Lecture MicroBiology BIO205

Describe how digestion of food nutrients occur in bacteria and fungi?

Food nutrients are broken down into smaller pieces by bacteria and fungi via the secretion of digestive enzymes on their surfaces. These products are ingested and used to make energy or create and maintain cells.

What does it mean when a Fungi is Heterotrophic

It menas that fungi have a complex nutriental requirement as they can recive nutrients from dead or alive organisms (Humans are also Heterotrophs).

What does Binary Fission of Bacteria Result in?

Binary Fission results in bacteria creating a thin layer of Biofilm adhering to each other as a glycocalyx layer is exposed.

What can Bacteriaphage do?

Phages can transfer antibiotic resistance genes and pathogenic factors between bacteria

What do Phages do to live on?

Phages don't reproduce but replicate their Build once they go through Binary Fission.

What are the Important Types of ACID FAST Bacteria ?

Phylum group of AFB bacteria are: Actinobacteria Important Genera subgroups: +Mycobacteria - tuberculosis, leprosy +Corynebacteria - diphtheria +Actinomycetes - dental abscesses +Streptomycetes

What is the Important Types of Gram-Positive Bacteria ?

Phylum group of Gram+positive bacteria (G+) are: -Firmicutes. Important Genera within Firmicutes: +Staphylococci (MRSA) +Streptococci (necrotizing fasciitis, TSS) +Enterococci (VRE, UTI) +Clostridium (C diff, gangrene, tetanus, botulism) +Bacillus - (cereus, anthracis)

List the top 3 protist infectious diseases in North America and how they are transmitted?

The top three protist infections in North America is Trichomoniasis (this protist is transferred sexually in the case of an STI). Next would be Traxoplasmosis (and this is protist is transferred usually by outdoor cats). Last would be Giardiasis (and this protist is transferred through water so if someone drinks unclean water containing protists).

What are In Vivo microbes?

-All VIRUSES Some fastidious bacteria require living hosts: -Mycobacteria, Treponema, Chlamydia, Listeria -Many protists and helminths

What are the functions of bacterial glycocalyx?

1. A glycocalyx bacteria serves two purposes; one is to protect the layer from environmental changes or damage from host cells. 2. In addition, glycocalyx bacteria create a layer of biofilm by adhering host cells and other bacteria together due to theie stick surfaces.

What are the 4 most common helminth infections Worldwide?

1. Ascariasis (nematodes) - food and waterborne 2. Schistosomiasis (trematode) - waterborne, blood fluke (SNAIL). 3. Filariasis (nematode) - insect transmitted (LYMPH) 4. Fasciolosis (trematode - fluke) - mainly meat

How do Bacterias Reproduce? And what is the Rate of Reproduction (Rate of Binary Fission)?

1. Bacteria are prokaryotes so they reproduce asexually, meaning they do asexual reproduction called Binary Fission; The cells first expand and then go through Binary Fission, resulting in a copy of Two (daughter) Cells. -This means Chromosomes replicate into two. -The cell wall and membrane grow into the cell center, splitting the cell cytoplasm. 2. Rate of fission: -Varies per bacteria type, from minutes to several days -Exmaple: E. Coli fission 20 minutes, AFB takes days

List three important factors in categorizing or grouping bacteria (Criteria used to group medically important bacteria)?

1. Cell wall type: +G+, G-, AFB 2. Cell Shape 3. Oxygen requirements: _Aerobic vs. anaerobic

What is Cell Theory?

1. Cells are the smallest unit of life. 2. All living things are made up of individual cells. 3. Cells have the ability to reproduce and metabolize.

List the methods of classifying viruses and an example virus from each category?

1. Clinical effects - named by the effect on the host. -Current - SARS, HIV, encephalitis, hepatitis -Historical - Pox, influenza, measles, herpes 2. Physical characteristics -Chromosome type (RNA or DNA), size, appearance -Ex: Picorna (polio), Corona (SARS) Retro (HIV), Hepadna 3. Source of transmission -In addition, a classification of a virus should include its source of virulence or its origin (For example, Arboviruses spread their viruses through insects that come from forest areas, etc.). - Ex: Insect transmitted = Arbo (forest) West Nile Virus Dengue Fever Virus Chikungunya Zika

What are the 3 Types of Bacteria Cell SHAPES?

1. Cocci (Circular shape) 2. Bacilli -Coccobacilli (Long ciricular rod shape) -Bacillus 3. Curved bacilli -Vibrios (V shape) -Spirilla (Worm shape) -Spirochete (Extreme Worm Shape) 4. Pleomorphic (No settled shape)

Explain Replication ,Transcription and Translation? Viral RNA

1. Core enzymes such as Reverse Transcriptase (RT) or an equivalent enzyme make DNA copies of the viral RNA chromosome (Turn RNA into DNA) Copied viral DNA is then a template for the host to make new viral RNA chromosome copies for the final virus product (DNA makes Viral RNA and an mRNA) So one copy is a Virus chromosome, and another is an mRNA which starts transcription and translation, then assembly. 2. Viral Protein Synthesis - producing viral proteins 2a. Viral transcription - by host cell +Viral chromosome transcribed to mRNA. 2b. Viral translation - by host cell +Viral mRNA translated to a large polypeptide. 2c. Viral protein assembly - by host cell +Viral polypeptide is split into separate proteins that are Capsid, Spikes, and Core proteins. Viral proteins folded and assembled together

Describe the 3 methods of viral entry into a host?

1. Genetic penetration - naked viruses. -Capsid or spike proteins attach to host membrane +Viral plasmid admitted into cell +Capsid remains external 2. Fusion - enveloped viruses. -Envelope spikes attach to receptors and fuses with host membrane +Capsid with chromosome admitted into cell 3. Endocytosis - enveloped and naked. -Spikes attach to host membrane receptors -Endocytosis response +Entire virus is admitted into the cell in a vesicle

What are 3 Types of CELL WALLS?

1. Gram positive 2. Gram negative 3. Acid Fast

What are the differences in composition of a Gram positive and Gram negative cell wall?

1. Gram-Positive cell wall has many layers of Peptidoglycan; Crystal Violet stains Pepridoglycan better. 2. Gram-negative bacterium consists of two layers: an outer membrane layer with LPS (Endotoxin) that is on top of the inner thin peptidoglycan layer that is underneath it; POOPY Bacteria (ENTERIC); Safranin turns Gram-negative bacteria PINK/RED.

List one important RNA virus family and an example virus

1. Picorna +Polio, Hep A(HAV), Rhino 2. Flavi +Hep C (HCV) 3. Paramyxo +Mumps, measles, RSV (respiratory syncytial) 4. Matona +Rubella - Adult or German measles 5. Orthomyxo +Influenza 6. Corona +SARS, MERS, some colds 7. Retro +HIV, SIV, FIV, and various leukemia viruses

List one important DNA virus family and an example virus

1. Pox: +Small pox (variola) +Cowpox (vaccinia) +Monkeypox 2. Herpes: +HSV1,2 +Varicella (chickenpox) +Epstein-Barr (mononucleosis) +Cytomegalovirus (CMV) 3. Papova: -Papilloma (warts) - HPV 4. Hepadna: -Hepatitis B - HepB (HBV)

What are Microbes? And list the alternate names for Microbes?

1. Microbes are 'microscopic organisms' basically living things that are found all around us. Some microbes make us sick, but others are important for our health. 2. Germs, microorganisms, pathogens, agents, bugs

Explain The Phage Replication Cycle?

1. Phage attaches to the specific host cell (bacteria) receptor and Viral Plasmids or Viral Chromosomes enter the bacteria. 2. Replication of Viral chromosome and proteins 3. Phage (New Virions) is then Assembled and then released. 4. When phages or new virions exit or lyse the host cella it kills the host cell (bacteria). 5. Another way a phage or new virion leaves a host cell is that in Lysogeny, Viral chromosomes injected into the host cell become a permanent part of the bacteria. -And that Chromosome or Viral plasmid is integrated becoming a PROVIRUS or Prophage. -And then they are replicated through Binary Fission meaning there are two copies of integrated Phage Cells. -And those two copies of Integrated phage cells can be activated and we can get into a Lytic phase. +Antibiotic resistance genes are passed on between bacteria in this way - termed Viral transduction.

What are two reasons of Bacteriaphages importance in healthcare?

1. Researchers are looking at the possibility of using them as a therapy for bacterial illnesses because there are serious infections being caused by antibiotic resistant bacteria. 2. Phages are being researched in agriculture and food production to control pathogenic strains of E coli and Salmonella. For example, phages are mixed in feed to beef cattle and poultry to kill and control Salmonella and pathogenic E coli strains thereby avoiding the use of antibiotics. Phages are also being used on leafy vegetables that have been known to harbor these pathogenic bacteria before they are delivered to stores for purchase. Some research has been able to show a greater than 90% reduction in pathogenic bacteria in these foods.

What else do we know about Eukaryotes?

1. Single-celled and multi-celled organisms -Animals, plants, protists, fungi 2. Large-sized cells -Complex membrane systems and organelles -Multiple and complex chromosomes 3. Reproduce asexually and sexually -Cell reproduction - mitosis and meiosis

Describe two methods of reproduction in fungi?

1. Spore formation is one of the means of reproduction, so it is Hyphal Cells that produce spores. A hyphal cell can reproduce through asexual reproduction, meaning in mitosis, it produces two copies of a spore, or it can reproduce sexually, which means it mixes its DNA with that of another Hyphal cell to produce a spore. (Spore Germination) 2. Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning where Hyphae fragments and yeast cell buds are divided into minor fragments and developed or give rise to an individual fully grown Hypahe's (Fungi). Spore-Bud-Yeast-Hyphae.

Describe the steps in Endospore FORMATION?

1. Sporulation: - Means the Formation of An Endospore by Bacteria (1 spore formed by 1 cell) "And under harsh conditions, the Outer Cell DIES leaving behind a an ENDOSPORE" 2. Germination: - And that ENDOSPORE left behind that reaches a favorable condition due to hydration and nutrients surrounding it can Germinate or reactivate, Forming ONE Bacterial Cell (1 cell formed by 1 spore).

List the microbe groups in order of size from smallest to largest and include the level of organization that each belongs. For example, arthropods/insects are multi-system organisms?

1. Viruses (Viruses are not alive, so they are not living organisms, and viruses are recognized as acellular). 2. Bacteria (a bacteria is a cellular organism, meaning that it contains cells. Cellular microbes can be either unicellular or multi-cellular, but in this case, a bacteria is a unicellular prokaryote). 3. Fungi (multi-cellular eukaryote; Yeasts are unicellular prokaryotes) 4. Protists or Protozoa (unicellular eukaryotes). 5. Helminths (multi-cellular eukaryotes). 6. Arthropods and insects (multi-cellular, eukaryotic).

Describe Endoparasitic Helminth characteristics?

1. Worms (small animals) w/organ systems 2. Reproduction -Sexual - produces eggs -Single or multiple hosts 3. Morphology classification: -Nematodes= round worms -Platyhelminthes = flukes - flatworms, tapeworms - flat segmented

Describe The Plasmid chromosome fates in bacteria?

A Bacterial Cell containing a genomic Chromosome and Extra Plasmids can replicate itself Through Binary Fission, making a two-daughter cell that contains COPY of a Bacterial cell that has a Plasmid and Genomic Chromosome (THIS ISN'T ALWAYS THE CASE) But otherwise: 1. A Bacterial Cell containing a Genomic Chromosome and Plasmid; That Plasmid is Integrated into a Genomic Chromosome Becoming a PROVIRUS, and then that Cell is then replicated through Binary Fission making two daughter cells that have PROVIRUSES.

What is a Mycelium?

A Mycelium is an Extension of a Hyphae because these mycelium form a mass of Hyphaes (that look coiled or densely packed tube-like mass), and These type of Hyphaes (a Mycelium is Hyphae) are known t form bodies known to be MUSHROOMS.

What is Pili? What Is the Relationship between a Pili and Conjugation (Describe the process of bacterial conjugation using Pili)?

A Pili is an extremely long protein tube that transports plasmids/ Genetic material (chromosomes) from one bacteria to a second bacteria. a Pili is not permanent; it only transports genetic material and then is dissembled. Bacterial conjugation is a temproary attachment of one donor bacteria to another recipient bacteria to transport plasmids through a Pili because a recipient cell did not have the needed materials.

What is the Chain of Infection? And briefly List and Decribe the parts of the Chain of Infection?

A chain of infection refers to a series of linked events that contribute to the spread of infection (How Infections happen) And at least SIX parts of the Chain of infection are required for an infection to occur. 1. Causative agent - the microbe 2. Reservoir - the source of where the microbe lives in. 3. Mode of Transmission - how the microbe is transferred 4. Portals of entry - how the microbe gets in of the body 5. Portals of exit - how the microbe gets out of the body 6. Susceptible host - which indicates that in order to be infected, the body must be vulnerable to infection.

Define dimorphism and describe the physical differences between yeasts and molds (hyphae)?

A fungus that exhibits dimorphism is one that has two different physical forms. Using this definition, it means that it may be unicellular (yeast are unicellular fungi) or multicellular (these are molds, better known as hyphae, which are fiber tube-like linear structures that are capable of growing and digesting decaying foods).

Identify the three modes of transmission for protist infections and one example protist for each?

A protist is capable of transmitting its disease in one of three ways: through the blood, through contaminated food, water, or even soil. Or through sexual transmission, meaning it can be passed on during sexual contact.

What is a bacteriophage?

A virus that infects bacteria as it has a Host Tropism for it.

Describe the composition of an Acid fast cell wall?

AFB, bacteria composition is quite similar to a gram-negative bacteria in that it has two layers of cell walls. White blood cells and antimicrobial products struggle to get rid of AFB bacteria because of their waxy outer membrane, which makes it difficult for them to eliminate or disinfect it. In addition, a thin layer of peptidoglycan is present underneath the waxy outer membrane. And an example of an AFB bacteria is a Mycobacterium called Leprosy or Tuberculosis.

What is Active Transport?

Active Transport is the movement of molecules from a region of LOWER concentration to a region of HIGHER concentration with the use of energy.

Describe a Bacterial Genomonic Chromosme?

All Bacteria Have Genomic Chromosomes. Bacterial Chromosomes carry the essential genes; these Bacterias have only ONE Single Chromosome Called NUCLEIODS. (Humans have 46 Chromosomes) These Genomic Chromosomes are circular, meaning they have an NO END(Human chromosomes are linear on both two ends meaning they have an END to it). These Genomic Chromosomes are Supercoiled or Bunched up in a Middle of a Bacteria Cell.

List the parts (anatomy) of an enveloped virus?

An enveloped virus possesses a bilipid plasma membrane with glycoprotein spikes that project from it. Inside the enveloped membrane is a capsid, which envelops genetic material, either DNA or RNA.

What are the differences between infectious and non-infectious diseases?

An infectious disease is characterized by how transmittable or contagious a disease is. A microbe often causes the resultation of disease in a host body. Furthermore, in this case, an infectious disease can cause abnormalities or dysfunctions in a host's tissues or cells. Alternatively, a non-infectious disease may be caused by a person's lifestyle and behavior, an injury, or genetics, which makes this disease quite difficult for it to be transmitted from one person to another. Despite this, infectious diseases and non-infectious diseases have a relationship since infectious diseases can cause persistent and ongoing symptoms after a microbe is removed from the body. For Example, Lyme's disease - arthritis.

Describe the difference between an obligate aerobic bacteria and a facultative anaerobic bacteria and provide an example bacteria for each?

An obligate aerobic bacteria manes a microbe or organism specifically needs oxygen to make energy (ATP), and Humans are great examples of obligate aerobes. Microbe-respiration-uses oxygen-making energy (ATP). With facultative anaerobes, a microbe or organism is generally aerobe, but it doesn't need oxygen to make energy as it can substitute oxygen (fermentation) in order to make energy.

Describe the requirements for an obligate anaerobic bacteria to produce ATP and provide an example bacteria?

An obligate anaerobic bacteria can grow when there is no oxygen present or can make energy (ATP) when sulfur and nitrogen are used. microbe-cell respiration-uses sulfur/nitrogen-make energy (ATP) Clostridium perifrigens

Describe viral assembly and release mechanisms of a lytic and budding virus?

As soon as transcription and translation are completed, we have the end products, including the capsid, spike, core proteins, and replication has produced sufficient genetic material, the virus is assembled. It then travels to the plasma membrane, where the plasma membrane surrounds the capsid, which forms the envelope of the virus. The virus has two modes of action when it is time to release itself. The first method is lytic in nature, in which it immediately kills all host cells as it leaves the body. As opposed to budding, in which the virus leaves the host cell without killing it.

What else do we know about Prokaryotes?

Bacteria are prokaryotic cells: 1. Single celled organisms only: -Are the smallest living organisms and smallest cells -10 to 100 times smaller than human cells, 0.2-2.0 microns 2. Cells have a single simple compartment: -All DNA, RNA and proteins are in the single compartment, no internal membranes 3. Have a cell wall external to plasma membrane 4. Reproduce asexually by BINARY FISSION (Make a Replica) Bacteria are found everywhere (ubiquitous)

Where are Bacteriophages usually found?

Bacterial phages are found in nature, such as in the ocean or large bodies of water; phage can be found in soils, 1. But most importantly, Phages are found in Human sewage because Poop contains a lot of bacteria, and viruses that infect bacteria are called phages.

Before the 20th century what was the initial idea of how Germs were spread?

Before the 20th century, disease was thought to come from bad air (miasma and malaria) or by contact (contagionism). Germs (microbes) are now known to be everywhere.

Some Gram-negative bacteria that can store and form Enmdspores are?

Chlamydia, Coxiella

Some Gram+positve Bacterias that can form and store Endospores are?

Clostridium, Bacillus

LE5 Enviro req. Define the terms obligate and facultative and provide an example of each?

Essentially, the term obligate refers to an organism's need for a specific resource or essential nutritional component. In the case of humans, we are Obligate Aerobes since we require oxygen exclusively for survival. The term faculative refers to the fact that an organism may need a specific nutrient or may be able to substitute that nutrient. As an example, a faculative parasite can complete its life cycle without any difficulty since it does not need a host to survive, as it can survive either with or without it.

Where are Flagella embedded?

Falgellas are embedded in a Bacteria's CELL WALL ir PLASMA MEMBRANE.

What is Fimbriae? And what do they do?

Fibriae are tiny proteins that are mbedde on the outside of bacteria and they attach to specific host receptor of their choosing.

What are Flagella? What does Flagella do?

Flagella are protein filamnets that are slender and threadlike structures? A bacteria's flagella provide circular movement.

How do yeasts or single-celled organisms usually form due to the environment affecting it?

For a fungi to develop or become a yeast or develop into a single-celled form, it must be inside or interior (internal). And these yeats form if the environment inside of a host has a HIGH CONSISTENT Temperature, a HIGH CONSISTENT Moisture, And a LOW OXYGEN CONTENT. Yeasts are PARASITE as they live inside a host

What environmental conditions affect dimorphism in fungi? Identify the conditions for each form?

Fungi dimorphism is influenced by two to three environmental conditions. 1. Among these factors are the temperature, moisture content, and oxygen levels in the area.

What are the three important parts of Germ theory? Furthermore, what was the resultation that happened when Germ Theory was accepted?

Germ theory: 1. Infectious diseases are caused by germs (microbes) transmitted to the body. 2. Germs are everywhere. 3. Controlling germs leads to controlling infection. Acceptance of Germ theory resulted in public sanitation, healthcare hygiene, and hygienic methods applied to water and food.

What are the Layers of a Cell Envelope (Bacteria)?

Glycoclayx, Cell Wall (Gram+ / Gram -), Plasma or Cell Membrane.

Describe the basic characteristics of helminths and identify the three major groups?

Helminths are multi-celled eukaryotes. These organisms are parasites that inhabit hosts in the form of a worm. There are organ systems in these worms, but not to the same extent as we have in humans. It is important to note that these worms comprise of a system of skin, muscles, stomachs, and brains.

Define host tropism and cell tropism and provide and example virus and host for each?

Host tropism relies on how a Virus seeks out and attaches to a particular organism, whether it be an insect, human, or reptile. Furthermore, cell tropism refers to the tendency for a virus to attach itself to a specific cell in view of the receptor it contains. A good example of a virus is Rabies, which only affects mammals such as animals because of its host tropism.

What is Host Tropism? And what relationship does it have with Fimbriaes?

Host tropism relies on the specific host (animal, plant or human) that a Bacteria/Microbe can attach to and infect and colonize (Host tropism is determined by fimbriae/adhesion because the adhesins on fimbriae allow bacteria to bind to specific host receptors to colonize) Example: Bacteria is Strep, and it's Tropism (a place where it likes to attach to) is the Upper Respiratory Tract.

What are the three important parts of KOCH's method that identifies the causative agent in the Chain of infection?

However, the three important parts that Koch used to identify the causative agent (Identifying the specific microbe that causes an infection): 1. How he took that microbe from a diseased animal and isolated that microbe into one piece (pure culture). 2. The isolated microbe is then transferred into a new Healthy host 3. The same microbe must be re-isolated from the newly diseased host and match the originally isolated microbe meaning that it must cause the same symptoms and diseases in both scenarios.

Explain Passive Transorts (Diffusion Vs. Faciltated Diffuison Vs. Osmosis)

In Passive Transport, energy isn't required to move molecules. Diffusion: Small Molecule move from areas of HIGH concentration to areas of LOW concentration. Facilitated Diffusion: large molecules cannot pass through the plasma membrane as is they need a protein transmembrane channel to pass through from areas of HIGH concentration to areas of LOW concentration. Osmosis: In osmosis, water always moves from an area of HIGHER concentration (of water) to one of LOWER concentration (of water). In this system, the solute cannot pass through the selectively permeable membrane.

Describe in vivo growth media provide two example microbes that require this type of environment for growth?

In Vivo growth media, microbes or organisms require a host or living cell to acquire specific nutrients. Among these microbes are Tropnema and Chlamydia bacteria.

Myocology , How are fungal cells different from bacteria cells?

It is important to note that fungal cells differ from bacterial cells in that they are multi-celled eukaryotes that have membrane-bound organelles, whereas bacteria cells are unicelluar prokaryotes. In addition, a bacterial cell has a cell wall composed of peptidoglycans, mycolic acids, or even LPS, while a fungal cell has a wall composed of polysaccharides called glucan and chitin.

What organs do these hemlminths paratsites affect?

Major Organs affected Blood and lymphatic organs Gastrointestinal organs urogenital organs

What is the Microbiota concept?

Microbiotas are the non-illness microbes that doesn't make us sick. 1. And in our body, whether internal or external, microbes live in a GIVEN Environment. 2. Microbes live on the surfaces of organisms: +Human microbiota consists of at least 1000 different microbes, most are in the lower intestinal tract. -There are also Skin microbiota, and intestinal microbiota.

How do molds/Hyphaes or multicelled organisms usually form due to the environment affecting it?

Molds or Hyphaes or multicelled organism form on external or outisde meaning that they can form in water, soil, or on the surface of living things. Furthermore, these form only because there is INCOSOISTENT Temperature and Moisture in the area, as well as having a HIGH OXYGEN CONTENT. Hyphae are SAPHROPHYTE (SAPROTROPIC)

What is the study of fungi?

Myocolgy

What are the 2 Types of Cell ARRANGEMENTS?

One is Chains and the other is in Clusters. 1. Chains: -Diplo (2 chains) -Strepto (Small branching chains) -Filamentous - long branching chains Nocardia, Actinomyces 2. Clusters: -Tetrads (4 clusters) -Sarcinae (8 clusters) -Staphylo (EXTREME clusters)

What are the two kinds of Endoparatsitic parasites? And do they live inside or outside?

One is protists, a single-celled eukaryote; another is a Helminth, a multicelled eukaryotic WORM. AND THESE TWO LIVE INSIDE A HOST.

What is the study of tissue damage?

Pathology

What is the Important Types of Gram-Negative Bacteria ?

Phylum group of Gram-negative (G-): Proteobacteria Enteric bacteria: +Citrobacter +Escherichia +Enterobacter +Klebsiella +Serratia +Salmonella +Shigella +Proteus +Yersinia Non-enteric G- bacteria: • Hemophilus • Neisseria • Vibrio • Pseudomonas • Campylobacter • Legionella • Chlamydia • Treponema

Desribe a Provirus?

Plasmids integrated into A Genomic Chromosome are Called PROVIRUSES.

Protists are polymorphic, single celled eukaryotic that are heterotrophs. Define each term used.?

Polymorphic parasites have a variety of physical forms, but initially, they depend on their host and the environment in which they are found. The protist is a single-celled eukaryote, which means that it has membrane-bound organelles that perform all the functions it requires. The fact that protists are heterotrophs means that they can acquire nutrients from a dead or living host, but they need to inhibit a living host in order to do so.

Why is Bacteriaphages researched?

Research on using phages to kill and control bacterial infections is currently in clinical trials.

Desrcibe a Plamsid?

Some Bacteria have a single genome chromosome, but other bacteria have extra or more chromosomes called PLASMIDS. These are also really small and circular.

What is one of the internal thing a Bacteria can do?

Some Bacteria have something called Internal Storage Granules, and they store nutrients like organic material like lipids and carbohydrates or inorganic material like iron or salts.

Describe the difference between a Strepto and Staphylo arrangement of bacteria cells?

Strepto is in Long Chains. Staphylo is in clutters of Clusters.

Identify a primary characteristic of acellular microbes? And provide an example of a human prion disease?

The primary characteristic of acellular microbes is their size; these microbes are not alive since they don't have cells, and they cannot reproduce or metabolize. An example of human prion disease is Creutzfeldt-Jakob(CJD), which is a rare form of neurodegeneration with severe effects on the brain. CJD gradually destroys brain cells and produces tiny holes in the brain.

Explain the diffenetces between Eukaryote vs. Parkoyte?

The primary distinction between these two types of organisms is that eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and prokaryotic cells do not (prokaryotes only have free-floating genetic material instead).

Describe viral spike function and where they are located in an enveloped and naked virus?

The viral spike serves as a key to allowing the virus to attach to a specific receptor on the host cell. An enveloped virus' spike projects from its surface, whereas a naked virus' spike projects from its capsid.

List the five major groups of organisms that are Cellular life?

There are five groups of cellular organisms Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protists, Bacteria.

List the top 3 protist infectious diseases World-wide and how they are transmitted?

There are three worldwide protist infections. One is Plasmodium, and these protists are transmitted through blood, resulting in malaria. Leishmaniasis and Chagas are two other worldwide protist infections, both members of the Tryponomiaisis family, and they transfer their protist infections through the bloodstream as well.

Compare saprotrophic and parasitic in fungi?

There are two ways in which a fungus can receive nutrients from its environment. Fungi are saprotrophic, meaning they receive nutrients from dead or dying tissues. Parasitic fungi, on the other hand, grow and inhabit living organisms receiving nutrients from them. And these fungi also look for an opportunity to carry out infections or diseases against their host when their health is compromised.

Explain Transcription and Translation? Viral DNA

There is no need for Reverse Trasncripttses to make something in new id we have A Viral DNA or Chromosme at the start as it enters the host cell.

How many hosts can a Protist inhibit?

They can inhibit multiple hosts (Animals, Insects, etc.)

Facultative Anaerobe, Fermentation, Anaerobic Respiration mean what?

They mean the same thing oxygen isn't required and can be substituted for carbs in order to make energy (ATP); Microbe-fermentation-uses carbs-making energy (ATP)-producing alcohol and acid as products.

What is the Differnce between uni-cellar vs multicullear?

Unicellular organisms are composed of a single cell, Multicellular organisms are composed of more than one cell.

List the events in RNA viral plasmid (chromosome) replication from start to finish? (Viral RNA)

Upon entering a host cell with a genetic chromosome RNA, a core enzyme called RT also enters with it and transcribes the RNA into DNA, which is integrated into the host genome and eventually produces viral RNA. 1. Attachment: A virus attaches to a specific receptor site on the host cell membrane through attachment proteins in the capsid or via glycoproteins embedded in the viral envelope. The specificity of this interaction determines the host (and the cells within the host) that can be infected by a particular virus. This can be illustrated by thinking of several keys and several locks where each key will fit only one specific lock. 2. Entry: The nucleic acid of bacteriophages enters the host cell naked, leaving the capsid outside the cell. Plant and animal viruses can enter through endocytosis, in which the cell membrane surrounds and engulfs the entire virus. Some enveloped viruses enter the cell when the viral envelope fuses directly with the cell membrane. Once inside the cell, the viral capsid is degraded and the viral nucleic acid is released, which then becomes available for replication and transcription. 3-4. Replication and Assembly: The replication mechanism depends on the viral genome. DNA viruses usually use host cell proteins and enzymes to make additional DNA that is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA), which is then used to direct protein synthesis. RNA viruses usually use the RNA core as a template for synthesis of viral genomic RNA and mRNA. The viral mRNA directs the host cell to synthesize viral enzymes and capsid proteins, and to assemble new virions. Of course, there are exceptions to this pattern. If a host cell does not provide the enzymes necessary for viral replication, viral genes supply the information to direct synthesis of the missing proteins. Retroviruses, such as HIV, have an RNA genome that must be reverse transcribed into DNA, which then is incorporated into the host cell genome. To convert RNA into DNA, retroviruses must contain genes that encode the virus-specific enzyme reverse transcriptase, which transcribes an RNA template to DNA. Reverse transcription never occurs in uninfected host cells; the needed enzyme, reverse transcriptase, is only derived from the expression of viral genes within the infected host cells. The fact that HIV produces some of its own enzymes not found in the host has allowed researchers to develop drugs that inhibit these enzymes. These drugs, including the reverse transcriptase inhibitor AZT, inhibit HIV replication by reducing the activity of the enzyme without affecting the host's metabolism. This approach has led to the development of a variety of drugs used to treat HIV and has been effective at reducing the number of infectious virions (copies of viral RNA) in the blood to non-detectable levels in many HIV-infected individuals. 5. Exit: The last stage of viral replication is the release of the new virions produced in the host organism. They are then able to infect adjacent cells and repeat the replication cycle. As you have learned, some viruses are released when the host cell dies, while other viruses can leave infected cells by budding through the membrane without directly killing the cell.

What are the types of Acellular Microbes?

Viruses: Largest acellular microbe Diseases in all types of cells Viroids: Nucleic acid - fragment of chromosome Cause mostly plant diseases Prions: Smallest acellular microbe - Protein molecule Produces central nervous tissue pathology Creutzfeldt-Jakob(CJD) in humans Bovine Spongioform encephalopathy BSE - mad cow disease, Scrapie, Chronic wasting disease

What is another internal thing a bacteria can do (Describe a bacterial endospore)?

When bacteria find themselves in an unfavorable environment or under stress conditions, (Increased temperature, chemical or disinfectants being used to wipe out that bacteria), The Bacteria forms an Endospore, a dormant resistant cell. Endospores don't do any activity when it is in a stressful condition. However, when the environment becomes more favorable, the endospore can reactivate itself to the vegetative state creating more bacteria. (An endospore is composed of DNA, cytoplasm, and a very tough keratin outer coating. And due to their tough outer coating, endospores are highly resistant to disinfectants, temperature and etc. Endospores are capable of surviving without nutrients, and lack of nutrients is usually responsible for endospore formation).

Describe the differences between fermentation and aerobic respiration for ATP production?

When oxygen levels are low, a bacteria or microbe can switch to a process known as fermentation, in which carbs are used instead of oxygen to produce energy (ATP), producing alcohol or acid. While in aerobic respiration, oxygen is infinitely required to make energy (ATP).

List and describe the function of internal parts or core of a virus.

Within a virus, there are several components, including the capsid. However, the most important components are the core ingredients such as chromosomes, whether they be RNA or DNA, and the core enzymes.