memory
Dementia, alzheimers disease, 60%, 13%, 40%, neurofibrillary tangles, senile plaques, hippocampus, cortex
Abnormal forgetting b) __________: progressive loss of cognitive function with memory loss and confused thinking. (Impaired memory and other cognitive deficits that accompany brain degeneration and interfere with normal functioning) __________ ________ is one of em. leading cause __% Probability of getting alzhemiers increases once you turn 65 -> ___% 85yrs around ___% Person with alzheimers will forget their grandchildren before they forget their own children 2 important markers: _____________ ________ - a tangle of microtubules inside axons, inside there, long roads - (straight in a normal person) _________ _________ - build up of proteins outside of neuron In both cases - found in ____________ (affecting long term memory) and in the _________(affecting cognition)
H.M., 1953, hippocampi, short, 7, anterograde, mirror, declarative memory
Abnormal forgetting c) Amnesia A CASE STUDY: Who? ________ When? _______ What? most of ___________ removed ______ term memory was fine, could remember on average ___ / 20 numbers IQ wasnt effected kept reading same book over and over, because forget he read it, had ____________ amnesia because stuck in the past, always in the time in which he had the accident careful with mirrors (old face) He could learn thing via ________ writing tells us amnesia effects ___________ ________(explicit memory) but not implicit memory (non-declarative) So a person could learn to play piano, getting better, but they wouldn't remember that they know how to play piano
amnesia, retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia
Abnormal forgetting c) _________: any partial or complete loss of memory i. ____________ ________: cant remember anything before the car accident, its retro/backwards i.e. a football player knocked out in a concussion, regains consciousness and cannot remember the events just before being hit ii. _____________ _______: an inability to make new memories, memory loss after the accident i.e. go to class, cant learn new facts and cant remember new experiences
infantile, hippocampus, self, hypnosis
Abnormal forgetting c) amnesia _________ amnesia: inability of adults to recall events before a certain age ________________ not fully developed sense of ______ not fully developed (until we turn 4) __________ cannot recover childhood memories, does not effect memory
Motivated forgetting, dissociation
Abnormal(Pathological) forgetting a) _________ _________: the repression of memories in order to protect ourselves from painful or unacceptable memories so painful, rather than deal with it, we repress them i.e. physical abuse, sexual abuse Can result in situations such as ___________ - stand outside of yourself, watching yourself from the outside Go numb, cant feel body, watching yourself: if your dissociating your not fully experiencing what's happening in the moment so it is easier to forget
Automatic processing, Effortful (controlled) processing
Encoding a) Two ways of encoding _________ ____________: something traumatic happens, goes into memory, fast, effortless, happens without intention i.e. someone hit by car infront of you _________ ___________: put work in, takes time, cognitive effort, intentional, i.e. studying for exam
Semantic(meaning) encoding, Self-referent encoding, Organizational encoding, elaborative encoding
Encoding b) Meaning: ________ _________: anything in which you understand the meaning, understand the point, whats being said Memorizing a definition you don't understand - is not this, hard to remember, no meaning _____-________ _________: egotistical meaning machines, if you can connect something to yourself, it is easier to remember, i.e. connecting study material with personal example __________ __________: seeing connections, identifying relationships, results in being easier to remember ___________ _________: going beyond what is stated and add extra information, elaborate, through asking questions
Visual imagery encoding, survival-related information
Encoding c) other kinds of encoding _________ __________ encoding: visual images are easier to remember, especially if abstract concept __________-__________ __________: guns, knifes, etc, to remember something, turn it into a violent image
Pegword method, Method of loci, Acronyms
Encoding d) Mnemonic devices 3 mnemonic(memory devices) _________ _________ - bunch of words that act as pegs, numbers 1-10, 1 is a bun, three is a tree etc, rhyming, Connecting with pictures ______ of ______ - take a familiar spacial route, location and imagine walking through place and put objects you're trying to remember into the space Walk in house to remember concepts or i.e. order of deck of cards ___________: abbreviation formed from the initial components in a phrase or a word
engram, representations, karl lashley
Forgetting 1. Biological basis: a) where are memories? _______: idea that memories are stored in a specific area in the brain. The physical basis of memory, somewhere in the brain However this idea is wrong, memories are distributed _______________ i.e. Brain = orchestra, which individual instrument is playing the piece by Beethoven (not an individual instrument, it is the entire orchestra playing together) - coordinated activity _______ _________: spent decades searching for the physical "memory trace" by removing chunks of brain in mice and making them run through maze. they would do worse on memory but still remember the maze.
radio-arm, morris-water
Forgetting Biological Basis d) Animal studies Have animal learn maze Damage brain Put animal back in maze cant run through maze anymore ______-______ maze: arms radiate out from the center ________-______ maze: milkywhite white platform - mouse has to find platform
Maguire, Frackowiak, Frith, PET, hippocampus, spacial, visual
Forgetting Biological basis c) Brain structures _________, ____________ & _______ (1997) Taxi drivers in _____ i. provide route between 2 locations ii. describe landmarks they've never seen iii. recall the plot of a film In 1 and 2 *hippocampus* lit up Tells us hippocampus is involved in __________ but not __________ information taxi drivers = larger hippocampus since training specific area finger movement - motor control was shrinking (plasticity)
Sensory cortices, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus, Cerebellum, Amygdala
Forgetting Biological basis: c) Brain structures ______ ________: Tactile memories, pain memories - parietal lobe __________ ______: manipulating information, analyzing, making decisions, working memory ________________: involved in formulating and creating long term memories, not storing but creating or formulating long term memories, also involved in spacial memory, if you wipe this out still have short and long term memories but you cant make new memories ______________: motor control, motor memories, moving, how to play tennis, drive a car, - procedural memory _____________:emotional memories, fear, anger, hatred - strong negative memories
failure
Forgetting a) Why we cant remember everything? Forgetting: the _________ to remember. some psychologists say we remember everything. Maybe we do? Memory happens through retrieval cues - a failure to find retrieval cue is why we don't remember.. But not falsifiable - so not science So forgetting is essential, *it exists*
long term potentiation, plasticity, consolidation, reconsolidation
Forgetting Biological basis b) Cellular basis ______ ________ ____________: better neural processing that is a product of strengthening neural connections. repeated stimulation leads to stronger neural connection Brain has to be __________ - changeable, malleable _____________: when you make a new memory, that memory trace is really weak, takes work/effort on brains part to form into a more permanent memory. Process from a fragile to long term memory. Sleep helps. ________________: when you remember something, the act of remembering makes that memory susceptible to change, more fragile. When you learn you acquire knew information, you have to modify something
explicit, implicit
Long-term memory a) Tulving's hierarchical model i. ________ memory: declarative - involves conscious or intentional memory retrieval, as when you consciously recognize or recall something ii. _________ memory: non-declarative: memory without conscious awareness, stuff you know but you're not aware that you know it
Retention, recall, Recognition, Relearning
Measuring Memory __________: unit of measurement is time, minutes/hours/days/months/years etc, how long? ________: on your own, have to remember facts and information. i.e. short answer question on exam (EXPLICIT - conscious memory retrieval) __________: whether you recognize or remember seeing the answer once it has been given to you. Remember seeing this? Yes or no, i.e. multiple choice question EXPLICIT __________: learn a task, go away, relearn same task, but second time is typically faster, but only because of remembering the first time (unconsciously retained info) i.e. learning a language
encode, store, retrieve
Memory What is memory? - The ability to 1. _________, 2_______ & 3._________ information 1._________ - First necessary part - to get into our heads 2.________ - stays, no matter how short (storage) 3. _________ - get information out
pichert anderson, 1977, context
Memory a) What is memory? __________ & ___________(19__): Boys skipping school Difference in what people remembered Robber - cares more about stereo, more likely to remember that Homebuyer - cares more about leaky roof, more likely to remember that Memory depends on _________
constructive, training, selective forgetting, limitation
Memory is like NOT a photograph(WRONG) (something that doesn't really change, tucked away and pull it out) - memory is ___________ - you make memories, build them i.e. carpenter analogy Every time you remember something, you are making a brand new memory each time you remember, it is dynamic. No secret way to remember - can only be improved through ___________ No _____ memories A trained memory never forgets is WRONG. if you want to forget something -> _________ ___________ No __________ to remember, cant clutter mind, never stop learning
transience, time, interference
Normal forgetting a) __________: forgetting that occurs with the passage of time due to ______ and due to _____________ (other retrieval cues in the way)
absentmindedness, prospective memory
Normal forgetting b) _________________: a lapse in attention causing memory failure, dont pay attention to what we are doing __________ __________ - making a commitment to do something in the future, concerns remembering to perform an activity in the FUTURE i.e picking up milk in the evening i.e. Forgetting to mail a letter, forgetting to do things -> concerns prospective memory
blocking, tip-of-the-tongue
Normal forgetting c) __________: failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it. We can induce ____-of-the-_________ state in people by giving them definitions of very uncommon words
misattribution
Normal forgetting d) ______________:assigning a memory to the wrong source. E.g., Donald Thompson was mistakenly accused of rape Confuse where you heard the memory Tell your father a joke, a week later father tells you the same joke
suggestibility, loftus and palmer, 1974, Eye-witness testimony
Normal forgetting e) ____________ incorporating misleading information from external sources into personal recollections. e.g. _______ & ________(19__) - how fast were cars contacting/hit/bump/crash etc into each other? speeds varied when verbs changed! more intense verbs = higher speeds estimated ____-__________ __________:least reliable pieces of evidence used, but the most convincing to a jury
bias, consistency bias, change bias, egocentric bias
Normal forgetting f) _____: when present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings distort our memories ___________ ____ : thinking you are more consistent than you really are. How I am now is the way I've always been. _________ _____: seeing more of a change in the past than what actually happened, you work really hard to study for an exam and do really well, you misremember doing really poorly in exams(exaggerate how poorly you did) i.e. ive worked really hard, look how much ive advanced __________ ______: recalling events in the past in a self-serving manner. i.e. I was amazing at AOE
retroactive, proactive
Normal forgetting, part two of transience __________ interference - new stuff interferes with old stuff i.e. learn punjabi then learn english english interferes with recall of punjabi words i.e. moved to new house in edmonton and have trouble remember old address in texas _________ interference - old stuff interferes with new stuff i.e. english exam later, psychology class before, its interefering with your english exam, you keep thinking about psychology i.e. learn english, learn french, english interferes with recall of french words
perception
Photographic memory a) What is "eidetic memory?" The ability to retain images in memory that are almost perfect photographic quality Seems more like a ___________, very different kind of memory or not even a real kind of memory Not an afterimage either (negatives, see red after staring at green) If you stare at a page with eidetic memory, then you remember the page
elizabeth, 1970s, visual
Photographic memory b) Is eidetic memory real? - a case study Who? _________: an adult eidetiker When? ________ What? amazing _______ storage Given poem in greek - 1 year later was able to write everything And random 10,000 dot stereogram, but delay presentation, one to one eye, 3 mins later, 3 mins to other eye Then 1 million dot stereogram, got that too *Her husband performed the experiments Refused to duplicate experiments with other psychologists* Eidetic memory real? - we don't know
retrieval, retrieval cue
Retrieval a) How do we remember? _________: bringing stored information to mind. transferring from long term into working memory. You don't access information directly from long term memory, you instead try out different.... ________ ____: anything associated with information already in LTM that helps bring the stored information to mind. any stimulus, whether internal or external, that stimulates the activation of information stored in long-term memory. i.e. someone asks "have you seen sally today?", i.e. priming (fire truck, r__) = red Trying to remember something, (i.e. jobs and animals title before giving specifics)
encoding specificity theory, context dependent memory, state dependent memory
Retrieval b) Retrieval and encoding ___________ _________ _______: a retrieval cue is most effective when it recreates how information was encoded i. ___________ _________ memory: the situation, the environment, the place. i.e. classroom is a retrieval cue for psychology ii. ___________ __________ memory. remember drunk events easier when drunk
craik and lockhart, levels of processing, structure, phonology, meaning
Retrieval c) Retrieval & meaning How you analyze information is important _______ & _________: only 1 memory system, what you do with information determines how long you remember something aka _________ of _____________. The more deeply we process information, the better it will be remembered. ____________ --> POTATO is the word in capital letters? (superficial structural processing of a word) ____________ --> PHONOLOGY -> horse, does the word rhyme with course? - somewhat deeper phonemic processing ____________ --> MEANING -> TABLE -> does the word fit the sentence, the man peel the ____?" - deeper semantic processing, the best
stroop effect
Retrieval d) When retrieval is automatic ______ _______: the inability to attend to the colour of words and not read them. i.e. identifying colors, with words being different
continuity, < 2 seconds, really big, iconic memory, echoic memory
Storage a) Sensory memory: brief, can lose quickly (gone forever), provides __________ for your senses Sensory memory holds incoming sensory information just long enough for it to be recognized. Duration: < ___ seconds Capacity: _______ ______ ________ __________: memory of visual stimuli (our visual sensory storage). ________ ________: echoic sound (auditory sensory storage) - lasts longer than former. The glue across moments. continuity by listening to a sentence said out loud 1 for every sense
few seconds to a minute, about 7 ± 2 pieces of information, consciously
Storage b) Short-term memory Duration: ______ seconds to a __________ Capacity: _______ _____ (fixed capacity) 'Chunk' is a meaningful unit - combining individual items into larger units of meaning i.e. remember FBI - only occupying 1 space in memory When studying, chunk 5 most important pieces, then break down continuously subdividing i.e. Inntenation with telephone numbers Short term memory is also known as working memory because it ___________ processes, codes and "works on information"
active
Storage c) Working memory: the ______ processes involved in maintaining information for short periods of time. between sensory memory and long term memory -> same as short-term memory But changed word because -> thinking of memory in a passive way, a storage bin that doesn't do anything i.e. doing a math problem, carrying the one, how to add etc. - working memory coordinates these mental processes Working memory - a spotlight, whatever you are thinking about now, it is focused on that, looking around long term memories, accessing it
primacy effect, recency effect
Storage d) Long-term memory Serial position effect - meaning that recall is influenced by a words position in a series of items. ________ _________: SUPERIOR RECALL OF EARLY WORDS _______ __________: SUPERIOR RECALL OF THE MOST RECENT WORDS (the best) Your memory for the middle items on the list is bad: short term memory already filled, too many words to keep up with, cannot rehearse Your memory for beginning is better: as short term memory can quickly rehearse them and transfer them to long term memory Your memory for ending is very good:in short term memory (most recent)
greater than a minute, facts, events, skills
Storage d) Long-term memory Duration: ___ __________ Capacity: no known limits! Contains: ______, personal _______ of own life, ______(ride a bike, language, tennis etc), emotions, judgments
Maintenance rehearsal , Elaborative rehearsal
Storage: b) Short-term memory ____________ ________- repeat something over and over in your mind (SIMPLE REPETITION) Hoping it will stick, but short term memory will decay in a couple minutes, you repeat process, a lot of work, ineffective __________ ____________- form associations, organize, being critical, thinking about meaning - much more effective in transferring information into long-term memory Involves focusing on the meaning of information or relating it to other things we already know
60
ebbinghaus's forgetting curve 20 minutes later we forget ___% As time passes our memory gets worse until it hits a certain plateau
donald hebb, hebb rule, fires
forgetting 1. Biological basis b) Cellular basis _________ ______ "cells that fire together, wire together" create action potentials together wire together ________ rule: If a synapse becomes active at the same time a post-synaptic neuron ______, even though there is no connection between them, then a chemical messenger will be sent, strengthening the connection. i.e. ski instructor teaching you how to bend knees etc, you're awkward but through chance you do something right The neurons that do both of those things are firing, if they are close together, chemicals will be sent back and forth, affecting connections between them, a tiny connection between them If you keep practicing, those two neurons fire again at same time, little stronger connection etc, til a strong connection - brand new circuit in branch = ability to ski, write, speak a new language etc.
semantic, episodic
long-term memory a) Tulving's hierarchical model i. Explicit memory 1. _________ memory:memory for facts, information of the world, language, e = mc^2 i.e. 1215 - king john signs magna carta 2. _________ memory:memory for any episode in your life (our store of knowledge concerning personal experiences: when, where and what in our live episodes, i.e. eating pizza last night)
procedural, classical conditioning, priming
long-term memory a) Tulving's hierarchical model ii. Implicit memory 1. ________ memory: how do to something 2. _________ _______: pavlov and the dog, learning __________: not consciously, an enhanced performance that comes with previous or recent exposure to same stimulus or something less related i.e. fire truck and red
autobiographical, semantic, episodic, episodic, semantic
long-term memory b) _______________ memory: memory of the episodes and facts of one's own life contains ________ memory and _________ memory ratio of two is not the same, most recent events are predominantly _________ Farther back in time you go, they switch i.e. I was born on aug 27, 1990. <- _________ - general factual knowledge (don't remember episodes)
schemas, select, abstract, interpret, integrate
long-term memory d) ___________: a framework, structure for organizing information - long term memories (i.e. Diagrams of football plays - more likely to be redrawn by football coaches than novices) Frame information which influences what you remember and how you remember How you _______ it, ________ it, _________ it, and __________ it i.e. a vague paragraph about organizing something into groups, then going somewhere to use a machine etc. ACTUALLY instructions on how to wash clothes, it then becomes easier to remember paragraph. If doesn't fit schema then harder to remember
flashbulb memory, accurate
long-term memory c) flashbulb memories __________ _________: vivid and detailed memory surrounding a highly emotional and personal event Not memory of event itself but things surrounding event, unimportant, irrelevant information i.e. where people were when they heard about 9/11, who told them about it, the weather etc. Could be negative or positive No more _________ than any other memories, despite how real it might seem