclusion and then gives premises that support it ex. 90% of men have a combined SAT score of 1400. Therefore, John probab;y has a combined SAT score over 1400

ethical egoism

one ought to pursue self interest exclusively

Ehtical Egoism

one ought to pursue self-interest exclusively (what is right is pursuing your own interest)

Egoistic ethical hedonism

one ought to seek his or her own pleasure over other things

Hobbes on Egoism

one seeks to promote ones self interest (seeking survival) above all else

What does cultural relativism challenge?

our ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth

neitzsche

peace renders one weak, "what doesnt kill you makes you stronger"

Ethicists

people employed by universities, hospitals and law schools to decide upon morality

Competent judges

people who have experienced both higher and lower pleasures, and will prefer higher

Contentious Agent

person concerned with impariality

Divine Command Theory

philosophic approach where morality is whatever God (or the gods) command. God says what's right or wrong.

Jeremy Bentham thought that all human activity is shaped by:

pleasure and pain

6 criticisms of utilitarianism

pleasure is not the only good (experience machine) Fairness distribution and desert (tyranny of majority) Calculation problems (practical and theoretical) Bernard williams and integrity Partiality Intentions of the agent

Explain the calculation problems associated with utilitarianism

practical: - no time - consequences are infinite - consequences unknown theoretical: - incommensurability of values (can't compare) beings: - animals and us

Which of the following is NOT a moral theory, but a theory about human nature?

psychological egoism

hedonism

pursuit of pleasure

what kind of utilitarianism is jeremy bentham's?

quantitative hedonistic utiltiariansim Starts with the factual observation that human beings seek pleasure and seek to avoid pain (psychological) hedonism. Utility = pleasure in the absence of pain. Moral claim : we should act to maximize utility - with everything that can suffer being taken into consideration, all counting equally

The first chapter of the text stresses two main points about morality. First, that moral judgments must be backed by good reasons, and secondly, that morality:

requires the impartial consideration of each individual's interests

What is a 'negative responsibility'?

responsibility for our non-action

Kant

scientific inquiry can never reveal to us the principles that we know hold without exception or reveal moral principles, bu moral principles hold without exception

Descriptive Ethics

scientific study of moral beliefs and practices explains how people actually behave and think when dealing with moral issues and arguments

According to psychological egoism, all human action is motivated by:

self interest

According to Thomas Hobbes, a __________ is needed to overcome the state of nature.

social contract

According to Thomas Hobbes, a __________ is needed to overcome the state of nature and why?

social contract Because he believed we were motivated by our desires & aversions

Which of the following is a logical implication of cultural relativism?

social reformers of any kind must be wrong

Realist ethical theories assume that........

some actions and some principles that can be justified upon universal (objective) grounds to always be "right" or always be "wrong."

Issues with kant's illustrations (ch 9)

some examples aren't great (eg suicide) this is significant as he cannot find 4 concrete moral rules by his theory we need more moral rules Kant's system (formal test: can the maxim be universalized) may not be sufficient to provide us with enough concrete moral guidelines

Suppose Bob and Joe are arguing over a moral issue. At one point, Joe says, "well..what's right for you might not be right for me and vice versa." Which of the following views is he appealing to?

subjective relativism

Rule Utilitarianism

supports rules that on balance produce the greatest good

Categorical imperative (1st form)

tells us we should do something regardless of our wants and needs. express a command ex. do not steal MUST be applied universally to a maxim in order for it to be morally acceptable

The Greek term for purpose or goal

telos, teleological or purposeful

The basic principal of Natural Law Theory is

that natural laws are built into human nature

The basic principle of Natural Law Theory is:

that natural laws are built into human nature

What does Kant say about good will

that nothing is intrinsically valuable other than good will nothing "can be regarded as good without qualification, except a good will" • Other things are only good instrumentally (e.g. wealth, virtues and health) Reason: virtues affect your ability to achieve your goal; but your goal may be bad e.g. affable thief: charm is not always good - as charm can be used to deceive, therefore, charm, in itself, is not intrinsically good Good in terms of the end it achieves

the Cultural Differences Argument is not sound

that the conclusion does not follow from the premise

Utilitarianism

the belief that an act is only right if the outcome is that it maximizes happiness for the greatest number. (utilitarian approach)

Explain fairness as a criticism of utilitarianism

the doctrine takes no account of the distribution 100:-5:-5:-5 > 20:20:20:20 a) even if we don't demand exact equals, there should be justification to inequalities of distribution there is no reference to desert in distribution b) we believe it is immoral to deprive people of rights. but utilitarianism says that if this maximises utility it is moral The failure to consider distribution leads to the 'tyranny of the majority' Sherriff case and Omegas case (happiness of ideal society bought at the price of the misery of a child)

Psychological Hedonism

the doctrine that all action IS motivated by the desire to maximize pleasure

the minimum conception of morality

the effort to guide one's conduct by reason—that is, to do what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one's decision.

Meta-Ethics is the study of

the meaning and logical structure of moral beliefs. ex. HOW can a moral principle be justified?

what determines what is right within a society?

the moral code of that society

If Bill argues that it is wrong to eat veal because the method of veal production causes calves to be kept in impoverished conditions that result in much suffering, then what moral principle is he appealing to?

the principle of utility

ethics

the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions

Normative ethics is the study of:

the principles, rules, or theories that guide our actions and judgments

Descriptive ethics is:

the study of how people actually behave and think about moral issues

egoism

the tendency to see things in relation to oneself

Psychological egoism

the view that the motive for all our actions is self-interest. to promote our own welfare (I feel better about myself ofr helpng others)

Theory of Natural Law

the world has a rational order, with values and purposes built into its very nature

Which of the following is a common criticism of divine command theory?

there are multiple religions with different authoritative texts

First Corollary

things are less "real" the less they partake in Goodness

plato on the soul

three different elements: raw appetites, drives, and reason/thought

Which of the following was cited by St. Thomas Aquinas as one of humanity's natural inclinations?

training and education of offspring

According to Thomas Hobbes, life in the state of nature would be nasty, brutish, and short until a social contract is agreed upon.

true

There is no __________ _____________ in ethics

universal truth

The Principle of Equal Consideration

universalism, no persons/groups are any more important/valuable than another. impartiality

If Divine Command Theory is interpreted as suggesting that God recognizes goodness and then commands it, God's commands become:

unnecessary

Of the theories we've studied thus far, which one seems to give the most consideration to the treatment of nonhuman animals?

utilitarianism

Which moral theory claims that it may be morally right to kill an innocent person if it brings about the greater good for all involved?

utilitarianism

Which theory would rule in favor of harvesting and transplanting the organs of an anencephalic infant?

utilitarianism

According to Kant what does an act have worth through

via its maxim, not its outcome or purpose (motivation matters)

what is the main issue with accepting Mills distinction

we are tempted towards preference utilitarianism as utility is not seen as a sensation it is seen as the satisfaction of peoples desires However: there are obvious issues with preference utilitarianism (Junkie's desire for heroin)

Disagreement in belief

we believe in different things, both of which cannot be true (ie: disagreeing if the Kennedy got killed by one guy or a group of guys).

Which of the following would be an argument offered in favor of harvesting and transplanting the organs of an anencephalic infant?

we can benefit someone without harming anyone else

The difficulty of prediction

we cant accurately predicate what the outcomes of an action will be (utilitarian approach)

Which of the following is a common criticism of utilitarianism?

we value things other than pleasure

disagreement in attitude

we want different outcomes, both of which cannot occur (ie: you want team A to win, but I want team B to win). (we may disagree in attitude but not in believe).

Explain partiality as an issue with utilitarianism

we would think it morally repugnant if a parent did not favour his/her child in a 'burning bus' situation this suggests partiality is desirable also doesn't consider MY happiness as more important than others, this is surely relevant responses could be: a) partial attitudes are wrong HOWEVER these relationships holding value is so deeply ingrained in our nature that it must be relevant b) Create a rule 'favour loved ones' HOWEVER this leads to irrational rule worship - ceasing to be utilitarian

divide-command ethics

what i ought to do? what god ordains, i ought to do.

Relativism Ethics

what i ought to do? what my society thinks i ought to do

Virtue Ethics

what i ought to do? what the virtuous person would do (what kind of person i ought to be?)

Deotological ethics

what i ought to do? whatever is in my moral duty to do

Why does the 'cultural differences argument' mentioned in the text fail?

what is actually the case may be different from what some people believe

subjectivist

whit is believed to be right or wrong is entirely up to the person (subject) or culture (multiple subjects)

Benefits Argument (Baby Theresa)

"If we can benefit someone without having to hurt someone else , we ought to do so".

Relativist ethical theories assume that.......

"right" and "wrong" are relativeto personal opinion or to particular cultures.

Ethical egoism

*moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest* differs from PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM, which claims that people can only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from RATIONAL EGOISM, which holds that it is rational to act in one's self-interest.

Ethical Egoism & Conflicts of Interest

- A "conflict of interest" occurs when people's interests conflict with each other (e.g. two people want the same thing and can't both have it) - Argument: Ethics is suppose to be about resolving such conflicts, but ethical egoism fails to do so. It tells people to fight it out - Rachels: Objection doesn't work because the ethical egoist could just reply that he doesn't conceive of ethics as a way of resolving conflicts

State of Nature

- A world in which there was no morality, law, courts, police, etc. - The people are agreeing to terms of social cooperation, to a "social contract"

Arguments for Ethical Egoism

- Altruism is self-defeating. People are better off helping themselves, not having do-gooders interfere in their lives - Rachels: There is sometimes truth in this, but there are times when we can help others - There is not ethical egoism at all; it is an altruistic view with the odd notion tacked on that trying to help others always backfires

Incoherence of Ethical Egoism

- Argument: it is wrong to stop someone from doing what he in fact ought to do - The case of D & R: Ethical egoism tells R to stop D (because it is in R's interest) but also tells R not to stop D (b/c that would stop D from doing what D should do) - Rachels: objection doesn't work because the ethical egoist doesn't have to accept the assumption at the beginning of the argument

Arbitrary of Ethical Egoism

- Basic rule: we may not draw arbitrary distinctions between persons - Ethical egoism violates this rule by drawing an arbitrary distinction between myself (who I should always help) and the rest of the world (who doesn't count) - Rachels: this objection works

Hobbes: Objections & Replies

- Can we trust others to obey and leave us in peace? ^ Hobbes: there will be some lawbreakers, but rational people will see that crime does not pay - Can we trust the sovereign? We gave him so much power. ^ The sovereign could turn out to be bad, but the risk is worth it; the worst society is better than the misery of our natural condition

Another Argument for Ethical Egoism

- Ethical egoism just restates commonsense morality - e.g. "Honesty is the best policy." "What goes around comes around." ^ If we follow commonsense moral rules, we will make ourselves well-off - Rachels Argument: it gets moral reasoning wrong; we should be reasoning about how to help others, not just ourselves

Rachels' Replies

- Even if we do have a self-interested motive, that does not rule out the existence of an altruistic motive - Often out motives have nothing to do with feeling good. We may feel good as a side effect, but feeling good was not the motive

Paradox of Egoism

- Friendship is one of the great human goods, but true friendship involves willingness to sacrifice one's self-interest for one's friend - An ethical egoist can never do this, so by trying to exclusively advance his own good, he cuts himself off from an important part of the human good

Arguments Against Ethical Egoism

- It has bad, unacceptable implications - If someone could benefit himself by performing the most awful acts, he should do so?

Simple Subjectivism

- It implies that we're ALWAYS right. - is honestly representing your own feelings, Your moral judgements will always be Correct.. - moral language is about stating facts, it reports the speaker's attitude, & it isn't for DISPUTE. - interprets moral disagreement as disagreement in Believe. - interprets moral judgements as statements that can be true or false. THEREFORE: It's A Flawed theory.

Social Contract: Possible Problems

- It never happened. I never entered into a contract, so why should I live by its terms? ^ Hobbes' possible response: the whole story is an imaginative device to show you your own enlightened self-interest - Is there too much reliance on self-interest? - Limited to morality that can be contained in an agreement between parties. no "duties to oneself" - What about those who can't make a contract?

Odd Consequence of Ethical Egoism

- It would not be in the ethical egoist's interest to let anyone know that he or she was an ethical egoist, so he should go around pretending to be altruistic

Types of Utilitarianism defining utility differently

- Pure quantitative hedonistic (pleasure vs pain) - Qualitative hedonistic (higher and lower pleasures) - Non-hedonistic (preference utility as well as 'well-being' where this is broader than mere 'pleasure and lack of pain'

Why Accept Psychological Egoism?

- Simplicity - Self-interest is a strong motivator of humans; why not suppose it is the only interest? - Theory is practical and realistic, not naive

Ayn Rand's View

- The "Virtue of Selfishness" - Ethical egoism is the only theory that takes the "individual" seriously - Our duty is to make a project of ourselves; to make ourselves as great as we can be - Altruism interferes with this project and undermines one's status as an individual - But, t is not in our interest as asocial beings to exploit, enslave, or otherwise harm other people

Hobbes: Implications

- The purpose of morality is to preserve life and gain the comforts of society - We should be moral out of enlightened self-interest; essentially a psychological egoist - Basic moral rule is to obey to sovereign; if it's the law, it's right

Rachels Argument Against Rand

- There is some truth in her view; we could try to better ourselves - But, we can sometimes sacrifice some of that project in order to help others along the way; Rand's view is too extreme

The Point of the Story

- To find the reasons for social and political institutions - To possibility find the content of ethics or of what justice demands of us

Ethical Egoism Rule

- Tries to sum up all of ethics in one rule - The rule: you should always do what is in your own interest, always

Arguments for Psychological Egoism

- We always do whatever we most want to do, so out actions are clearly self-interested - Rachels: No, we don't always do what we most want. Sometimes we override out wants in favor of what we knows to be right - Rachels: Even when we do what we want, what we want is sometimes altruistic

Another Argument for Psychological Egoism

- We always do whatever will make us feel good. We are pleasure-seeking beings, so we always act out of self-interest - Strategy of reinterpreting motives ^ People sometimes seem to act altruistically, but if one looks deeper, they may find that something else is going on - Abraham Lincoln rescuing the pig from drowning because he would have thought about it all day if he had not; gave him peace of mind

Ethical Egoism Clarifications

- You should act exclusively in your own interest - This does not mean you cannot help others, if helping them will advance your own interest - Look to long term (not just short term) interest - It is not merely acceptable to act only in your own interest, it's morally required. Altruistic behavior is immoral.

Reason in Ethics

- a moral judgement/any kind of value judgement must be supported by good reason -

The Utilitarian Approach

- the belief that an act is only right if its in line with a set of rules which would produce the most happiness if everyone followed it - utilitarians do not believe in "bad pleasures

Consequentialism

- the outcomes or consequences of an action, the right action is the one which produces the most positive outcome. - what i ought to do? whatever has the most desirable consequences (utilitarian approach)

What does Aristotle believe the purpose/goal of life is?

-Happiness -our purpose is to use our reason because the rational life is the happiest life

Moral Virtue

-acquired through habit -mastering practical knowledge

Intellectual Virtue

-educational virtue that we can be taught without doing -mastering theoretical knowledge

As a theory, utilitarianism seems unconcerned with:

-individual rights -consequences

Many think of morality & religion as inseparable

1) Clergy are often viewed as the source of moral wisdom & counseling 2) Rachel argues that morality does not depend on religion 3) It is unacceptable to base morality on religion

Ways of relating morality to religion

1) Divine Command Theory 2) Theory of Natural Law

This alternative leads to the conclusion that right & wrong are independent of God

1) God is the transmitter rather than the creator of morality 2) Thus, moral knowledge could be achieved without God 3) We need to support our moral beliefs with reasons

Rachel's conclusion

1) In fact, moral principle are dictates of reason, says Rachel 2) The only way we can discover what we should do is through the use of our reason

Don't church teaching & scripture provide clear moral guidance on all moral issues?

1) Sometimes it is difficult to find clear specific moral guidance in scripture 2) Consider the passages of scripture that appear relevant to the abortion issue or that people claim are relevant 3) Has church traditions (Catholic Church teachings) stayed consistent

Dilemma

1) There are 2 alternatives & both lead to unacceptable conclusions 2) & yet both Divine Command Theory & Natural Law Theory represent the 2 options offered by the "Euthyphro" question

This alternative leads to the conclusion that that God's commands are arbitrary

1) There is no basis for saying that God is good 2) God commands what is good = God commands what God commands

What must moral judgments be backed by

1, Must be backed by good reasons 2. Morality requires the impartial consideration of each individual's interests.

Divine Command Theory Disadvantages

1. Atheists don't accept it 2. Plato's argument pg. 52 1. Conception of morality is mysterious 2. This conception of morality makes God's commands arbitrary. 3. provides wrong reasons for moral principles

Main 6 criticisms of kantian deontology

1. Clashing/competing duties 2. Not all universalisable maxims are distinctly moral; not all non-universalisable maxims are immoral 3. The view that consequences of actions determine their moral value 4. Kant ignores the value of certain motives, e.g. love friendship kindness 5. Morality is a system of hypothetical, rather than categorical imperatives (Philippa Foot) 6. (Issue of developing maxims)

3 Arguments for Ethical Egoism

1. It helps people in need and when you need to help them. 2. We as human beings need to be kind to others in our time of need. 3. It is also in debate whenever it is in our nature to even help people.

issues with Mills competent judges

1. It is not clear that competent judges will have consistent preferences of the sort that Mill thinks his criterion will yield. e.g. honest people will probably say they prefer sex to poetry 2. The reality, in any case, is that judges' preferences will vary from time to time. REASONS WHY: • We like variety • Diminishing marginal utility • Inability to enjoy one indefinitely • Limitations of our physical nature • Delaying pleasure can itself be a pleasure anticipation keeping things special