Global Sports Exam 1
Modern Sports
"Public" schools in England Disorder Competitive sport as a symbol of freedom New versions of traditional games: football, rugby, cricket "Muscular Christianity": moral fortitude through play
Olympic Games in Ancient Greece
-First Olympics dated to 776 B.C -Held Every Four Years -Olympiad: unit of time in historical chronologies -Continually celebrated for 12 centuries, even after Greece came under Roman rule. -Emperor Theodosius I ended them in 393 AD -Part of the effort to impose Christianity as the State religion of Rome
The Rise of Modern Sport
1880's to Early 1900's: Watershed in the Development of Modern Sport Sports Lost Their casual, communal, and regionalized quality Sports became uniform, national, and highly organized Traditional games: spontaneous and unregulated
Early Olympics
1896 First Olympics 1900 Universal Exposition in Paris 1904 St. Louis 1906 Intercalary games in Athens 1908 London World's Fair 1912 Stockholm
1920 Games in Antwerp, Belgium
1916 Olympics had been awarded to Berlin No Olympics were held in 1916 due to World War I (1914-1918) Question of German participation Poor conditions: unfinished stadium, inadequate accommodations for athletes Full opening and closing ceremonies established
Events (first modern olympics)
85 events in 19 different sports Women took part for the first time Races were held on grass because the French did not want to ruin the park with a cinder track Discus and Javelins landed in trees Swimmers and divers competed in the Seine river
Altar of Zeus
According to legend, the altar of Zeus stood on a spot struck by a thunderbolt This thunderbolt was hurled by a god from his throne on Mt. Olympus (where the gods assembled)
New Perspective on the Body
Advances in medicine Awareness in the need to promote Physical Health Exercise Viewed Positively A more rational and scientific understanding of the body Decline in the traditional fatalism with which illness was accepted
Anthropological Days
American Organizers set aside August 12 and 13 for these "events" "Savages" from Asia, Africa, and the Americas were gathered from sideshows at the fair Asked to demonstrate their native games Competed against themselves in modern sports Poor performances by untrained natives used to support the racist theories of the day
Who would compete?
Any free born Greek in the world There were separated men's and boy's divisions for events Women were not allowed to to compete in the Games themselves However, women could enter equestrian events as the owner of a chariot team and win victories that way
Competitions
Athletes competed in the nude (completely naked) This was impart due to the hot weather during the summer It was also because the events were part of a festival celebrating the human body Married women were barred from attending the games, under penalty of death
Elis
Athletes who participated in the Games gathered a month before its start in the city of Elis They swore to follow the rules Trained for events They were required to arrive a month early in order to compete Violators were fined.
How did the athletes train?
Athletics were a key part of education in ancient Greece The Greeks believed that developing the body was as important as improving the mind for overall health Exercise considered important for training men for military service Plato's Laws states that athletics improved military skills All Greek youth exercise in the wrestling-school (palaestra)
Why did Coubertin want to revive the Games?
Believed France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War was due to lack of physical fitness on the part of the French Studied Physical Education and the role of sport in schooling Viewed the games as a way to promote sport, including health and well-being Visited England in 1883 Studied the program instituted by Thomas Arnold at the Rugby school
Pierre de Coubertin (Anthropological Days)
Believed that the Anthropological Days were a disgrace Coubertin: "In no place but America would on have dared place such events on a program - but to Americans everything is permissible"
Olympic Motto
Citius, altius, fortius Faster, higher, stronger
British Sports Culture
Coubertin credited the methods used in the British public schools with leading to the expansion of British power during the 19th Century. Advocated their use in French institutions How organized sport can create moral and social strength
Ancient Greek Ideal
Coubertin romanticized ancient Greece He believed that the Greeks had the right approach to education Felt the world needed to return to the approach of the ancient Greeks The Athenian idea of the gymnasium - a training facility that simultaneously encouraged physical and intellectual development
1906 Intercalary Games in Athens
Coubertin was against, did not attend Greeks frustrated that Athens was not made a permanent venue for the Olympics Twenty nations sent 887 athletes Twice the participation as St. Louis Athletic results not included in tabulations of Olympic Games
1912 Stockholm Olympics
Coubertin: "Of all the countries in the world, Sweden is at the moment the best qualified to host a great Olympic Games" Well-organized, highly international More inclusion of women Inauguration of an arts competition in architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, and music Coubertin's "Ode au sport" won the literature competition
1936 Summer Games in Berlin
Deutsches Stadion could accommodate 110,000 people Open-air Olympic pool could seat 18,000 spectators Pageantry: parades, exhibits, orchestras Pergamon Museum: Hellenistic collection Goebbels entertained 2,000 guests at confiscated Jewish estate Statues with "Aryan" physiques Swastikas everywhere
Small-scale Sports festivals
During the 19th century, several small-scale sports festivals across Europe were named after the Ancient Olympic Games Zappas Olympics (simply called "Olympics" at the time): a series of athletic events held in Athens, Greece in 1850, 1870, and 1875 Sponsored by Greek businessman Evangelos Zappas 1870 Olympics at the Panathenaic stadium (Athens) had an audience of 30,000 people
William Penny Brookes
English physician and surgeon Believed that the best way to prevent illness was through physical exercise Greatly influenced Coubertin Many say that the revival of the Ancient Olympics was originally his idea, which Coubertin appropriated
Traditional Games
Festivals Local Traditions No Codified Set of Rules No Winners or Losers, Necessarily
Events
First Olympics had only a footrace Events Gradually added -Running -Long Jump -Shot Put -Javelin -Boxing -Pankration -Equestrian -Pentathlon -Chariot Races
Second industrial revolution
First industrial revolution: 1820 to 1840 Second industrial revolution: Technological revolution Phase of rapid industrialization in the final third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th (1870-1914) Advances in manufacturing and factory technology
Pierre de Coubertin
French aristocrat, a baron In 1894, organized a congress at the Sorbonne in Paris Presented his plans to representatives of sports societies from 11 countries Suggested that the Games be held concurrently with the 1900 Universal Exposition in Paris
The word "Sport"
From the Old French "desport" meaning "leisure" Not used in Modern sport until early 20th century Previously, in English, it meant to do something for fun, amusement
Boycott Threats
German guarantee worthless Jewish athletes faced harsh discrimination Expulsion of Jews from sports clubs and public facilities Jews "nominated" for teams but never chosen Judge Mahoney's pamphlet: "Germany Has Violated the Olympic Code" (1935) U.S., Canada, Great Britain, and France threaten to boycott
Second Industrial Revolution's Impact on the Rise of Modern Sport
Groups of People Together Need for a sense of Community in the city More team sports
Traditional Turner
Gymnastics: Germany's sole form of athletic exercise British: soccer, rugby Americans: basketball, baseball, volleyball Germans condemned competition Appalled by the specialization, rationalization, and quantification characteristic of modern sports
1896 Summer Olympics
Held in Athens, Greece 14 nations participated 14 American men, students at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton First multi-national, multi-sport event in 19th century Europe Seven venues, with Panathenaic Stadium as the main venue
Sports at the Paris Exposition
Held in Vincennes and Bios de Boulogne Took place over two months No opening or closing ceremonies Required a separate ticket, not well attended Renamed the "Concours Internationaux d'Exercices Physiques et de Sport" Some athletes didn't know they were participating in the Olympic Games
The Olympics and Greek Mythology
Heracles invented the games Held in honor of Zeus A sacrifice of 100 oxen was made to Zeus Athletes prayed to the gods for victory
Josef Goebbels
Hitler's propaganda minister Convinced Hitler to approve the Games Believed they would be a great propaganda tool
Controversy
IOC worried about the glaring contradiction between the Olympic Charter and the racist principles of Nazism In 1936, New York Times questioned the appropriateness of Berlin as a venue Key issue: the right of German Jews to try out for their national team German government provided a written guarantee that they would allow this
1936 Berlin Olympics: Controversy
IOC's decision announced in 1931 Heinrich Brüning was Germany's chancellor Shaky centrist coalition was in power Choice of Berlin was meant to integrate Germany into the world of international sports Hitler came to power in 1933 Six days after the creation of the organizing committee for these Games
Winter Games
Ice skating in 1908 London Olympics Ice Hockey in 1920 Antwerp Olympics First Winter Games held in Chamonix, France in 1924 Until 1992, tradition established that Winter Games precede Summer Games by a few months At frist, same country hosted both Summer and Winter Games Idea quickly abandoned
Physical Culture/Sport in 19th-Century Europe
Ideal environment for reviving the Ancient Olympic Games Physical exercise: taste for it everywhere Technologies of transportation: great inventions bridged gaps between countries Nation-states: social structure ideal for the creation of a new national framework
Coubertin Campaigns for Olympics Revival
In 1894, organized a congress at the Sorbonne in Paris to present his plans to representatives of sports societies from 11 countries Suggested that the Games be held concurrently with the 1900 Universal Exposition in Paris. International Olympic Committee established IOC decides to host first Games earlier
Alienation of Labor
In traditional, rural setting: no separation between body and labor Take Pride in finished product Artisanal culture Factory setting: repetitive tasks Don't see product of labor Alienation from body and from others
Work vs. Leisure Time
In traditional, rural setting: no separation between work and leisure time In urban setting: clear division between work time and leisure time 40-hour work week Half-day Saturday Holiday Greater distinction between work and play Work as "instrumental" Non-work: mode of expression, socialibility
Olympic Truce
International truce among Greeks Messengers sent out from Elis announce a "sacred truce" one month before the Games began Truce ensured safe travel of athletes and spectators Ancient Greece: city-states competed for scarce resources Formed alliances with nearby city-states, but were also ofter at war with each other
Notions of "Aryan" Superiority
Korean won the marathon Japanese dominated in swimming Egyptians won weight lifting competitions Jesse Owens, African American athlete Germans: won 33 events, came in second in 26, and finished third in another 30
Olympic Village
Leni Riefenstahl's Olympia begins with pastoral sequence set in the village Over one hundred buildings to house athletes National cuisines served in 38 separate dining halls Runners could train on 400-meter track Swimmers and oarsmen could use a specially constructed artificial lake
Traditional Games
Mid-Nineteenth Century in Britain and France Diversions of the Rich: Equestrian, Hunting, Horse Racing, Cricket Role of Gambling Use of Animals Village Games of the Poor Local Cultures and Traditions Primarily During Festivals and Other Events
Modern Greek State
Modern Greek state viewed the Olympic Games as a link between the ancient and modern Hellenic culture Believed that they would contribute to a national ideology Campaigned (unsuccessfully) to become the permanent venue of the Games Games were not held in Greece again until 2004
Rise in Income
More money to practice sports More money to follow sports Newspapers Spectator Sports Construction of large arenas Growth of Professional and Middle Classes
Jim Thorpe
Native American athlete Won pentathlon and decathlon Amateur status retroactively challenged Had played on a baseball team in the summer and had been paid Stripped of his medals Went on to play professional football, baseball, and basketball
The Nazi View of Sports
Neither Hitler nor his cohort were advocates of modern sports Sports were almost unmentioned in Mein Kampf and in the party's newspaper Modern sports had ceveloped in England rather than in Germany Equality as a principle of modern sports Anathema to the Nazis belief in the racial supremacy of the "Aryan" people
Olympism according to Coubertin
Olympism... exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, mind, and will Oympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of a good example, and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles Amateurism
Why Olympia?
One of the oldest religious centers of the Ancient Greek World Site of a major Temple: Temple of Zeus Convenient geographically: could be reached by ship Athletes and spectators traveled from as far away as modern-day Spain or Egypt
1904 St. Louis Games
Part of a World's Fair Most European athletes stayed home Arduous Transatlantic voyage Thousand Mile train ride Many IOC members did not attend either 12 nations represented 554 athletes participated, 432 Americans
Characteristics of a Sport
Physical athleticism Established set of rules competitive element: winner or loser Promote health and wellness Role of Luck is not as great as Role of skill Provides entertainment for spectators Not instrumental: does not produce something, is not simply physical labor Is done primarily for recreation, leisure, exercise, and enjoyment
France Games
Pétanque Equestrian Diversions
Characteristics of Modern Sport
Quest for Victory (distinguished it from traditional games) Codified set of rules Less use of animals More focused on the individual, even when in a team setting Secular Separated from Local folklore and traditions
Leni Riefenstahl's Olympia
Released in 1938 Landmark of filmmaking due to its cinematic style Riefenstahl insisted that her documentary was privately financed In fact paid for by funds made available by Goebbels Goebbels not pleased with final product
Britain Games
Sack Races Leap Frog River Jousting Folk Football
FIFA World Cup
Soccer officially excluded from the Olympic Games at 1930 Congress Question of amateurism Professionalization of the sport World Cup established
Results of second industrial revolution
Telegraph and Railway networks Railways Electric power Textile Industry Rural to Urban Migration
Olympic Symbols/Traditions
The olympic torch: lit at Olympia and carried by a relay of thousands of runners from there to the stadium in Berlin Used to ignite the Olympic flame Tradition continued after these Games, still occurs today Olympic salute: on statues Olympic Hymn
Marathon Start at Windsor Castle
The original distance: 25 miles Changed to 26 miles so the marathon could start at Windsor Castle Changed again at the request of Princess Mary so the start would be beneath the windows of the Royal Nursery Finish line moved so that racers would finish in front of the King Standard distance of 26.2 miles established
Literacy and the Popular Press
The rise of popular press covering sports events In France: road races and cycling In England: football, cricket, and rugby Lively interest in exercise Commercial spectator sport Mass Culture
Jesse Owens
The unquestionable star of the Games Set a World Record of 10.3 seconds for 100m Olympic Record of 20.7 seconds for 200m Won the long jump with a jump of 8.06m Helped set another World Record in the 400-meter relay Won four Gold Medals The Spectator (London): "The German spectators, like all others, have fallen under the spell of the American Negro Jesse Owens, who is already the hero of these Games." Riefenstahl's documentary: appears as a god of sports Goebbels ordered cuts of the shots of Owens Hitler prevented them Hitler refused to shake hands with Owens
Events (43 total)
Track and field Swimming Gymnastics Tennis Weight-lifting Cycling First-ever Marathon Poetry
Traditional Games vs. Modern Sport
Traditional Games: emphasis on the enjoyment of the activity Modern Sport: emphasis on the result of the activity (winning or losing) Traditional Games: emphasis on how the game is played Modern Sport: emphasis on the Winner
Prizes
Victors received olive crowns Each victor was entitled to have a statue of himself set up at Olympia Benefits: meals at public expense Marry rich women Invitations to parties and best theater seats Brought honor and renown to their city-states Remembered for generations
1908 Olympics in London
Were originally scheduled to be in Rome, but relocated after the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius Fourth Games/Games of the fourth Olympiad Once again was part of the World's fair Lasted 6 months and 4 days, the longest in modern Olympic history
Events of 1936
Winter Games began on February 6th Shortly after their conclusion, on March 7th, Hitler sent his army into the Rhineland Rhineland had been demilitarized Violation of the Versailles Treaty (ended World War I) Hitler assumed this would not jeopardize the summer games, and he was right
