Module 11: Types of Memory

photographic memory

The ability to form sharp, detailed visual images after examining a picture or page for a short period of time and to recall the entire image at a later date

memory

The ability to retain information over time through the processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving. Memories are not copies but representations of the world that vary in accuracy and are subject to error and bias

interference

The forgetting process in which the recall of some particular memory is blocked or prevented by new information that overwrites or interferes with it. See also proactive interference and retroactive interference

three-stages model

The model in which memory is divided into three sequential stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory

maintenance rehearsal

The practice of intentionally repeating or rehearsing information (rather than forming any new associations) so that it remains longer in short-term memory

retrieval/retrieving

The process of getting or recalling information that has been placed into short-term or long-term storage.

storage

The process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall

long-term memory

The process that can store almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time.

levels-of-processing theory

The theory that memory depends on how well information is encoded in the mind. Information is encoded at a shallow level if we simply pay attention to its basic features but is encoded at a deep level if we form new associations with existing information. According to the theory, poor memory corresponds to information encoded at a shallow level, and good memory to information encoded at deep levels

effortful encoding

The transfer of information from short-term into long-term memory either by working hard to repeat or rehearse the information or by making associations between new and old information.

automatic encoding

The transfer of information from short-term into long-term memory without any effort and usually without any awareness.

echoic memory

A form of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1-2 seconds

iconic memory

A form of sensory memory that holds visual information for about a quarter of a second or longer. (The word icon means "image.

short-term memory

A process that can hold a limited amount of information—an average of seven items—for a short time (2-30 seconds), which can be lengthened if you rehearse the information. Sometimes called working memory

semantic memory

A type of declarative memory consisting of factual knowledge about the world, concepts, word definitions, and language rules

episodic memory

A type of declarative memory, consisting of knowledge about one's personal experiences (episodes) or activities, such as naming or describing favorite restaurants, movies, songs, habits, or hobbies

repression

According to Freud, a mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious. Repressed information cannot be retrieved voluntarily, but something may cause it to be released and to reenter the person's consciousness at a later time

sensory memory

An initial memory process that receives and holds environmental information in its raw form for a brief period of time, from an instant to several seconds

primacy effect

Better recall, or improvement in retention, of information presented at the beginning of a task.

recency effect

Better recall, or improvement in retention, of information presented at the end of a task

chunking

Combining separate items of information into a larger unit, or chunk, and then remembering chunks of information rather than individual items; a technique of memory enhancement

griots

In many parts of ancient Africa, people relied on these, who were official storytellers responsible for keeping records of the history of the people

information-processing model

In memory processing, a model that states that the ability to retain information over time involves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

elaborative rehearsal

Making meaningful associations between information to be learned and information already learned. An effective strategy for encoding information into long-term memory

declarative memory

Memories of facts or events, such as scenes, stories, words, conversations, faces, or daily events. We are aware of these kinds of memories and can retrieve them

procedural or nondeclarative memory

Memories of performing motor or perceptual tasks (playing sports), carrying out habitual behaviors (brushing teeth), and responding to stimuli because of classical conditioning (fearing spiders). We cannot retrieve these memories, and we are not conscious of them

amnesia

Memory loss that may occur after damage to the brain (temporary or permanent), following drug use, or after severe psychological stress

explicit memory

Memory that is consciously known

implicit or nondeclarative memory

Mental and emotional processes that we are unaware of but that bias and influence our conscious feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. See procedural memory.

encoding

Placing or storing information—such as images, events, or sounds (music, noise, speech)—in memory by making mental representations

serial position effect

To better recall information that is presented at the beginning and end of a body of information, as opposed to the middle.

flashbulb memory

Vivid recollections, usually in great deal, of dramatic or emotionally charged incidents, which are encoded effortlessly and may last for long periods of time