Midterm Review Honors Cultural Foundations

Copernicus

Created the Heliocentric Theory, that the planets and stars orbited around the sun. He didn't publish his findings until the last year of his life to avoid ridicule from others who believed that the Earth was the center of the universe.

Roundheads

Puritans, with the parliament. Was offended by Charles I.

Philosophe

Social critics, French for philosopher.

Renaissance

"Rebirth", the period of time after the Middle Ages. Everything started to be reformed.

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical (Greek & Roman) texts and focused on human potential and achievements. A religious movement that focused on the relationship between humans and the divine. Humanists believed that humans should use everything God gave them to reach the pinnacle of human potential.

Michelangelo

A Renaissance man, known for painting the Sistine Chapel & sculpting David. His artwork reflected new technologies used in Renaissance art; Michelangelo is an exemplary Renaissance man.

Deism

A belief in a God that's based on reason.

Rationalism

A belief that opinions should be based on logic and not emotions or religion.

A Social Contract (Rousseau)

A contract where all of the citizens give up some freedom for the greater good, the citizens are the government, direct democracy.

A Social Contract (Hobbes)

A contract where citizens give up all power to one "Leviathan", absolute monarchy.

A Social Contract (Locke)

A contract where citizens have an impact on the government and its laws, representative democracy.

What were the causes of the Scientific Revolution?

A few scholars started to question the widely accepted teachings and researched more about the natural world. After some ideas were proven, such as the heliocentric theory, other scholars started to build on that.

What are some ways that absolute monarchs were able to increase their power?

A main way that absolute monarchs increased their power was preaching about "Divine Right '', saying that God himself gave them power and therefore no one could argue against it. Absolute monarchs often also used fear in order to get their subjects to listen to them.

Renaissance Man

A man that was well rounded, educated, and talented. From the textbook, "A young man should be charming, witty, and well educated in the classics. He should dance, sing, play music, and write poetry. In addition, he should be a skilled rider, wrestler, and swordsman."

Constitutional Monarchy

A monarch must abide by a Constitution and does not make decisions by their lonesome.

Absolute Monarch

A monarch with complete authority over everything that they rule.

Enlightenment

A period of time in the Renaissance where many philosophes used reason to reform society and the government.

Scientific Revolution

A reformation on the way science was approached. Focused more on logic, mathematics, and experiments rather than just listening to ancient philosophers and the Bible.

Scientific Method

A sequence of steps to take in order to test and prove theories.

Feudalism

A system where nobles were granted land in exchange for loyalty and military. Nobles had serfs who would live on their land and work for the land in exchange for protection.

Patron

A wealthy person who contributed money to the arts and sciences. The wealth of patrons during the Renaissance contributed to the creation of many famous pieces of art & scientific discoveries.

Tennis Court Oath

After the Third Estate separated from the National Convention. Said they would stay in the Tennis Court until a new constitution was written and approved. National Convention members were locked out of their meeting room, so they broke into an indoor Tennis Court. Them and other sympathetic nobles and clergymen chanted that they would stay until a new constitution was drafted. Louis got scared and armed Versailles.

Empiricism

Also called the Experimental Method, a method that people use to draw their own conclusions with experiments rather than believing science from past philosophers or the Bible.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Also had a social contract, but one where all the citizens of a government would agree to give up a little freedom for the greater good. This government would be a direct democracy. The government would be decided by the people. Consent of the governed.

How is the humanism of the Renaissance reflected in its art?

Artists started to focus more on humans rather than religious themes. For example, the sculpture of David focused on someone who was not a God. Before the Renaissance, it was uncommon for there to be big sculptures of people who weren't Gods. This sculpture is a great example of how the individual was celebrated.

Why was the Catholic church against the theories proposed by scientists of the time?

Because the theories didn't match with the Bible. The church thought that if average citizens found out that what the Bible said wasn't true, then they would start questioning every single teaching that the Bible had to offer. That means that the church would lose power, and they didn't want that.

John Locke

Believed in natural rights, life, liberty, and property. Stated that the government needed consent from its people, and that if its people find the government unjust, then they can overthrow it. Inspired the American Revolution.

Cesare Beccaria

Believed in reforming the justice system. Didn't find it fair for those accused to be tortured and thrown in jail without a fair trial.

Third Estate

Bourgeoisie, peasants, and urban lower class. 97% of population 50% taxes No power in government, resentment against other estates, loved enlightenment.

James II

Brother of Charles II Was Catholic and had a Catholic son (people did not like him) Dissolved Parliament His daughter Mary and her husband William took his place peacefully in the Glorious Revolution.

Construction of Versailles

Built by Louis XIV Very expensive, put France into debt. Louis had complete control over the economy, so he could afford this.

Galileo Galilei

Built his own telescope and observed Jupiter, the Moon, and the Sun. His beliefs contradicted the Church so much that he was summoned before the Pope to a trial.

The English Civil War

Charles I offended Puritans. He tries to arrest Puritan leaders after they pass a law that limits him. Everyone gets mad and riots. Charles escapes and makes an army of Cavaliers. Cavaliers fought with the Roundheads led by Oliver Cromwell. Oliver defeated Charles and had him publicly executed.

Rene Descartes

Created analytical geometry, algebra and geometry. "I think, therefore I am". Questioned everything until proven with math and logic.

Geocentric Theory

Earth was at the center of the universe, the stars, Moon, and Sun circled around the Earth perfectly.

Francis Bacon

Encouraged people to draw their own conclusions rather than listening to what they are being told. He believed that understanding science could help society.

English Bill of Rights

English Parliament Main Idea(s) No laws could be made or issued without Parliament's consent. Free speech. Can't punish people if they just don't like the king. Can't levy taxes. Why it Matters This as well as the introduction of a cabinet system created a constitutional monarchy in England. Monarchs' power is very limited now and it is clear Parliament is gaining more control.

James I

Father of Charles I. Often conflicted with Parliament over money and offended them.

Individualism

Focus on the individual in art and writing. People in art and writing had distinct features and were focused on more than more religious topics.

Charles I

Fought the 30 years war, dissolved Parliament when funds were not given. Signed "Petition of Right" and ignored it. Offended Puritans, tried to force Presbyterian Scots to accept Anglicanism. Angered Scots, Charles was chased north, made army, fought puritans, lost. First English king to be publicly executed.

Isaac Newton

Found the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Everything in space was attracted to each other, and everything was affected by some force.

Voltaire

Freedom of speech, religion, and tolerance. Argued that everyone had a right to say what they wanted to say. "I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it".

Trial of Galileo

Galileo's theories conflicted with the church, the church warned Galileo. Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. The Pope called Galileo to a trial, where he swore to give up his views that related to Copernicus's Heliocentric Theory. He was put on house arrest for the rest of his life but his ideas were still spread.

Mercantilism

Having more exports than imports in a country, being self sufficient.

How did Galileo react to the Catholic church's request to recant his statements on heliocentric theory?

He recanted it with the fear of getting tortured, but he didn't mean it. He still taught his ideas when he was on house arrest.

"We pronounce, judge, and declare, that you, the said Galileo . . . have rendered yourself vehemently suspected by this Holy Office of heresy, that is, of having believed and held the doctrine (which is false and contrary to the Holy and Divine Scriptures) that the sun is the center of the world, and that it does not move from east to west, and that the earth does move, and is not the center of the world;" Galileo's Indictment, 1633

He was seen as a massive threat because a lot of his findings were contradictory to what the church believed. The first one was that he believed that the sun was the center of the world. Then he found out that the moon was not made of pure material, but that it also had its blemishes. The church was afraid of citizens starting to not believe them anymore, and they didn't want to lose power.

Baron de Montesquieu

His findings led to the modern system of checks and balances. In his book, On the Spirit of Laws, he stated that it was important to a government to have multiple branches that handled different things. But they needed a "separation of powers" so that not one branch could become more powerful than another.

How does the Renaissance differ from the Middle Ages?

In the Middle Ages, art was focused mainly on religious themes. There was barely any depth in the art. The Renaissance introduced a more vibrant and exciting way to create art and writing. People in the Renaissance started to live more lavish lifestyles if they could afford it because they believed that God had made them to be the greatest they could be.

How did the ideas of the Enlightenment set the stage for revolution?

It is clear that a lot of the ideas that philosophers had in this time period were key parts of some revolutions. Checks and balances, consent of the governed, people having an impact on the government, and a fair justice system are all part of America today.

The Divine Right of Kings made it difficult to criticize the monarch. Explain why.

It's difficult to criticize the monarch in the Divine Right of Kings because it says that God is what made kings so powerful. If anyone who believed in God (almost everyone) argued against a monarch saying this, they would also be arguing against God which was bad. Even in the Divine Right of Kings, James I uses stories from scriptures to prove his point as well.

Why did the Renaissance start in Italy?

Italy consisted of large cities with big populations after the bubonic plague. There was a lot of trade and wealthy people who could support and spread these new ideas.

On the Divine Right of Kings

James I Main Idea(s) Monarchs are given their power from God. They answer to no one but God. Uses evidence from scriptures to persuade the audience. Says that anyone who speaks against God is blasphemous, therefore anyone who speaks against the king is blasphemous. Why it Matters It matters because this is the main way that monarchs would keep absolute power over their subjects, by using God. It was difficult for anyone to argue against this because most people believed in God as well.

Louis XVI

King during the French Revolution Had a lot of debt, yet spent a lot of money, was very extravagant. Did not take advice from his advisors.

What is Enlightenment?

Kant Main Idea(s)- People need to use their minds to free themselves from the shackles of immaturity. Why it Matters- Kant stated that people lived lazy, unfulfilled lives, when they just followed what their priest, doctors, and leaders said. They rarely formed their own opinions. Kant disagreed with this mentality and encouraged people to try hard to become enlightened, and that now matter how dangerous it may seem, people should still try.

Robespierre

Leader of the Jacobin (radical) party. Reign of Terror. Changed the calendar, abolished religion. Saw anyone who challenged him as an enemy.

In his Second Treaties of Civil Government John Locke states: "The Liberty of Man, in Society, is to be under no other Legislative Power, but that established by consent, in the Common-wealth, nor but what the Dominion of any Will or Restraint of any Law, but what the Legislative shall enact, according to the Trust put in it"

Locke believed that people should not follow laws that they didn't consent to. People need to have an impact on the laws so the government knows what's actually best for society as a whole and not what's best for themselves.

"It now remains to be seen what are the methods and rules for a prince as regards his subjects and friends. And as I know that many have written of this, I fear that my writing about it may be deemed presumptuous, differing as I do, especially in this matter, from the opinions of others. But my intention being to write something of use to those who understand, it appears to me more proper to go to the real truth of the matter than to its imagination; and many imagined republics and principalities which have never been seen or known to exist in reality; for how we live is so far removed from how we ought to live, that he who abandons what is done for what ought to be done, will rather learn to bring about his own ruin than his preservation." Machiavelli, The Prince, 1532

Machiavelli believes that in order to properly address the best way to lead people, he needs to talk about the real world and not a fantasy world. In the past, many people believed that it was more important for a leader to be loved, than feared. While this sounds like it would be a good thing, it simply would not work. This is how Machiavelli's ideology differed from different theorists. He believed that it was important that a leader inflicts some sort of fear into his subjects, but not so much that they hate him.

Parliament

Made and passed laws. Provided funds to rulers. Was often dissolved.

Meeting of the Estates General

Made up of the three estates Each estate only got one vote despite the third estate having a lot more delegates. 1st and 2nd estate always outvoted the 3rd. Was called to vote on Louis XVI's new taxes because he was in debt. Each estate got one vote. The Third Estate obviously didn't want new taxes so they voted against it, but they would always be outvoted by the other two estates.

Petition of Right

Main Idea(s) No putting soldiers in people's homes. No taxes without parliament's consent. No punishing people without the due process of law. Why it Matters Reaffirmed the idea that the monarch is NOT above the law.

Magna Carta

Main Idea(s) Punishments should make sense for the crime. If someone wants to bring someone else to trial they need to have actual witnesses. No person should be punished without trial by jury. All men have these rights equally. Why it Matters The Magna Carta started to put laws into place that a monarch would have to follow. This was the beginning of the decline of an absolute monarchy.

Oliver Cromwell

Military dictator. Led the Roundheads. Took all the fun away. People were sick of him by the time he died.

Girondins

Moderate political party. Did not side with the king but was not as radical as Jacobins, and were often seen as the enemy.

National Convention

New legislature after dissolving the Legislative Assembly. Abolished monarchy and made France a republic. The Legislative Assembly set aside the constitution of 1791 and dissolved the assembly. Made a new group called the National Convention that abolished monarchy and declared France a republic. Adult male citizens were granted the right to vote.

The Prince

Niccolo Machiavelli Main Idea: It is important for those in leadership positions to be feared, but respected. Why it Matters: Machiavelli was challenging the notion that a leader must be loved by all to be successful. He noticed how a lot of rulers were too kind or too harsh and The Prince provides a political strategy to combat this.

Second Estate

Nobles of the Sword/Robe 2% of population 20% of land Paid almost no taxes Did not like enlightenment

William and Mary of Orange

Parliament asked them to replace her father, James II, he fled so the overthrow was bloodless. The Glorious Revolution Bill of Rights, Cabinet System, limiting monarchy.

In the English Bill of Rights, Parliament declares: "That the pretended power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by regal authority, without consent of parliament is illegal." How does this show Parliament's intentions to limit the power of monarchs? Why was this so important to Parliament given its history with past kings?

Parliament intends to limit the power of monarchs by taking away their rights to just make laws without the Parliament's consent. This is very important because in the past kings would make laws that would only benefit them and no one else, hurting the country,

Great Fear

Peasants raided their Nobles' houses and ripped up legal documents that tied them to their feudal dues and burnt down manors. Bread march.

Storming of the Bastille

People were afraid that Louis and other outside forces would start attacking the Third Estate because of the National Assembly. They stormed the Bastille in search of weapons and gunpowder. Killed guards and had their heads on spikes. Deliberate act of revolution.

Humanists

People who followed humanism, believed in celebrating and focusing on humans and their achievements.

Reign of Terror

Period of time after the war where Robespierre sent thousands of people to be executed if he saw them as an enemy (anyone who wasn't as radical as him). Robespierre believed religion was dangerous, changed the calendar. Leader of the Committee of Public Safety that reported anyone who could be against the revolution. Virtual dictator for a year.

Oration on the Dignity of Man

Pico della Mirandola Main Idea: God created man to look upon his work. Man has free will and the ability to be whatever he wants to be. Why it Matters: Shows a shift in man's view of man; during the Renaissance people believed in their own potential and intellect instead of only relying on the Church's teachings.

How were the ideas and goals of Enlightenment thinkers different from what people previously thought?

Previously, people followed the Bible, their parents, their teachers, etc. but in the enlightenment it was encouraged to form your own ideas and opinions and become enlightened by putting your mind out there.

Sans-culottes

Radicals of the third estate Often resorted to violence Without knee breeches

Bourgeoisie

Rich people of the third estate Merchants, factory owners, etc. Jealous of nobles because some were richer than nobles but still had no power in government.

First Estate

Roman Catholic Clergy 1% of population 10% of land 2% tax to government Education and relief to the poor Did not like enlightenment

Cavaliers

Royalists, defended Charles I Was his army that fought with Cromwell's puritans. Were defeated.

Thomas Hobbes

Said that humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Believed that an absolute monarchy was the best form of government because it allowed one person to be all powerful and handle everyone below them. The citizens signing off their power and creating this government would be the Social Contract.

Charles II

Son of Charles I, so he knew not to mess up his rule. His reign was the Restoration because people were sick of Cromwell. Protected the rights of people.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

The National Assembly Main Idea(s) Everyone is equal before the law. Innocent unless proven guilty. Social distinctions are not great. Everyone has to agree on taxes. Why it Matters Makes everyone equal in the law, meaning equal taxes in proportion to their income, and privilege.

Louis XIV

The Sun King Built Versailles, spent a lot of money, forced nobles to live there so they could depend on him. Most powerful ruler in French history. Tried to make France self-sufficient, took power from nobles, and gave power to intendants. Canceled Edict of Nantes so the Huguenots left with their businesses. Made a strong military and country, left France in debt.

Divine Right

The belief that monarchs were chosen by God to rule and therefore should only listen to God. This makes them above the law.

Vernacular

The common / native language in a country.

Why was the institution and revocation of the Edict of Nantes two pivotal decisions in the religious and economic history of France?

The institution of the Edict of Nantes granted Huguenots religious freedom, allowing them to build places of worship. Henry of Navarre did this to limit conflict in France. When Louis the XIV started ruling, he canceled the Edict of Nantes, pushing Huguenots to leave France with their businesses. This hurt the economy in France.

Jacobins

The more radical party wanted a lot of change. Ended up taking over politics by the end of the war.

The Middle Ages

The period before the Renaissance. Views were mainly religious, people were humble.

Heliocentric Theory

The planets and stars moved around the sun, and Earth was not the center of the universe.

What was significant about the trial and execution of Charles I?

The trial and execution of Charles I was significant because it was the first time that an English monarch had been publicly executed. The revolution won and England would not be the same after that.

What did Enlightenment thinkers insist that people and governments could use to solve social, political and economic problems?

They insisted that people and governments should use their minds and logic to properly do whats best for society.

Creation of the National Assembly

Third Estate had enough of being outvoted all the time and separated from the Estates General to create the National Assembly. Start of a representative government. Sieyes persuaded the Third Estate to separate from the Estates General and create the National Assembly. Pass laws and reforms in the name of French people. Beginning of a representative government.

What goals did Enlightenment thinkers have?

To reform society and the government because they believed it had a lot of issues.

The Glorious Revolution

When James II took over in England, everyone thought he would be a bad monarch because he was Catholic. Parliament asked his daughter Mary and William of Orange to overthrow him. James ran away, so the overthrow was bloodless.

Queen Marie Antoinette

Wife of Louis XVI Also spent a lot of money Gave bad advice to Louis

What was the heliocentric theory and how did it change how humans saw their role in the word/universe?

With the geocentric theory, humans believed that God put them at the center of the universe. But with the heliocentric theory, they started to see themselves as a part of a massive system rather than the center of it. Like a complex clock, as Newton stated.

Secular

Worldly rather than religious

Mary Wollstonecraft

Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, where she stated that education should be equal for men and women. She encouraged women to enter male dominated fields.

Mirandola

Wrote The Oration On the Dignity of Man. Based on this book, Mirandola believed that humans should stop suffering for God, but use their free will and intellect to become great and live their own lives. Mirandola was a Humanist and a Renaissance Man.

Machiavelli

Wrote The Prince. In that book he stated that in order for a leader to be successful, they needed to scare their subjects enough so that they respect them, but not too much so they won't hate them. Scaring citizens was a good strategy for princes to take, but taking their wives and land would make the citizens hate the prince.

Immanuel Kant

Wrote What is Enlightenment? Where he addresses why many people don't easily become enlightened. He believed that it was important for people to harness their own mind to escape from the laziness of childhood.