History Final

Angkor Wat

(12th century)-a Hindu temple complex in Cambodiaand is the largest religious monument in the world. It was originally constructed as a Hindutemple dedicated to the god Vishnufor the Khmer Empire. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountainand the later galleried temple

Constantine

Roman emperor who ruled between 306 AD to 337 AD. In 305, Constantine was appointed to western emperor of Rome, under emperors Diocletian and Galerius. His later task included bringing Christianity into the Roman empire. He made the persecution of Christians illegal by signing the Edict the Milanin 313 and spread the Word. He is also responsible for reorganizing the Roman Empire's currency system and restructuring Rome's military. After his defeat of Licinius he renamed Byzantium and called it Constantinople. Immediately afterwards, he began to rebuild "second Rome" and dedicate the city to connect the western and eastern sides of the Roman empire.

Feudalism

(10th to 13th centuries)- system in European medieval societies that established a social hierarchy based on local administrative control and distribution of land into units called fiefs. A landowner (lord) gave a fief, along with a promise of military and legal protection, in return for a payment of some kind from the person who received it (vassal). Such payment came in the form of feudal service which could mean military service or the regular payment of produce or money. Both lord and vassal were freemen and the term feudalism is not generally applied to the relationship between the unfree peasantry (serfs or villeins) and the person of higher social rank on whose land they laboured. The system had its roots in the RomanEmpire and in the 8th century CE kingdom of the Frankswhere a king gave out land for life to reward loyal nobles and receive service in return.

Temujin-Genghis Khan

(1162-1227)- rose from humble beginnings to establish the largest land empire in history. After uniting the nomadic tribes of the Mongolian plateau, he conquered huge chunks of central Asia and China. His descendants expanded the empire even further, advancing to such far-off places as Poland, Vietnam, Syria and Korea. Going against custom, Temujin put competent allies in key positions and executed the leaders of enemy tribes while incorporating the remaining members into his clan. At their peak, the Mongols controlled between 11 and 12 million contiguous square miles, an area about the size of Africa. Many people were slaughtered in the course of Genghis Khan's invasions, but he also granted religious freedom to his subjects, abolished torture, encouraged trade and created the first international postal system. Genghis Khan died in 1227 during a military campaign against the Chinese kingdom of Xi Xia.

Selijuk Turks

(11th to 14th centuries)-dynasty that ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th and 14th centuries. The Turks migrated from north Iranian provinces in Central Asia into mainland Iran (Persia). They were a group of nomadic Turkish warriors from Central Asia who established themselves in the Middle East during the 11th century as guardians of the Abbasid caliphate. The Seljuk played a major role in medieval history by creating a barrier to Europe against the Mongol invaders from the East, defending the Islamic world against Crusaders from the West, and conquering large parts of the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, their defeat of the Byzantines claimed their ruling of Anatolia. As the dynasty declined in the middle of the 13th century, the Mongols invaded Anatolia in the 1260s and divided it into small emirates called the Anatolian beyliks, which in turn were later conquered by the Ottomans.

Olmec

(1200 BC to 400 CE)- located in ancient Mexico, Olmecinfluence and trade activity spread from 1200 BCE, even reaching as far south as present-day Nicaragua. Monumental sacred complexes, massive stone sculptures, ball games, the drinking of chocolate, and animal gods were all features of Olmec culture which would be passed on to those who followed this first Mesoamerican civilization. They are probably best known for the statues they carved: 20 ton stone heads, quarried and carved to commemorate their rulers.

Mexica

(1200 CE)- a Nahuatl-speaking indigenous peopleof the Valley of Mexicowho were the rulers of the Aztec Empire. They spoke Nahuatl, which spread across the Aztec Empire, dominating other languages in use. The form of Nahuatl used in the 16th century, when it began to be written in the Latin alphabet introduced by the Spanish, became known as Classical Nahuatl. Nahuatl is still spoken today by over 1.5 million people, mostly in Mexico.The Mexica established Mexico Tenochtitlan, a settlement on an island in Lake Texcoco.The Mexica, once established in Tenochtitlan, built grand temples for different purposes. The Templo Mayor, nearby buildings, and associated sculptures and offerings are rich in the symbolism of Aztec cosmology that linked rain and fertility, warfare, sacrifice, and imperialism with the sacred mission to preserve the sun and the cosmic order. The Mexica designed roads for travel by foot because there were no draught animals. These roads were well maintained and boosted trade both for the Mexica and for the tribes under their control. They also enabled the Aztecs to be informed of events across their empire. The Mexica exported luxury items such as jewelry and garments manufactured from imported raw materials. They also exported goods such as lake salt and ceramic goods. Exotic luxuries such as animal skins, feathers, rubber and jade came from the distant southern tropics. Only a few years after Tenochtitlan was founded, the Mexica dominated the political landscape in Central Mexico until being defeated by the Spanish and their indigenous allies, mainly enemies of the Mexica, in 1519.

Kublai Khan

(1215-1294)- Mongolian general and statesman, who was the grandson and greatest successor of Genghis Khan. he completed the conquest of Chinain 1279, which was started by Genghis Khan in 1211 and became the first Yuan ruler of the whole of China. In celebration of his newly expanded empire, Kublai Khan declared a new Yuan Dynasty, of which he was the first and most successful ruler. Although the dynasty would ultimately prove to be short-lived, lasting only until 1368, it served as a precedent for the later Qing Dynasty. He was partially responsible for the development of "dual principle" political theory. As ruler, he made paper money the sole medium of exchange.

Sundiata

(1230-1255 CE) West African monarch who founded the western Sudanese empire of Mali. During his reign he established the territorial base of the empire and laid the foundations for its future prosperity and political unity. Born into a royal family in 1210 CE, Sundiata had an immediate disadvantage in that he could not walk, a deformity perhaps linked to his mother who was a hunchback in some versions of the Sundiata stories. When he was around seven years old Sundiata began to wear iron leg braces and with these and much painful practice, the young prince was eventually able to walk unaided. However, Sundiata was later persuaded to return home to help liberate his people from oppressive foreign rule. Sundiata is credited in oral tradition by establishing a code of government which covered rules for both political and social behaviour in the Mali Empire. Clans were reorganised, sometimes according to professions, and given new or alternative names to establish greater unity across the kingdom. The assembly also decreed that trades such as blacksmiths, weavers, and shoemakers were to be made hereditary. Sundiata carefully allotted each tribal group and each person within them a defined role as part of a larger empire where loyalty and solidarity were fostered.

Osman 1

(1289-1923)- the founder of the Ottoman empire. After his ascension to the throne, he gathered several Turcomangroups around himself and fought against the Byzantines, collaborating with the Seljuks. When the Seljuk Empirebecame weak, Osman 1 reunited them under his rule in 1299 marking the history as the foundation of the Ottoman Empire. Besides military actions, Osman Gazi also established all new measures to form a new empire, such as bringing new laws based on Seljuklaws, adopting taxes, and creating the first Ottomancoins.

Morisco

(12th and 15th centuries)- one of the Spanish muslims who became baptized Christians. During the Christian reconquest of Muslim Spain, surrendering Muslim communitiesin Aragon, Valencia,, and Granada were usually guaranteed freedom of religion by treaty. This tolerant policy was abandoned in the late 15th century, when Christian authorities began to make conversions and ordered the destruction of Islāmic theological books. The Muslims of Granadarebelled. In 1502, offered the choice of baptism or exile, many of them were baptized and continued to practice Islāmsecretly; in 1526 the Muslims of Valencia and Aragon were similarly forced to convert. Thereafter, Islām was officially prohibited in Spain. The Moriscos continued to speak, write, and dress like Muslims. They suffered taxation and a reduction to their silk trade, so they turned outside Spain for Muslim support. They obtained legal documents assuring them to continue practicing Islam. However, after their revolt in 1569 against Philip II, they scattered throughout northern Spain.

Hundred Years War

(1337-1453)- The causes of the 100 Year War were disagreements over rights to land, a dispute over the succession to the French throne and economic conflicts. Small disputes and battles had been going on between the French and the English for years. However, in 1337, King Edward III of England claimed that he was the rightful king of France. This began the long battle between the two countries. Other disputes kept the fighting going for over one hundred years. These included the control of the valuable wool trade, disputes over certain areas of land, and the support for Scotland by the French. When King Philip VI of France took control of Aquitaine from the English in 1337, King Edward III decided to fight back. He decided to invade France and reassert his right to the French throne. Edward did not attempt to conquer and control the land of the French. Instead he led raids into the land called chevauchées. He would strike deep into the land of the French burning crops, plundering cities, and causing havoc. In the 1350s, the army of King Edward III was led by his son, the valiant Edward the "Black Prince". The Black Prince led the English to major victories over the French. At the battle of Poitiers, the Black Prince captured King John II, the current King of France. In 1428 the English began to invade southern France. They began a siege of the city of Orleans. However, a young peasant girl by the name of Joan of Arctook leadership of the French army. She claimed to have seen a vision from God. She led the French to a victory at Orleans in 1429. The French were inspired by Joan of Arc's leadership and sacrifice. They continued to fight back. They pushed the English army out of France taking Bordeaux in 1453 signaling the end of the Hundred Years War.

Zheny He

(1371-1433)-was a great Chineseexplorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas. Born Ma He, he served the prince well and rose in the ranks of the servants. Soon he was one of the prince's closest advisors. He earned honor and the prince awarded him by changing his name to Zheng He. Later the prince became the Emperor of China as the Yongle Emperor. The Yongle Emperor wanted to show the rest of the world the glory and power of the Chinese Empire. He also wanted to establish trade and relations with other people in the world. He named Zheng He Chief Envoy and instructed him to put together a fleet and explore the world. He commanded a large fleet of ships that carried horses, troops, and fresh water to complete his trading goals. He traveled to many far away places, going all the way to the African coast and establishing trade relations with over 25 countries. He brought back all sorts of interesting items including animals such as giraffes and camels. He also brought back diplomats from various countries to meet with the Chinese Emperor.

Humanism

(13th and 14th centuries)- system of education and mode of inquiry that originated in northern Italy and later spread through continental Europe and England. The term is alternatively applied to a variety of Western beliefs, methods, and philosophies that place central emphasis on the humanrealm. Also known as Renaissancehumanism, the historical program was so broadly and profoundly influential that it is one of the chief reasons why the Renaissanceis viewed as a distinct historical period. Humanism sought its own philosophical bases in far earlier times and, moreover, continued to exert some of its power long after the end of the Renaissance.

Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469-1527)-an Italian Renaissancepolitical philosopher and statesman and secretary of the Florentinerepublic. His most famous work, The Prince(1532), brought him a reputation as an atheist and an immoral cynic. Machiavelli was also a key figure in realisticpolitical theory, crucial to European statecraft during the Renaissance. Machiavelli served the Republicof Florence after the expulsion of the Medici in 1494, travelling to European courts in France, Germany, as well as other Italian city-stateson diplomaticmissions. During this time he would draw influence for his workThe Princefrom the European leaders he met.

Bartolome de las casas

(1484- 1566)-early Spanish historian and Dominican missionary who was the first to expose the oppression of indigenous peoplesby Europeans in the Americas and to call for the abolition of slaverythere. He was there when Christopher Columbusgot to Seville in 1493after Columbus' first trip to the Americas. Las Casas became the first official priest in the New Worldin 1512 In 1515he went to Hispaniola, and from there to Spain to defend the native people of the Americas. From 1517to 1523, and with the title Protector of the Indians,he tried to develop a model settlementin northern Venezuelato protect the native people but the experiment failed. Then, he went to Hispaniola, joining the Dominican Orderin 1523. He stayed in the city of Santo Domingountil 1527when he was sent to Puerto Plata, on the northern coast, to found a new religious community and where he wrote his History of the Indies.

Converso

(14th and 15th centuries)-one of the Spanish Jewswho adopted the Christian religionafter a severe persecution in the late 14th and early 15th centuries and the expulsion of religious Jews from Spainin the 1490s. In the minds of many Roman Catholic churchmen the conversoswere still identified as Jews, partly because they remained within the Jewish communitiesin the cities and partly because their occupations had been monopolized by the Spanish Jewish people. Such identification caused many Christians to regard conversosas a subversive force within the church. Conversos played an important role in the Revolt of the Comuneros, a popular uprising and civil war centered in the region of Castile against the imperial pretensions of the Spanish monarchy.

Tenochtitian

(1500s)-The Aztec capital city, Tenochtitlan, was founded on a small piece of land in the western part of Lake Texcoco. The city was contained within high mountains and surrounding lake and marshes. To create living and farming space the Aztecs sank piles into the marshes and formed small land masses called chinampas, or floating gardens. Tenochtitlan was highly developed with causeways between islands for transport, aqueducts to carry fresh water and sewers to dispose of waste. The city developed into a metropolis led by a ruling leader and supported by noble classes, priests, warriors and merchants. By 1430 C.E. the Mexica had assimilated aspects of the surrounding tribes and developed into a structured society. Their military became powerful and campaigns were fought and won. The Triple Alliance was created with the lords of Texcoco and Tlacopan further strengthening Aztec power.

Cordoba

(152 BC- 1236 CE)-The Roman colony of Corduba was founded in 152 BC. In 711 Córdoba fell to the Muslim invaders and soon became the Islamic capital on the Iberian Peninsula. Córdoba's economic strength came under Abd ar-Rahman III, who in 929 named himself caliph to give himself independence from other rulers. Córdoba was then the biggest city in Western Europe and it had dazzling mosques, libraries, observatories and aqueducts, a university and highly skilled artisans in leather, metal, textiles and glazed tiles. It was during this period that the Great Mosquewas built, the first part in the 8th century and the fourth and final section, in the late 10th century. Córdoba was captured in 1236 by Fernando III of Castilla and became a provincial town of shrinking importance. The decline began to be reversed only with the arrival of industry in the late 19th century.

Suleiman the Magnificent

(1520- 1566)-longest reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled over at least 25M people. Suleiman succeeded his father as Sultan in September 1520 and began his reign with campaigns against the Christian powers in central Europe and the Mediterranean. Suleiman became a dominant leader of 16th-century Europe, strengthening Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgradeand Rhodes. He annexed much of the Middle Eastand large areas of North Africaas far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleetdominated the seas from the Mediterraneanto the Red Seaand through the Persian Gulf. He was a distinguished poet and goldsmith; he also became a great patron of the Golden ageof the Ottoman Empire in its artistic, literaryand architecturaldevelopment. In the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes, a phenomenon often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire.

Fall of Luoyang

(23 CE- 528 CE)- The city of Luoyang is located between the Luo and Yi Rivers in eastern-central China. Luoyang was perfectly positioned to control land and water transport throughout the region, an important fact considering tax collected from across the Chinese empirewas usually in the form of grain. Its long history gave great tradition of culture, especially Confucian literature, which was founded during a time of economic stability. However, this on and off capital endured a never ending change of leadership, undergoing several different leaders in a year. This made them weak and susceptible to takeover. One notable sacking was by the warlord Dong Zhuo c. 189 CE who razed the city's wooden buildings. During the fall of the Northern Wei state, the city was sacked again, this time by nomadic steppe hordes in 528 CE, when much of the court elite were executed. These attacks made it hard for historians to know much of the capital as most of the architecture is dried mud and destroyed tile.

Xiongnu

(300 BC and 450 AD)-a powerful nomadic group from Mongolia that were considered a great threat to China. Their repeated invasions prompted the Northern part of the Chinese empire to create barriers to keep them out. These barriers would eventually create the Great Wall of China. Around 209 BC, their leader Modu Chanyu unified this tribal group to build stronger armies and military technique. They adopted many Chinese agriculture techniques, built Chinese-styled homes, and wore silk. The Xiongnu worshipped the sun, moon, heaven, earth, as well as their ancestors. The Xiongnu often clashed with the Han empire, specifically in 129 BC, where a great war between alliances broke out. The war was difficult for the Han due to difficulties transporting food and supplies over long distances, and there was low availability of the fuel they needed to survive the harsh Xiongnu climate. Nevertheless, the Chinese gained control over the Xiongnu, causing instability and weakness of the Xiongnu empire.

Northern Wei Dynasty

(386-535 CE)-the longest lived and most powerful of the northern Chinese dynasties that existed before the reunification of China under the Sui and Tang dynasties. Founded by Tuoba tribesmen who spoke Turkic, the dynasty grew steadily as they targeted the weaker Northern China states in the late 4th century. However, having no administrative structure, they were forced to rely on Chinese civil servants to help govern their possessions. As the Wei economy started to depend more and more on farming and less on herding and raiding, the lifestyle of the tribesmen became more sedentary. Eventually the Wei Dynasty was led by Cui Hao who was attracted to Chinese goods and products, ultimately establishing administrative methods influenced by the Chinese upper classes. The Wei dynasty was able to improve and stabilize the economy of their empire. With the unification of the north, the Wei controlled the leading oases and trading centres that served the trade routes to Central Asia. They are also responsible for land reform and the spread of Buddhism in Northern China.

Franks

(3rd through 7th century CE)- The Frankswere a confederation of Germanic tribes that was originally composed of a mix of groups settled between the Rhine and the Weser Rivers. From the 5th century CE onwards, as Romanpower declined in northern Gaul, the Franks expanded into Belgium and northern France. Later on, the Franks resumed their expansion process and, by the first half of the 6th century CE, they gained control over part of central and southern France and a small portion of northern Spain. During their interaction with the Romans, the Franks raided the Roman Empireon numerous occasions, but some of the Franks also served as soldiers in the Roman army. The Franks were first united under the leadership of King Clovis in 509 AD. He founded the Merovingian Dynasty which would rule the Franks for the next 200 years. Clovis led the Franks in victories over the Visigoths, forcing them from Gaul and into Spain. He also converted to Christianity and was the first king of the Franks to be recognized as king by the Pope. The Merovingian Dynasty came to an end when Pepin the Short took power with the support of the Frankish nobles. He began the Carolingian Dynasty which would rule the Franks from 751 to 843. In many ways the Franks were at the heart of the culture of the Middle Ages. They were also who developed the concept of the knightand the feudal system.

Equal field system

(485 CE)- The equal field system was a program under the Tang dynasty that governed the distribution of land to people. The equal field system was controlled by the government, and was to make sure people received an equal distribution of land, to avoid the land concentration problems that ultimately destroyed the Han dynasty. The system gave land to families based on the fertility of the land and the size of the family. One fifth of the land actually belonged to the family, but the rest was available for redistribution when the recipients circumstances changed. The equal field system was important because it prevented the concentration of land in wealthy families and promoted stability in the Tang dynasty.

Huns

(4th and 5th century CE)-a nomadic tribe that came from modern Kazakhstan and settled around the Caspian Sea. Their invasions around the Roman Empire would lead to the Great Migration. After conquering the Alans, Ostrogoths, and Goths and forcing them into Rome, the Huns invade Roman Territories in 395 CE. This was the migration to destabilize the Romans and weaken their empire. Under their ruler Attila, the Huns became the most powerful and feared military force in Europe, bringing death to conquer neighboring settlements. However, in 453 CE, Attila fell to Italian military force, leaving the Huns struggling for order. In 469, the Hun Empire disappears and the White Hun raid into India.

Bishops of Rome

(4th century)- The Bishop of Rome or the Roman Bishop is the Pope, the Supreme Pontiffand leader of the Catholic Church. Constantine the Great's relationship with the four Bishops of Romeduring his reign is an important component of the history of the Papacy, and more generally the history of the Catholic Church. (I don't really understand this one)

La convivencia

(711-1492)- the coexistence of many religions during Muslim rule in medieval Spain. It was an 800 year period when Muslims, Jews and Christians lived side-by-side in peaceful and harmonious community while collectively making significant advancements in art, architecture, literature and science. Those advancements created a foundation for the Renaissance and Enlightenment of Europe. The diverse architecture of Cordoba, Granada and Seville speak powerfully to this time of peaceful coexistence and rise of multiculturalism. While the Reconquistawas ongoing, Muslims and Jews who came under Christian control were allowed to practice their religion to some degree. In 1492, Jews who had not converted to Catholicism were expelled. Many Jews settled in Portugal, where they were expelled in 1497. Similarly the Muslims of Iberia were forced to convert or face either death or expulsion. This happened even though the Granadan Muslims had been assured of religious freedom at the time of their surrender. Between 1500 and 1502 all remaining Muslims of Granada and Castile were converted.

Reconquista

(718 to 1492)- long series of wars and battles between the Christian Kingdoms and the Muslim Moors for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. The Reconquista began in 718 when King Pelayo of the Visigoths defeated the Muslim army in Alcama at the Battle of Covadonga. This was the first significant victory of the Christians over the Moors. Both sides struggled for internal power during these battles because of the shared wins and loses. Charlemagne would halt the Moors advance at the borders of France, but taking back the peninsula would take over 700 years. During the latter part of the Reconquista it was considered a holy war similar to the Crusades. The Catholic Church wanted the Muslims removed from Europe. Several military orders of the church such as the Order of Santiago and the Knights Templar fought in the Reconquista. After years of fighting, the nation of Spain was united when King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile were married in 1469. The land of Granada was still ruled by the Moors, however. Ferdinand and Isabella then turned their united forces on Grenada, taking it back in 1492 and ending the Reconquista. After the Reconquista, Muslims and Jews who lived in Spain were forced to convert to Christianity or they were expelled from the country.

Charlemagne

(742- 814 CE)-greatest ruler of the Carolingian Empire. He expanded the Frankish Empire to rule a large portion of Europe. He brought many reforms to the Franks including a strong government, written laws, education, a monetary standard, and support for the arts. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans. In this role, he encouraged the Carolingian Empire, a cultural and intellectual revival in Europe. When he died in 814, Charlemagne's empire encompassed much of Western Europe, and he had also ensured the survival of Christianity in the West. He is referred to by some as the father of Europe.

Sivijaya

(7th and 13th centuries)-Srivijaya's power was based on its control of international sea trade. It established trade relations not only with the states in the Malay Archipelagobut also with Chinaand India. Srivijaya was also a religious center in the region. It adhered to Mahayana Buddhismand soon became a stopping point for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims on their way to India.

Malinke

(7th century AD)-West African people that are divided into numerous independent groups dominated by a hereditary nobility, a feature that distinguishes them from most of their more neighbours. Beginning in the 7th century AD, Kangaba became the capital of the great Malinkeempire known as Mali. This was the most powerful and most renowned of all the empires of the western Sudan, now most known as the Republic of Mali. The Malinke peopleare an agricultural, cultivatingmillet and sorghum and tending small herds of cattle, kept primarily for trade. They are descendants of the Mali Empire, which rose to power in the 13th century under the rule of king Sundiata Keita who founded an empire which would go on to span the large part of West Africa. They migrated west from the Niger Riverin search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Mandinka farmersin the Sahelrely on peanuts, rice, millet, maize, and small-scale husbandry for their livelihood. Since about the 12th century they have mostly been Muslim.

Ancient Mali

(9th century- 16th century CE)-It stretches from the heart of Africa to the Atlantic coast, was home to 40-50 million people, and its cities of Djenne, Timbuktu, and Gao were amongst the wealthiest trade and intellectual centers in the world. Around the year 1000 CE, West Africa was home to three major kingdoms, Mali, Ghana, and Sosso. Mali was a smaller kingdom and a province within the empire of Ghana. Around the 13th century, Ghana began to fall into decline, paving the way for new powers to emerge. One of the aspiring rulers was Soumaoro, king of the city of Sosso. The Sosso started invading and conquering other cities and managed to invade Mali. However, Soumaoro found himself opposed by a Mali leader of the Keita clan named Sundiata. Sundiata rallied an army and defeated the Sosso between 1230 and 1235 CE, and then brought all of the clans together under his leadership, declaring himself the Mansa, or ruler, of all the clans. Mali gained dominance over Ghana's trade networks under Sundiata, making them an economic and intellectual powerhouse. Mali also expanded enough to gain access to its own abundant gold mines, and the kingdom's wealth soon became legendary. This allowed Sundiata to start rebuilding the kingdom's major cities, as well as reorganizing Mali society into a strict class-based system based on their clans and kinship. During the Mali Empire, music was also an important part of religious festivals and for celebrating hunters and warriors. They're also responsible for some of the most recognisable features and symbols in Africa's history. Other examples of the Mali baked-mud buildings which impress today, although many are early 20th-century CE reconstructions, including the huge mosques at Mopti and Djenne.

Pac Ottomanica

(during the Ottoman Empire but used in the early 1990s)-means Ottoman Peace. It is the economic and social stability attained in the conquered provinces of the Ottoman Empire. It refers to the possibility of extending Turkey's renewed influence on territories" and restoring the Ottoman Empire without the influence of Turkey. (i hope this isn't on the final bc i dont have much for this one)

Germania

An area of land that extended from Danube and Main in the south to the Baltic Sea. Germany's geographical locations, such as the Alps and the Rhine, created barriers to foreign outside sources. The Romans were forced to evacuate on the opposite side of the river, living them prone to a counterattack from Germania. This territory was populated by countless barbarian tribes that the Roman Empire couldn't conquer. After successfully evicting Rome against its well, Germania was left without a leader. Instead, many of these barbaric tribes had its own leader, yet none of them possessed the strength to take on the neighboring tribes. The shared independency allowed the tribes to grow on its own.

Sui/Tang Goguryeo Wars

During the Sui dynasty, armies of forced laborers, male and female, were thrown into public works projects, including the building of the grand canal system - which brought the north and south closer together economically. Also, granaries were constructed. The Great Wall along the northern borders was rebuilt. There was shipbuilding and road and palace construction. After little more than two decades, Sui rule came crashing down. Hostility toward the Sui had arisen among those who had been driven too hard on public works projects. Also the Sui dynasty ruined itself economically and militarily by its conceit concerning expansion. It attempted to expand against the kingdom of Goguryeo in northern Korea. In 618 the Goguryeo-Sui War ended with the Duke of Tang, Li Yuan, as the victor. He reunited China, became known as Emperor Gao-zu and began what became known as the Tang Dynasty. However, from 645-668, the Goguryeo kingdom and Tang empire also suffered a war. During the course of the war the two sides allied with various other states. Goguryeo successfully repulsed the invading Tang armies during the first Tang invasions of 645-648. In 666, Goguryeo's leader died and the kingdom became immersed with violence and demoralization

Goths

Germanic tribe who are frequently referenced for their part in the fall of the Roman Empire and their rise to power in the region of northern Europe, originally in Italy. Referred to as "barbarians", they sacked the city of Rome in 410 AD. A few of these groups moved to Gaul, which is modern day France, and Iberia and formed Visigothic Kingdom. Although the Roman Empire was extinct, this kingdom incorporated Catholic Christianity and Roman artistic traditions. During the third century, the Goths launched a series on invasions against Roman controlled Greece. In 238, the Goths took over the city Histria, located on the Danube River. Later in 268 AD, another group broke out across the Aegean Sea, destroying many civilizations and even a temple that was dedicated to the goddess Diana. After A.D. 395, the treaty with Rome fell apart. A Gothic leader named Alaric rose to pre-eminence, leading the Goths into battle against both the eastern and western halves of the Roman Empire.

Sufism

Originated after the death of Mohammed in 632, but did not develop until the 12th century. mystical Islamicbelief and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. It consists of a variety of mystical paths that are designed to ascertainthe nature of humanity and of God and to facilitatethe experience of the presence of divine love and wisdom in the world. Followers of Sufism believe they can become closer to Allah through inner purification and introspection. They do this by meditating and receiving guidance from their spiritual leaders.Sufism spread throughout the Muslim world, becoming a central component of many peoples' religious practice from Indonesia and South Asia to Africa and the Balkans. Sufi orders were sometimes close to the ruling powers such as the Ottoman Empire, helping their spread and influence. As it spread, it often adapted to and incorporated local beliefs and customs that made it popular, but would later become to be viewed by Islamic extremist groups as heretical.

Kra Isthmus

River that lies between the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea. Since the late 19th century the Isthmus of Kra has frequently been proposed for canalization, with the aim of decreasing travel and shipping time between Europe and East Asia by eliminating the voyage around Singapore.

Diocletian

Roman emperor who restored government to the Roman empire after the near anarchy in 245 CE. He reorganization led to the foundation of the Byzantine Empire. He is also noted for the last persecution of the Christians. After entering the military, he became a member of the Illyrian army. His first action after becoming emperor, he split the empire into two parts; he controlled the east and his son in law, Maximian, in the west. Over the next five years of his reign, Diocletian spent most of his time campaigning throughout the eastern half of the empire. He finally gained peace after a victory in 286 CE. He then addressed succession with the idea of tetrarchy, an empire ruled by 2 Augusti with 2 Caesars. The "Caesar" would succeed if the "Augustus" was to pass on.

Bubonic Plague

The Black Death is the name for a terrible disease that spread throughout Europe from 1347 to 1350. There was no cure for the disease and it was highly contagious. The plague likely started in Asia and traveled westward along the Silk Road. Once the Black Death had begun in Asia in the 1200s, Mongolian soldiers took it with them when their armies attacked the West in 1330. By 1347, the plague had hit Constantinople, now Istanbul, in Turkey. This was the world's major trading center and merchants leaving here took the disease all over Europe. It spread rapidly in the cramped, dirty conditions of medieval Europe. It then spread throughout southwest England, reaching Bristol in August, and London in the autumn. By July 1349, the Black Death had reached every town in England. The disease was carried by fleas that lived on rats. Historians think that black rats living on European merchant ships caught the disease, eventually bringing it to Europe. By the time the disease ran its course, it had killed at least one third of the people in Europe and probably more. In Paris, France it's estimated that around 800 people died a day. They also burned down houses and even entire villages to try and stop the disease. People would get really sick including black and blue blotches all over their body. Much of the infrastructure of Europe was gone when the Black Death finally subsided. It's estimated that it took around 150 years for Europe to rebuild. Many people thought that the Black Death was punishment from God.

Chang'an

The capital of the Tang dynasty, when at the time was the most populous city in the world. It is generally regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization: a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. Chang'an was an ideal location for a capital as it was surrounded on all sides by mountains, providing a useful obstacle to invading armies, and was close to the Yellow and Wei Rivers. In the 8th century CE, at its peak, the city probably had the largest concentrated population on earth: close to 3 million inhabitants (one million inside the city walls and another 2 million in the surrounding suburbs. These people were drawn from all over China and included many immigrants, lured by the great commerce of the city, positioned as it was at the end of the Silk Roadwhich crossed Asia. All manners of goods from furniture to spices were traded in the city's two great marketplaces. With regular tree-lined avenues, high walls, pleasure parks, and areas dedicated to specific functions, it provided a model which was copied by other Asian capitals, notably in Japanand Korea.

Encomienda

The encomienda system was a labor system instituted by the Spanish crown in the American colonies. In this system, a Spanish encomendero was granted a number of native laborers who would pay tributes to him in exchange for his protection. In the early 16th century, the Spanish crown set up the encomienda system in the Americas to divide up the American Indian labor force in order to aid the development of their mining economy. Under this system a Spanish conquistador, known as an encomendero, was granted the labor of a certain number of Native Americans living in the area. The encomendero provided the laborers protection from warring tribes, and teachings in the Catholic faith. The native laborer paid tributes to the encomendero in the form of gold or other metals, or agricultural products.The system was intended to be a way to enter into a peaceable and mutually beneficial relationship with the indigenous peoples of America; however, the system quickly devolved into essentially a system of slavery. Native Americans were treated cruelly and forced into hard labor. The crown attempted to fix the system by passing various laws throughout the century, but the encomenderos refused to comply with these new measures. Eventually, the encomienda system was replaced by the repartimiento system, but it was not abolished until the late 18th century. The encomienda system allowed for a vast accumulation of wealth by the conquistadors and the Spanish crown. They benefited from the discovery of gold and silver in the New World, and the mining of those metals by their laborers. The system resulted in the widespread abuse of indigenous people, as well as the theft of their land. The encomienda system was also the first racially-based system of slavery in the New World, and can be seen as a precursor to the African slave trade that eventually replaced it.

Indulgences

a distinctive feature of the penitential system of both the Western medieval and the Roman CatholicChurch that granted full or partial remission of the punishment of sin. Basically, by purchasing an indulgence, an individual could reduce the length and severity of punishment that heaven would require as payment for their sins, or so the church claimed. Buy an indulgence for a loved one, and they would go to heaven and not burn in hell. Buy an indulgence for yourself, and you needn't worry about that pesky affair you'd been having. The indulgence system was formalized by Pope Urban IIat the Council of Clermont in 1095. If an individual performed enough good deeds to earn a full indulgence from the Pope or lesser ranks of churchmen, all their sins would be erased.

Chinampas

also called floating garden, small, stationary, artificial island built on a freshwater lakefor agricultural purposes. Chinampan was the ancient name for the southwestern region of the Valley of Mexico, and it was there that the technique was most widely used. The lake provides the chinampawith moisture laden with decomposing organic wastes that irrigate and fertilize the island's soil, supporting an intensive and highly productive form of cultivation.

Dar- Al-Islam

an Islamic term for the Muslim regions of the world. It is the area of the world under the rule of Islam, literally, "the home of Islam." These are usually Islamic cultures wherein Muslims represent the majority of the population, and so the government promises them a privileged status. Most Dar al-Islamareas are surrounded by other Islamic societies to ensure public protection. In the centuries that followed the death of Muhammad, Dar al-Islam stretched from the Iberian Peninsula of Western Europe to the far islands of Southeast Asia.

Lake Texcoco

lake in central Mexico. Texcocohas been drained via channels and a tunnel to the Pánuco Riversince the early 17th century, until it now occupies only a small area surrounded by salt marshes. Tenochtitlán, the Azteccapital, captured in 1521 by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, stood on islands in old Texcoco, connected to the mainland by causeways. It was hoped that vast areas of rich farmlands would be made available by draining the lake, but the soils proved too saline for cultivation. In addition, the surface of the lake bed has dropped and the buildings on it have settled, and clouds of dust are occasionally blown over the urban area, contributing to the extreme air pollution of Mexico City.

Huitziolopochtli

one of the two principal deities of Aztec religion, often represented in art as either a hummingbirdor an eagle. Aztecs believed that dead warriors were reincarnated as hummingbirds and considered the south to be the left side of the world; thus, his name meant the "resuscitated warrior of the south." Huitzilopochtli is presented as the deity who guided the long migration the Aztecs undertook from Aztlan, their traditional home, to the Valley of Mexico. During the journey his image, in the form of a hummingbird, was carried upon the shoulders of priests, and at night his voice was heard giving orders. Thus, according to Huitzilopochtli's command, Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, was founded in 1325 CE on a small, rocky island in the lake of the Valley of Mexico. The god's first shrine was built on the spot where priests found an eagle poised upon a rock and devouring a snake, an image so important to Mexican culturethat it is portrayed on the national flag of Mexico. The Aztecs believed that the sun godneeded daily nourishment in the form of human blood and hearts and that they, as "people of the sun," were required to provide Huitzilopochtli with his sustenance.

Princep

the unofficial title used by Roman emperors from Augustus to Dioletian (27 BC-305 AD). The Latin meaning is "the first or the most noble man". The title princeps originated under the Roman Republic, when it was held by the leading member of the Senate. With this, Augustus used the title princepto present legibility to restore government during the 1st century civil wars. Its use continued until the reign of Diocletian, in which he used dominusor "lord".