Pass the Big ABA Exam Section 6
3 Causes of Measurement Artifacts which threatens Validity (AKA: Artifacts)
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Methods for Calculating IOA
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When should I use Permanent Product to measure behavior?
- Ask yourself these questions about the target behavior: 1) Are you interested in only the outcome of behavior? If yes, use PP, but to mediate behaviors that are responsible for outcomes, use a different data collection method 2) Is real time measurement needed) 3) Can the target behavior be measured by permanent product? use the rules: RULES: a) each instance of the target behavior must produce the same PP b) PP can only be produced by the target behavior c) PP cannot result from any behaviors by the participant other than the target behavior d) PP cannot result form the behavior of any person other than the participant e) Obtaining a contrived PP will not unduly affect the behavior - Contrived PP: recording equipment, in the presence of which a person may act differently - Obtrusive measurement can affect the environment and, therefore, behavior being measured - Note: reactivity is temporary; subjects get used to the presence of additional observers
How to Establish True Values for Accuracy Measures
- Because you need to compare observed values to true values, your process to determine TRUE VALUES must be different than the measurement procedures used to obtain the OBSERVED VALUES - When true values CANNOT be established, researchers must rely on RELIABILITY assessments and measure of inter observer agreement (IOA) to evaluate the quality of their data. See next box for RELIABILITY
Total Duration IOA
- Computed by dividing the shorter of the 2 durations reported by the 2 observers by the longer duration and multiplying by 100% - Formula: (Shorter Duration/ Longer duration) x100 - Example: add up the total numbers for observer 1 and observer 2: Total for Observer 1: 90 Total for observer 2: 85 85 (total duration of obs 2 data (shorter duration)0 / 90 (total duration of obs 1 data (longer duration)) x 100 = 94% total Duration IOA
Example where data is RELIABLE but NOT ACCURATE
- Dana gets on the scale and weighs herself. The scale reads 130. Immediately after, she weighs herself again, where the scale reads 130. Dana then goes to the doctors office to stand on their scale and it reads 140. The scale in the home was RELIABLE, it was not ACCURATE
Mean Count-Per-Interval IOA
- Dividing the observation period into a series of smaller counting times - Observer record the number of occurrences of the behavior within each interval - Calculate the agreement between the count of the 2 observers within each interval - Use the agreements per interval as the basis for calculating the IOA for the Toal Observation Period
How often and when should IOA be obtained?
- During each phase of a study & should be distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings, & observers. - Should obtained for a minimum of 20% of sessions
Scheduling Observation and Recording Periods
- Ethics warning: because you should always be mindful of the VALIDITY (measure what its supposed to measure) of your data, you have to be very careful in planning out your observation and recording periods - Why? Because you want to truly capture what the target behavior really looks like when you conduct your data collection - Elements to consider a) times of day, days of week, weather surroundings, task assignments, MOs may threaten to influence data. because of this, you need to make certain that these elements are evenly distributed throughout baseline, intervention and follow up phases - If these variables are NOT controlled, then you cannot confidently interpret your data results
Planned Activity Check (AKA: PLAYCHECK)
- For GROUPS - A variation of Momentary Time Sampling - Example: a teacher observes a group of students at the end of each interval, and records the number of students engaged in the targeted activity
Magnituded (AKA: Force, intensity, Severity)
- Force/Intensity/severity of a behavior - Certain réponses need to be emitted at specific levels of intensity - Example: Volume of voice differing in the library vs in a crowded place
Unscored Interval IOA Formula and Example
- Formula: (# of Intervals Both Recorders Recorded Non-Occurence / # of Intervals AT LEAST ONE recorded Recorded Non-Occurrence) x 100 - Example: 2 (two intervals in which both observers agreed of non-occurence) / 4 (intervals that at least one recorded a nonoccurrence) = 50% unsecured interval IOA
Scored Interval IOA Formula and Example
- Formula: (# of Intervals both recorders recorded occurrence / # of intervals AT LEAST ONE recorder recorded occurrence) x 100 - Example: 1 (only one interval did both observers agree) / 3 (total intervals where one observer documented an occurrence) x 100 = 33% scored interval IOA
Exact Count-per-Interval IOA Formula and Example
- Formula: (# of Intervals of 100% IOA agreement / Total # of Intervals) x 100 - Example:
Trial by Trial IOA Formula and Example
- Formula: (# of Trials of Agreement / Total # of Trials) x 100 - Example:
Interval by Interval IOA Formula and Example
- Formula: (# of intervals both recorders are in agreement / Total # of intervals) x 100 - Example: 7 agreements / 10 intervals in total x 100% = 70% interval-by-interval IOA
Mean Count-Per-Interval IOA Formula and Example
- Formula: int 1 IOA + Int 2 IOA + Int N IOA / Total # of Intervals Example:
Total Count Data Formula and Example
- Formula: (Smaller # / Larger #) x 100 - Example: Observer 1: 20 Observer 2: 45 20/45 = 0 .4444 0.4444 x 100 = 44% Total Count IOA
Count (One of the three types of repeatability measures)
- Formula: add up the behaviors or items - On its own count does NOT give us enough information to make decisions regarding a client's behavior intervention program - Most useful wen observation time is constant across observations - Example: there are 12 jellybeans in the jar
Rate (AKA: Frequency) (One of the three types of repeatability measures)
- Formula: add up the behaviors or items over time - In other words, count/time/sec/min/day - Example: Dana ate 12 jellybeans in two minutes - the most popular data method in ABA - Report the UNIT OF TIME in your rate measure (two behaviors in one min) - The unit of time must be STANDARD within the study (if it is not, one behavior occurs every 2 minutes, 7 behaviors occur in 40 seconds - cannot be compared) - Use rate when: you are recording FREE OPERANTS (behaviors that have discrete beginning and ending points) - Do not use rate when: a) you are record behaviors that occur only within limited or restricted conditions - these are opposites of free operants b) You are measuring continuous behaviors that occur for extended periods of time
Celeration (One of the three types of repeatability measures)
- Formula: count per unit of time/time - this is the same thing as saying frequency/time - measures of how rates of response change over time - Celeration can mean accelerate or decelerate a) Accelerate - rates of response accelerate when responding is faster over time b) decelerate - rates of response decelerate when responding slows over time - a minimum of 7 measures of rate is recommended for celeration - Response rate is displayed on the vertical (y) axis - Time in days (calendar) is displayed on the X axis - Celeration trend line = a straight line drawn through the graphed data representing the direction and degree of the trend
Equal Interval Graphs (AKA: arithmetic charts, add-subtract charts)
- Graphs in which the distance between any 2 consecutive points on BOTH THE X AXIS AND Y AXIS are always the same - All intervals are the same size - The Equal Interval Graphs are: 1) Line Graphs 2) Bar Graphs 3) cumulative Records 4) Scatter Plots - The NON-Equal Interval graphs are: a) logarithmic scales, including semi-logarithmic scales, one of which is the standard celebration chart, look at behavior change through proportionate or relative change
Whole Interval Recording (one of the three forms of time sampling) (Hint: Underestimates the rate of a behavior)
- How to design and implement whole interval recording: a) Divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals (5-10 seconds) b) At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred throughout the interval c) Reporting data: always PERCENTAGE - you record percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred
Threats to Measurement Accuracy and Reliability
- Human Error: Biggest threat to the accuracy and reliability of Data - IN ABA, mostly human observer measure behaviors (not computers) - Factors that Contribute to Human Measurement Error: a) poorly designed measurement systems b) Inadequate observer training c) expectations about what the data should look like
Line Graphs (One of the 5 Types of ABA Graphs)
- MOST COMMON IN ABA - Based on the Cartesian Plane a)Cartesian Plane - 2 dimensional area formed by 2 perpendicular lines that intersect - Use a balanced ration between the height and the width of the axes - Y axis should be shorter than the x axis - Each point on the line graph shows the level of some quantifiable dimension of the DV in relation to the IV in effect when the data was recorded - Comparing data points lets us examine level, trend and variability - USE LINE GRAPHS WHEN YOU WANT YOU RDATA TO EFFECTIVELY COMMUNICATE THE FOLLOWING RELEVANT QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS: a) data that can be scaled along some dimension, such as time or the order of responses in a sequence - Example: number of hits over time
Continuous Measurement Procedures
- Measurement conducted in a manner such that ALL instance of the response class of interest are detected during the observation period - Example: Event Recording and timing methods are all continuous measurement procedures - Example: Taking rate data upon every occurrence of spitting behavior during a 20 minute observation. IN this example, every occurrence of spitting behavior during the 20 minute observation would be accounted for
Discontinuous Measurement Procedures
- Measurement conducted in a manner such that SOME instances of the response class of interest may NOT be detected - Example: time sampling methods/interval recording methods are all discontinuous measurement procedures - Example: taking data via momentary time sampling after the end of a two minute interval on whether the child demonstrated spitting behavior or not. Dat is only taken for spitting behavior if the child demonstrated the behavior at the end of a two minute interval. If the child demonstrated spitting behavior at any other time, data would not be collected
Observer Reactivity (Part of Measurement Bias)
- Measurement error resulting from an observers knowledge that others are evaluating the data he/she reports. An observer can be influenced by how he/she anticipates another observer will record data
Permanent Product (AKA: Outcome Recording)
- Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring the effects the behavior produced on the environment - A change in the environment produced by a behavior that lasts long enough for measurement to take place - Ex post facto measurement: measurement takes place after behavior has occurred - Natural or contrived outcomes - Example: measuring a batter's behavior. If a batter's hit balls were left untouched in the field, an instructor could evaluate the batter's behavior after the batter has taken his turn by counting the number of balls in the outfield - Event recording, timing, and time sampling can be applied to measurement by permanent product - Behaviors that do NOT have a direct effect on the environment can be measured by permanent product through videotape, photographs, audiotapes. These are contrived permanent products
Temporal Locus (One of the three dimensional quantities that can be measured)
- Measuring the TIME at with behavior occurs - LOCUS = POINT IN TIME - Temporal locus examines when an instance of behavior occurs with respect to other events
Data
- Medium with which the behavior analyst works - Results of measurement - Empirical bais for decision-making - It is difficult to assess what is happening with the target you are trying to measure if you only look at raw data - This is why ABA uses graphs
Event Recording (One of the three Procedures for Measuring Behavior)
- Methods to record the number of times a response occurs - Choose an event recording device: pencil and paper, wrist counters, hand tally, pennies, calculators)
Timing (One of the three Procedures for Measuring Behavior)
- Methods used to measure: 1) duration 2) response latency 3) Interreponse time (IRT) - Timing device: stop watch
Unscored Interval IOA
- Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on bx that occur at very high or very lower rates. - Only considers intervals in which either or both observers recorded a non-occurrence of bx.
How to Minimize Measurement Bias
- Monitor and record data unobtrusively. Use videotaping for section observer to observe the same session
Measurement Bias
- Nonrandom measurement error - Errors in measurement likely to be in one direction - Data that overestimates or underestimates the true value of an event - Expectations that a target behavior will occur under certain conditions or change with a certain treatment can influence what is recorded and threaten the accuracy of measurement - Naive Observers: Minimizes measurement bias. trained observer who is unaware of the study's purpose and/or experimental conditions in effect
Inadequate Observer Training (One Factor that Contributes to Human Measurement Error)
- Observer need explicit and systematic training 1) select observers carefully 2) Train observers to a standard of competency 3) Provide ongoing training to minimize observer drift
scored Interval IOA
- Only uses intervals in which both observers scored an occurrence of the behavior to calculate the IOA - Minimizes the effects of change agreements for interval data on behaviors that occur at very high or very low rates because it ignores the intervals in which measure by chance is highly likely - Recommended for behaviors that occur at frequencies of approximately 30% of intervals or fewer to avoid overinflated and possibly misleading IOA measures
Percentage
- RATIO formed by combining the same dimensional quantities, such as count - Example: 4/5 = 0.8 x 100% = 80%. In this example, you took two count measures, which were 4 and 5 and used them together to get the percentage - Expresses the proportional quantity of some event in terms of the number of times the event occurred per 100 opportunities that the event could have occurred - Recommend minimum observation intervals or response opportunities = 30!!
Horizontal Axis (One of the 7 Parts of a Line Graph)
- Represents passage of time and the presence, absence or value of the IV - Left to right passing of time in equal intervals - Tic marks are placed on the x axis with equal spacing between them - Utilize the scale break ( = or //) to represent discontinuities in time
Total Count IOA (One of the 4 Event Recording IOAs)
- Simplest method for event recording - percentage of agreement between the total number of response recorded by 2 observers - Calculated by dividing the smaller of the counts by the larger count and multiplying by 100 - Overestimates the extent of actual agreement - For more specific IOA, especially in DTT, use Trial-by-Trial IOA
Example of Indirect Measurement which threatens Validity
- Since it is not possible to measure a patients medical regimen in the home, you would rely on a patients self-reports. The self reports are indirect
Trial by Trial IOA
- The agreement between 2 observers who measured the occurrence or nonoccurrence of discrete trial behaviors for which the count for each trial, or response opportunity, can only be 0 or 1 can be calculated by comparing the observer's total counts or by comparing their counts on a trial-by-trial basis
What are Acceptable IOA Scores?
- The closer to 100% the better - No less than 80%
Reliability (One of the Three Indicators of TRUSTWORTHY Measurement)
- The extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same value when brought into REPEATED contact with the same state of nature - Same results repeatedly - Example: Dana gets on these scale she has at home to weigh her self. The first time the scale says 130, immediately after, she weighs herself again. The scale again reads 130. This is a reliable measure. - Poor reliability reveals problems with accuracy and validity - consistent measurement - the closer the values obtained by repeated measurement, the more reliable they are - Yet, even if the measures are found to be reliable, that doesn't necessarily mean they will also be valid
Exact Count-per-Interval IOA
- The percentage of intervals in which 2 observers recorded the same count. - The most strict event recording IOA method
Mean Duration (or IRT)- Per-Occurance IOA
- This formula can also be used to compute the mean latency-per-response IOA or Mean IRT-per-response IOA - Formula: Duration IOA B1 + Duration IOA B2 + Duration IOA Bn / n Behaviors with Duration IOA - Example: Calculate the Duration ion per behavior for all 5 behaviors/responses above B1: 29/35 = .83x100 = 83% B2: 15/21 = .71x100 = 71% B3: ...78% B4:...100% B5: ...82% Add %ages together: 414% / 5 = 83% mean duration-per-occurrence IOA
Validity (One of the 3 Indicators of Trustworthy Measurement)
- Three elements a) DIRECTLY measuring socially significant target behavior b) Measuring DIMENSION of the target behavior relevant to the question or concern about the behavior c) ensuring that the data are representative of the behavior's occurrence under conditions during TIMES that are most relevant to the concern about the behavior - if any of the above elements are lacking, even if data seems valid and reliable, the validity of the resultant data are compromised, even meaningless - Measurement has VALIDITY when it yields data that are directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reasons for measuring it - Basic Question: was a relevant dimension of the behavior that is the focus of the investigation measured directly and legitimately?
Time Sampling (AKA: interval recording, discontinuous measurement systems) (One of the three Procedures for Measuring Behavior)
- Variety of methods for recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time - Time sampling methods give us an approximation of the actual instances of behavior - HOW TO DESIGN AND IMPLEMENT TIME SAMPLING PROCEDURES: 1) Divide the observation period into equal intervals of time 2) Record the presence or absence of behavior within or at the end of each interval - see specific instructions on how to design and implement the three forms of time sampling
Repeatability (AKA: Countability) (Acronym: CRC - "repeat after me") (One of the three dimensional quantities that can be measured)
- When behavior can be COUNTED - Instances of a response class occur repeatedly through time - Three Types of Repeatability Measures: 1) Count 2) Rate 3) Celeration
Observer Drift
- When observers unknowingly alter the way they measure a behavior - Unintended changes in the way data are collected may produce measurement error - Occurs when observers have a shift in how they interpret the definitions of the target behavior - The target behavior definitions DRIFT (or change) over time - HOW TO MINIMIZE: Retraining observers and providing detailed feedback on the accuracy and reliability of measurement
Temporal Extent (One of the three dimensional quantities that can be measured)
- When the DURATION of behave can be measured - Every instance of behavior occurs during some amount of time - ONLY 1 TYPE OF TEMPORAL EXTENT MEASURE: a) DURATION: the amount of time in which a behavior occurs - Use duration when: a) You want to measure the amount of time of a behavior b) for behaviors that occur of too long a period of time or too short a period of time c) high rate behaviors - Example: rocking, on task, off task, humming
Trials-to-Criterion
- a measure of the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance criteria - A trial pends on the nature of the target behavior and the desired performance level - Can Use: count, rate, duration, and latency measures to determine trials-to-criterion data - Often used to compare the relative efficiency of two or more treatments - Useful for assessing a learners increasing competence in acquiring a related class of concepts - Example: teaching a child the concept of the color red. Presenting the child with items that are red and not red exemplars required so the child learns discrimination. For example, it took Tammy 20 trials to learn what is red vs not red
Poorly Designed Measurement Systems (One Factor that Contributes to Human Measurement Error)
- difficult and cumbersome measurement systems - number of participants to observe, number of behaviors to record, duration of observation period, and/or duration of observation intervals - Simplified systems minimize errors
TOPOGRAPHY
- form or shape of the response - topography should be used when the form of the behavior is critical (gymnastics, basketball, dancing) - Malleable dimension of behavior = responses of varying form are shaped and selected by their consequences - Topography does NOT = Function. Topographies can be different bust still have the same function - Example: Cheering behavior can have the differing topographies of clapping, hollering, first pumping - all those different topographies still have the same function of cheering behavior
Things to Consider with Frequency of Recording (Part of Scheduling Observation and Recording Periods)
- how frequently should you record data and under what conditions - if you want to increase/decrease rate of behavior (number of incorrect answers on a test over given periods of time), use your validly-defined objectives across standard time periods - If you want to shape new behaviors or teach clients to differentiate one stimulus from another, use moment-to-moment or trial-by-trial data recording
Example of Measuring the Wrong Dimension of the Target Behavior which threatens Validity
- measuring frequency when you should have measured duration
Interobserver Agreement (AKA: IOA)
- refers to the degree to which two or more independent observers report the same values after measurement the same events - Reporting IOA increases believability that the data is trustworthy and deserving of interpretation
When to use Trials-to-Criterion
- skills such as shoe tying, as each opportunity to tie the shoe can be considered a trial, and trials-to-criterion data are reported as the number of trials required for the learner to tie a shoe correctly. For example, 11 trials were required to master shoe tying
Selecting the Right Measurement System to Obtain Representative Data Given the Dimensions of the Behavior
- some classes of a behavior lend themselves to one system of recording, others to another - ETHICS WARNING: you should select a way to record data that provides the most ethical and valid depiction of the target behavior - Does the behavior result in tangible product? then counting or permanent product are great to use - Is the behavior transitory? then, event recording or time sampling may be better
Things to consider with Duration of Recording Phases (Part of Scheduling Observation and Recording Periods)
- the duration of time you should record data in baseline and intervention phases often depends on the data that you are recording - You can continue to assess performance until the data become astable according to your pre-specified definition of stability - Example: you can define stability in your data as such: "there are no new highs or lows in the data for three consecutive sessions"
Accuracy (One of the Three Indicators of TRUSTWORTHY Measurement)
- the extent to which the OBSERVED VALUE (quantitative label) matches the TRUE VALUE of an event - For something to be considered a TRUE VALUE requires special or extraordinary precautions that ensure that all possible sources of error have been removed - If measurement is not VALID, ACCURACY is moot
Interval by Interval IOA (AKA: point by point IOA; Point by Point Agreement Ratio)
- the primary observers data for each interval is matched to the secondary observer's data for the same interval - Likely to overestimate the actual agreement measuring behaviors that occur at very high or very low rates - Subject to random or accidental agreement between observers
Graphs
- visual format for displaying data - Reveals relations between a series of measurements and relevant variables - Helps people make sense of quantitative information - How behavior analysts organize, store, interpret, and communicate the results of our work
Benefits and Uses of IOA
1) Determines the competence of new observers 2) Detects observer drift 3) Increases or decreases confidence that the definition of the target behavior was clear and the measurement code was not too difficult 4) Gives confidence that variability in data is now a function of which observers were on duty, therefore implying that changes in data actually reflect changes in behavior
3 Procedures for Measuring Behavior (Acronym: ETT - Every Trippin Time)
1) E - Event Recording - this is a continuous measurement procedure 2) T - Timing - this is a continuous measurement procedure 3) T - Time Sampling - this is a DIScontinuous measurement procedure
7 Parts of a Line Graph
1) Horizontal Axis 2) Vertical Axis 3) Condition change lines 4) Condition Labels 5) Data points 6) Data path 7) Figure Caption
3 Time Sampling/ Interval Recording IOAs
1) Interval by Interval IOA 2) Scored Interval IOA 3) Unscored Interval IOA
5 Types of Graphs
1) Line 2) Bar 3) Cumulative Record 4) Scatter Plot 5) Standard Celebration Chart
How should IOA be reported?
1) Narrative Description - most common and simplest - You can describe the mean and range of agreement percentages 2) Table 3) Graphic Display - The visual of the graph provides extent between agreement and existence of observer drift
3 Requisites for Obtaining Valid IOA
1) Observers must use the SAME MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 2) Observers must measure the SAME EVENT 3) Observers must be INDEPENDENT
2 Derivative Measures
1) Percentage 2) Trials-to-Criterion
3 Dimensional Quantities (that can be measured) (Acronym: RTT - Rat-a-Tat-Tat)
1) R - Repeatability 2) T - Temporal Extent 3) T - Temporal Locus
Two Types of Temporal Locus Measures (Part of Temporal Locus)
1) RESPONSE LATENCY (AKA: latency) - time between onset of a stimulus and initiation of a response - latency should be used when you want to measure how much time occurs between an opportunity to emit a behavior and when the behavior is initiated 2) INTERRESPONSE TIME (IRT) - amount of time that elapses between tow consecutive instances of a response class - IRT should be used when time between responses is important - Often reported by mean or median and range of IRTs per session - Functionally related to rate of response Example: for eating behavior, when measuring bites of food, you would record the time between each bite. If the person has a fast rate of eating, there would be shorter IRTs between bites
2 Definitional Measures
1) Topography 2) Magnitude
Four Event Recording IOAs
1) Total Count IOA 2) Mean Count-Per-Interval IOA 3) Exact Count-Per-Interval IOA 4) Trial-by-Trial IOA
2 Timing/Duration IOAs
1) Total Duration IOA 2) Mean Duration (or IRT)-Per-Occurance IOA
2 Methods for Calculating Duration (Part of Temporal Extent)
1) Total duration per session - cumulative amount of time a person engages in the target behavior in the total session - Example: in a 3 hours session, Diego engaged in the behavior 3 times (1st instance: 10 sec, 2nd: 5 sec, 3rd: 15 sec) - To calculate the total duration per session, add up all three durations: 10+5+15 = 30 seconds) 2) Duration Per occurrence - Duration of time that each instance of the behavior occurs - Example: as opposed to recording duration of Diego's target behavior as a total amount, you simply record the duration of each instance of his target behavior: - Instance 1: 10 sec - Instance 2: 5 sec - Instance 3: 15 seconds
3 Indicators of Trustworthy Measurement (Acronym: VAR - Very Awesome Results)
1) V - Validity 2) A - Accuracy 3) R - Reliability - relative concepts; each can range from high to low
3 Forms of Time Sampling (Acronym: WPM - Wits Pits Mits)
1) W - Whole Interval Recording 2) P - Partial Interval Recording 3) M - Momentary Time sampling - All three methods are used for: a) Continuous behaviors (cooperative play/humming) b) High rate behavior difficult to distinguish between one response from another (rocking, hand flapping)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Time Sampling
ADVANTAGES - Great for record continuous and/or high rate behaviors DISADVANTAGES - do NOT use when you want to record certain important, but fairly infrequent behaviors - Example: The baby may crawl out of her crib in the middle of the night about once per week. This is a very important behavior, but if you use a time sampling method, you may miss observing when the behave actually occurs
Advantages and Disadvantages of Whole Interval Recording
ADVANTAGES - best for measuring a behavior you want to INCREASE (paying attention to the teacher) - Why? Because if you want to increase a behavior, you want to select the more conservative time sampling method, which is whole interval DISADVANTAGES - Not good to use when you want to decrease behavior - You are required to observe the target behavior throughout the entire interval
Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Products
ADVANTAGES - practitioner is free to do other tasks - makes inconveniently timed behaviors easier to observe - measurement may be more accurate, complete and continuous - facilitates data collection for IOA and treatment integrity - Enables data collection for behaviors with multiple response classes - Reduces any potential reactivity because the observer does not have to sit and watch the client engage in the target behavior, but can simple look at the permanent product after the client has completed the required task DISADVANTAGES - a student earns an A on an assignment, but we cannot tell how the student went about working on that assignment from the permanent product
Advantages and Disadvantages Of Momentary Time Sampling
ADVANTAGES - you do NOT have to continuously measure throughout the entire interval (as you would have in whole and partial interval procedures) DISADVANTAGES - Much of the behavior of interest is missed or unaccounted - To avoid this problem, you should keep the intervals short and observe the target behavior frequently
Advantages and Disadvantages of Discontinuous Measurement Procedures
ADVANTAGES: - Useful for behaviors that: 1) occur at high rates 2) Occur for long durations of time 3) Are measured via discrete trials 4) are measured via percentages DISADVANTAGES: - Not useful for behaviors that: 1) are free operant 2) it is important to obtain every occurrence of that behavior 3) Require constant attending by observer
Advantages and Disadvantages of Partial Interval Recording
ADVANTAGES: - easy to measure multiple behaviors concurrently - Best for measuring a behavior you want to DECREASE - Why? Because if you want to decrease a behavior, you want to select the more conservative time sampling method, which is partial interval DISADVANTAGES: - not good use when you want to increase behavior - Must observe the target behavior throughout the entire interval
Advantages and Disadvantages of Event Recording
ADVANTAGES: - fairly accurate method - simple to implement, you can do this while engaging in other activities - Great to use with free operant behaviors DISADVANTAGES: - DO NOT USE EVENT RECORDING WHEN...responses occur at very high rates (hand flapping), continues behaviors (on task behavior), AND/OR DTT data
Advantages and Disadvantages of using Percentage
ADVANTAGES: - used when you want to document the percentage of correct responses DISADVANTAGES: - percentage does NOT have a dimensional value - Percentage imposes lower and upper limits on the data - You cannot use percentage to record proficiency or fluency - Example: a reader reading 100% of words presented cannot improve in terms of measure used because this number does not illustrate how many words are presented: 1 or 100? The reader was only presented with a certain amount of words, so you cannot assess how he/she would read words other than the ones presented - It is not correct to claim improvement over 100% occurred
Advantages and Disadvantages of Continuous Measurement Procedures
ADVANTAGES: - Useful for behaviors that: 1) are free operant 2) have a discrete beginning and end 3) Require minimal displacement of the organism in time/space 4) can be emitted at any time 5) Do not require much time for completion DISADVANTAGES - Not useful for behaviors that: 1) occur at high rates 2) are measured via discrete trials 3) occur for extended periods of time 4) are opportunity-based
3 Purposes of Graphs (Acronym: CAID)
C - Communicate: COMMUNICATES our data A - Assess: helps us to ASSESS our data correctly I/D - shows how the IV and DV are related to each other
Continuous Behaviors vs Continuous Measurement Procedures
CONTINUOUS BEHAVIORS: - behaviors that do NOT have a clear beginning and ending (they are NOT discrete) - Example: Shouting, humming - You should use a discontinuous measurement procedure - like one of the time sampling/interval recording methods (whole, partial, or momentary time sampling) CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES - Measurement conducted in a manner such that all instances of the response class of interest are detected during the observation period - Example: Event recording (frequency and rate) and timing (duration, response latency) methods
Momentary Time Sampling (Hint: OVER or UNDERestimates, or neither) (one of the three forms of time sampling)
How to Design and Implement Momentary Time Sampling - Divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals (5-10 sec) - At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at the end of that time interval only - Reporting data: Always PERCENTAGE - you record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred - Used to estimate the proportion of the total observation period that the behavior occurred
Partial Interval Recording (Hint: OVERestimates the rate of behavior) (one of the three forms of time sampling)
How to design and Implement partial interval recording: - divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals - At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at any time during the interval - Reporting data: always PERCENTAGE - you record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred - Used to represent the PROPORTION of the entire observation period that the behavior occurred
5 Types of ABA Graphs (Acronym: LBCSS
L - Line Graph B - Bar Graph C - Cumulative Records S - Semilogarithmic Charts/ Standard Celeration Charts S - Scatter Plots
Threats to Measurement Validity
Validity is threatened by: 1) INDIRECT MEASUREMENT - secondhand or filtered information - researcher measures a proxy, or stand-in, for the actual behavior of interest - useful when there is no direct access to the behavior of interest - Sometimes used to make inferences about private events - when using indirect measurement, it is the responsibility of the researcher to provide evidence that the event measured directly reflects, in some reliable and meaningful way, something about the behavior of which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions - direct measures of target behaviors will always have more validity than indirect measures 2) MEASURING THE WRONG DIMENSION OF THE TARGET BEHAVIOR 3) MEASUREMENT ARTIFACTS
Data
primary material to guide and evaluate behavioral work
