Final Exam-Anthropology

Independent Assortment

The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair. The genes controlling different traits are ingested independently of one another.

Oldowan

The earliest known stone tool industry: -both core and flake tools were deliberately manufactured as final, desired products. -Oldowan used direct percussion: striking a core or flake with a hammerstone. Most tools are flaked on both sides.

Homo erectus

The early Homo species for which we have the most evidence, both physically and culturally, is called Homo erectus. This is the one group of early humans that most paleoanthropologist have recognized for decades and still agree on. -Shows considerable brain enlargement. -thick cranial bone, large brow ridges with little forehead development. -the cranium is wider at the base compared with earlier and later species of genus homo. The maximum cranial breadth is below the ear opening, giving the cranium a pentagonal shape.

How does the discovery of Homo Floresnsis complicate the paleontological record?

outliers, small individuals only found on a few islands, with proportionate brains= in the same category as homo erectus but NOT

RNA

Ribonucleic acid: A single-stranded molecule similar in structure to DNA. Three forms of RNA are essential to protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Scientific Method

Scientific Method: an approach to research whereby a problem is identified, a hypothesis (provisional explanation) is stated, and that hypothesis is tested by collecting and analyzing data. -Hypothesis: A provisional explanation of a phenomenon. Hypotheses require verification or falsification through testing. -Theory: A broad statement of scientific relationships or underlying principles that has been substantially verified through the testing of hypotheses. -Operationalization -Hempel's Paradigm: should remind every scientist of the dangers of generalizations, all hypotheses must be falsifiable (do-able)

Ribosomes

Structures composed of a form of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein. Ribosomes are found in a cell's cytoplasm and are essential to the manufacture of proteins.

Ethology

The science of animal behavior. The study of human behavior and social organization from a biological perspective.

Archaeology

The study of earlier cultures by anthropologists who specialize in the scientific recovery, analysis, and interpretation of the material remains of past societies. Archeologists obtain information from artifacts and structures left behind by earlier cultures.

Linguistic Anthropology

The study of human speech and language, including the origins of language in general as well as specific languages. Linguists have been able to trace historical ties between particular languages and groups of languages, thus facilitating the identification of language families and perhaps past relationships between human populations.

Half-life

The time period in which one-half the amount of a radioactive isotope is converted chemically to a daughter product. For example, after 1.25 billion years, held the potassium-40 (40K) remains; after 2.5 billion years, one-fourth remains.

Homo

There is nearly universal agreement that the hominids found outside of Africa are all members of genus Homo. Most of the fossils that are now placed in the species Homo erectus - or at the very least have been lumped into one genus (Homo).

Homo ergaster

They place the African fossils into a separate species, one they call Homo ergaster, while H. erectus be reserved solely for the Asian material.

Potassium/Argon dating

a method of dating rocks from proportions of radioactive potassium-40 and its decay product , argon-40

Malthus

economic analysis of population and food supply

Homo neandertalensis (H.S. neanderthalensis)

-BRAIN SIZE: 1200-1680 CC -BRAIN CASE SHAPE: Large cranial capacity, low forehead, flattened elongated skull, occipital bun, vertical chin, projecting midface, alveolar prognathism, arched nasal passage, arched superorbital torus -DENTITION: Continued reduction in tooth size -BODY SIZE: <5' to >6' 120-225 LB. -Shanidar in Iraq; La Chapelle aux Saints in France; Amud in Israel

Homo sapiens (H.s. sapiens)

-BRAIN SIZE: 1200-1680 CC, 900-2000 CC -BRAIN CASE SHAPE: Large cranial capacity, vertical forehead, relatively small brow ridges, protruding chin, pyramidal mastoid process -DENTITION: Small anterior teeth -BODY SIZE: <5' to >6' 120-225 LB. -Cro-Magnon in France; Skuhl Cave; Predmosti in Czech Republic; Germany; Kow Swamp in Australia; Lake Mungo, Australia -Cro-Magnon: -CULTURE: upper paleolithic -Aurignacian -Magdalenian: Burins, Spear-thrower (Atlatland dart), shaftwrench, punch blade technique

Homo habilis

-Better-preserved evidence of a Plio-Pleistocene hominid with a significantly larger brain than seen in australopiths was first suggested by Louis Leakey. Leakey and his colleagues gave a new species designation to these fossil remains, naming them Homo habilis. -The Species Homo Habilis comprises particularly those easy Homo fossils from Olduvai and the Turkana Basin. -The most obvious feature is the cranial size. -The naming of this fossil material was meaningful from two perspectives: 1. Leakey argued that members of this group were the early Olduvai toolmakers. 2. By calling this group Homo, Leakey was arguing for at least two separate branches of hominid evolution in the Plio-Pleistocene. Clearly, only one could be on the main branch eventually leading to Homo Sapiens. Leakey was guessing that he had found our ancestors.

Replacement Models (Evolution to H. sapiens sapiens) PG 365

-Complete Replacement Model: modern populations arose in africa within the last 200,000 years- and then completely replaced populations in Europe and Asia -Partial Replacement Model: populations came mostly out of Africa, little interbreeding, some neanderthal DNA Regional Continuity Model (Mulitregional Evolution): separate population continued evolutionary development, not interbreeding

Percussion Flaking

-Core: A stone reduced by flake removal. A core may or may not itself be used as a tool. -Hammerstone: a hard cobble used to strike off lithic flakes from a lump of tool stone during the process of lithic reduction. -Flake Tools: a thin-edged fragment removed from a core -Core Tools -Wastes: Shatter and debitage

What happened to the Neanderthals?

-Extinction Hypothesis: share DNA, false -Genetic Swamping Hypothesis: interbred with homospiens (dom DNA, Neanderthals have recessive) -Evolution to Modern Hypothesis: less evidence, not as reliable

Pressure Flaking

-Flaker -Baton

Know about the following for each of the major cultural traditions (e.g.- Acheulean)

-Food -shelter -Fire -Religion -Art

Anthropology

-Holistic: to understand any aspect of human nature, we need to understand any of the parameters that touch it -Definition: The field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology; includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical, or biological, anthropology

Physical Anthropology

-Human variation -Primate Studies: The study of the biology and behavior or nonhuman primates (lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes) -Paleoanthropology: The interdisciplinary approach to the study of earlier hominids - their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, and so on.

Sites -LAETOLI -OLDUVAI GORGE -TERRA AMATA

-Laetoli: in Tanzania. area was covered periodically by ash falls from nearby volcanic eruptions. Austro... -Olduvai Gorge: it is important because it has the most complete and best studied paleoanthropological record of any early hominin site in the world. -Terra Amata: Open-air Paleolithic site in Southern France, is one of the earliest to have yielded evidence of artificial shelters. it is located in the Mediterranean coast -Shanidar Cave: A most remarkable site is Shanidar Cave, in the Zagros Mountains of northeastern iraq, where fieldworkers found partial skeletons of nine individuals, four of them deliberately buried. Several preserved skeletons; good example of Neanderthals from southwestern Asia.

Early Stone Technology

-Percussion Flaking -Pressure Flaking: A method of removing flakes from a core by pressing a pointed implement (e.g. bone or antler) against the stone. -Groundstone

Groundstone

A category of stone tool formed by the grinding of a coarse-grained tool stone, either purposely or incidentally.

Upper Paleolithic -ATLATL -BURIN

A cultural period usually associated with modern humans but also found with some Neadertals and distinguished by technological innovation in various stone tool industries. Best known from western Europe, similar industries are also known from central and eastern Europe and Africa. -Atlatl: spear thrower; a stick with a handle on one end and a hook or socket that engages a light spear or dart on the other. -Burin:small, chisel-like tools with a pointed end; though to have been used to engrave bone, antler, ivory, or wood.

Radiocarbon dating

A method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon.

Ardipithecus ramidus

A previously described genus, reveals a complex and unexpected mix of primitive and derived traits, meaning that the last common ancestor of the african apes and humans may not have looked like wither group as we know them now.

Lovejoy's Hypothesis

Combined presumed aspects of early hominid ecology, feeding, pair bonding, infant care, and food sharing to devise his creative scenario. This view hinges on these assumptions: 1. that the earliest hominins had offspring at least as K-selected 2. that hominin males ranged widely and provisioned females and their young, who remained more tied to a "home base" 3. that males were paired monogamously with females

Evolution

Evolution: a change in the genetic structure of a population. The term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species. Microevolution: Small changes occurring within species, such as changes in allele frequencies. Macroevolution: changes produced only after many generations, such as the appearance of a new species.

Segregation

Genes (alleles) occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs. During gamete formation, the members of each pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair.

Hominids

Hominid: All modern AND Extinct great apes

Homo florensis PG 379)

Homo floresiensis may derive from an early migration of early Homo to Southeast Asia. On other words, this highly unusual hominin might have evolved from ancestors who left Africa even before H. erectus did. -reduced body size (dwarf elephants) -In their cranial shape, thickness of cranial bone, and dentition, they most resemble H. erectus. -dramatic brain size reduction evolve from flores -the morphology of its hand and foot are like that of H. erectus.

Classification

In biology, the ordering of organisms into categories, such as orders, families, and genera, to show evolutionary relationships.

Amphibians

In the Carboniferous Period

homo antecessor

Increased brain size Flattened Face Large canines and Incisors

Hominid Characteristics (study these for each species)

*Brain size *Brain case Shape *Facial Skeleton *Teeth (tooth shape, dental formula) Stature Fore and Hind Limb Lengths Hand and foot anatomy Hip, Knew, and Ankle Anatomy *Tool Use

Primate Characteristics

1) Limbs and Locomotion: a tendency toward an erect posture (especially in the upper body) (derived trait) 2) A flexible, generalized limb structure, which allows most primates to practice numerous forms of locomotion. 3) Prehensile hands (and sometimes feet) (derived trait). a) Retention of five digits on the hands and feet. b) An opposable thumb and in most species, a divergent and partially opposable big toe. c) nails instead of claws. d) tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the ends of digits. 4) Lack of dietary specialization. 5) generalized dentition 6) rely heavily on vision and less on olfaction 7) color vision in diurnal primates; nocturnal primates lack vision; some don't have full range of color vision. 7) depth perception a) eyes placed towards front of face (not to the sides). b) visual information transmitted to both hemispheres of brain. c) visual info organized in 3-dimensional images. 8) expansion and increased complexity of brain. 9) more efficient means of fetal nourishment, longer periods of gestation, reduced number of offspring, delayed maturation, and extension of the entire lifespan. 10) greater dependence on learned behavior. 11) tendency to live in social groups and the permanent association of adult males with the group. 12) the tendency towards diurnal activity patterns.

Kenyanthropus

3.5 million year old hominid fossil discovered in Lake Turkana, Kenya by Meave Leakey's team may be the earliest known tool-users known

Darwin's finches

1.) finches (Galapagos) 2.) fossils 3.) vestigial organs 4.) domestication 5.) Embryology

Biostratigraphy

A relative dating technique based on the regular changes seen in evolving groups of animals as well as the presence or absence of particular species.

Genes

A sequence of DNA bases that specifies that order of amino acids in an entire protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product, such as RNA. A gene may be composed of thousands of DNA bases.

Trephination

A surgical intervention where a hole is drilled, incised, or scraped into the skull using simple surgical tools

tRNA

A type of RNA that binds to specific amino acids and transports them to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Adaptation

An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Adaptations result from evolutionary change (Specifically as a result of natural selection).

Radiation

Adaptive Radiation: the relatively rapid expansion and diversification of life-forms into new ecological niches.

Alleles

Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles occur at the same locus on paired chromosomes and thus govern the same trait, but because they're different, their action may result in different expressions of that trait.

Burial customs

At the site of Sima de los Huesos in Spain, archaeologists found thousands of fossilized bone fragments in a cave at the end of a deep vertical shaft. From the nature of the site and the accumulation of hominin remains, Spanish researchers are convinced that the site demonstrates some form of human activity involving deliberate disposal of the dead. In later contexts, where modern H. sapiens remains are found in clear burial contexts, their treatment is considered more complex than in Neanderthal burials. In these later (Upper Paleolithic) sites, grave goods, including bone and stone tools as well as animal bones, are found more consistently and in greater concentrations. In many cases, the body's position was deliberately modified, having been placed in the grave in a flexed posture.

Homo heidlebergensis (H.s.)

Beginning perhaps as early as 850,000 ya and extending to about 200,000 ya, the fossils from Africa and Europe are placed within Homo heidelbergensis, named after a fossil found in Germany. We recognize H.heidelbergensis as a transitional species between H. erectus and later hominids. These fossils have been found throughout much of Europe.

Locomotion

Bipedalism: on two set; walking habitually on two legs

Glaciations

Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets cover much of the northern continents. Glaciations are associated with colder temperatures in northern latitudes and more arid conditions in southern latitudes, most notable in Africa.

Bergmann's Rule

Concerns the relationship of body mass or volume to surface area. -Among mammals, body size tends to be greater in populations that live in colder climates. This is because as mass increases, the relative around of surface area decreases proportionately. Since hear is lost at the surface, it follows that increased mass allows for greater heat retention and reduced heat loss.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural, or social, anthropology is the study of patterns of belief and behavior found in modern and historical cultures. These studies produced many descriptive ethnographies.

What problem exist between the uses of morphological and biochemical (DNA, etc.) data in Hominid classification.

Morphological: Shows the movement of bipedal locomotion, problem:only physically Biochemical: uses DNA, can date the migration, problem: in dating the locomotion and classification of species

Primates

Primates are members of the mammalian order Primates, which includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. -Foraging -Vision: -Stereoscopic vision: the condition whereby visual images are, to varying degrees, superimposed. This provides for depth perception, or viewing the external environment in three dimensions. Stereoscopic vision is partly a function of structures in the brain. -Binocular Vision: Vision characterized by overlapping visual fields provided by forward-facing eyes. Binocular vision is essential to depth perception.

Saggital Keel

Or Sagittal Torus; is a thickening of bone on part or all of the midline of the frontal bone or parietal bones where they meet along the sagittal structure, or on both bones.

Acheulean/Clactonian

Pertaining to a stone tool industry form the Early and Middle Pleistocene; characterized by a large proportion of bifacial tools (flaked on both sides). Acheulean tool kits are common in Africa, Southwest Asia, and western Europe, but they're thought to be less common elsewhere.

K-selection

Pertaining to k-selection, K-selected is an adaptive strategy whereby individuals produce relatively few offspring, in whom they invest increased parental care. Although only a few infants are born, chances of survival are increased for each one because of parental investments of time and energy. Birds, elephants, and canids (wolves, coyotes, and does) are examples of K-selected nonprime species.

R-selection

Pertaining to r-selection, it is a reproductive strategy that emphasizes relatively large numbers of offspring and reduced parental care compared with K-selected species. K-selection and r-selection are relative terms; for example, mice are r-selected compared with primates but K-selected compared with insects.

Mousterian

Pertaining to the stone tool industry associated with Neanderthals and some modern H. sapiens groups; also called Middle Paleolithic. This industry is characterized by a larger proportion of flake tools than is found in Acheulian tool kits.

Acclimatization

Physiological responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individual's lifetime. Such responses may be temporary or permanent, depending on the duration of the environmental change and when in the individual's life it occurs. The capacity for acclimatization may typify an entire population or species, and because it's under genetic influence, it's subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection and genetic drift.

Amino Acids

Small molecules that are the components of proteins

Australopithecus

The longest enduring hominins yet documented. *All are bipedal, relatively small brains, all have large teeth, particularly the back teeth, with thick to very thick enamel on the molars. Small brained, big-toothed bipeds. *Large canine and a doctoral lower first premolar. * Come primarily from the sites of radar and Laetoli -Afarensis: not bipedal in the same way that modern humans are. They moved in a slower fashion with a rather short stride. It is more primitive and less evolved in any particular direction. They share more primitive features with some late Miocene apes. Their canines are often large pointed teeth, the lower first premolar is semi sectorial, and the tooth rows are parallel, even converging somewhat toward the back of the mouth. They have a small brain. The upper limbs are longer. The wrist, hand, and foot bones show several differences from modern humans. Sexually dimorphic: the larger individuals are male. LUCY -Africanus: small brained, with an adult cranial capacity of about 440 cm^3. It was big-toothed relative to later hominids. Bipeds. TAUNG CHILD -Aeothiecus: Black Skull -Robustus: South Africa -Boisei: saggrital crest much smaller

Natural Selection

The most critical mechanism of evolutionary change, first described by Charles Darwin; the term refers to genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals.

Fixity of the species

The notion that species, once created, can never change is diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution.

Allen's Rule

concerns the shape of the body, especially appendages. -In colder climates, shorter appendages, with increased mass-to-surface ratios, are adaptive because they're more effective at preventing heat loss. conversely, longer appendages, with increased surface area relative to mass, are more adaptive in warmer climates because they promote heat loss.

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid: the double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code. DNA is a main component of chromosomes.

Gregor Mendel

discovered principles of inheritance -crossed pea plants: tree tall plants for every short plant in the F2 generation

Homo Sapiens

genus Homo and species Sapiens refers to Human beings. -Humans (Homo Sapiens) are the only living representatives of the habitually bipedal primates (hominid tribe).