Pesthy A&P 2 Test #2 Respiratory system
Respiratory zone
-consists of tissues within the lungs where gas exchange takes place -respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducs, alveolar sacs, and alveoli
muscles of quiet breathing
-diaphragm and intercostal muscles elevate the ribs -diaphrahmatic movement may accounf for 2/3 of thoracic cavity vol change
-exchange of gases between air and blood takes place by ___ acrosss the caplillary wall
-diffusion
-Septal nasal cartilage -deviated septum -rhino plasty -epistaxis
-divides hollow nasal cavity into R + L cavities -can result in interference w/ breathing + drainage of nose and sinuses -nose job; reshaping nasal cartilage and rebreakinf nasal bones to desired shape -bloody nose; common in adults
-The sympathetic division of ANS can increase medulla hormones of causing relaxation of smooth muscles which then dilates the airway
-epinephrine & nor-epinephrine,
Air that enters nose is...
-filtered for impurities, warmed, moistened, and chemically examined to detect "bad" substances
Upper Resp System(function and parts)
-filters, warms, and humidifies incoming air, protecting more delicate surfaces -nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx
pressure gradient
-flow is diretly related -between atmosphere and lungs and inversely proportional to resistance -when pressure gradient incr then airflow incr
-Nares -ala -vestibule
-nostrils -wings; protect internal vestibule -rich in sebaceous glands, sweat glands + coarse hairs(vibrissae)
Resp. mucosa in rear contains...
-olfactory nerve cells, lymphatic plexus, and goblet cells
-either side of mouth; you can see when open mouth -located at the back of the base of the tongue, one on either side -pendelum that closes off nasopharynx during swallowing, preventing food from entering nasopharynx
-palatine tonsils -lingual tonsils -uvula
-contains opening of posterior nares & eustachian tube, draining middle ear allowing ear pressure to equalize w/ atmospheric pressures changes -when these are enlarged its called
-pharyngeal tonsils -adenoids
pleurisy
-pleura is inflammed and respiration becomes painful
-serous membrane -inner layer; tighly covers each lung -outer layer;lines internal thoracic walls, lateral surfaces of medistinum and superior surface of diaphragm and helps spread infections -space between these serous membranes
-pleura( and type of epithelium) -viceral pleura -parietal pleura -pleural cavity
2 factors of airflow
-pressure gradient -resistance
-intrapulmonary pressure -intrapleural pressure
-pressure within lungs -pressure within pleural cavity
gas exchange
-provides large surface area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood
-specialist in diagnposing lung conditions and treatments of the lung
-pulmonologist
autonomic nervous system
-regulates diameter of bronchioles
Paranasal sinuses hollw to lighter bony structures allow...
-resonation for speech and singing while swirling of air enhances olfaction
-Right vs left main bronchi -Right vs left lung
-right is shorter, wider, and more vertical; more likely for things to get lodged in it -right has 3 lobes + 3 seondary bronchi ;left has 2
-Rhinitis -sinusitis
-runny nose; inflammation of nasal mucosa -inflamed sinuses
-goblet cells -lamina propria -mucous and serous glands
-secrete mucous -houses both mucous and serous glands -help entrap materials which is then coughed up as a vicous sputum
Pneumothorax
-sometimes causes intra-pleural and intrapulmonaery pressures to equalize causing lung to collapse -will remain collapsed until air has been removed from pleural space
produce sound for speech
-sounds involved in speaking, singing, etc
muscles of forced inspiration
-sternocleido-mastoid scalenes, pectoralis minor, serratus posterior, superior and erector spinae
factors affecting pulmonary ventilation
-surface tension -compliamce of lungs -airway resistance
-Huge increase in cross sectional area; from trachea to alveolar ducts -In regions where non-ciliated epithelium is present ______ inhaled particles are removed by macrophages
-terminal bronchi
-epithelium gets progressively ___ from nasal cavity --> alveoli -mucous
-thinner -contains mucin, protein that increase viscosity
-A unique feature of pul vessels is their constriction in response to localized hypoxia (low O2 ). -In all other body tissues, hypoxia causes dilation of vessels to inc blood flow. In lungs, vasoconstriction in response to hypoxia diverts pul blood from poorly ventilated areas to well ventilated regions
-this phenomena is known as ventilation perfusion coupling.
the cricoid cartilage landmark for making an emergency airway opening called ______ or _______
-tracheotomy; tracheostomy
-cells thin & flat, make up the bulk of the alveolar wall; these allow diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor etc. -cells are few in number, are larger, and secrete detergent-like molecules called surfactants (lipid & protein mol). Surfactants coat the inner alveolar surface preventing the walls of alveoli from sticking together & keeps the alveoli from collapsing.
-type 1 -type 2
2 anatomical structure divisions
-upper and lower resp. system
-heimlich maneuver
-used to dislodge food stuck in trachea -stand behind victim, make fist with hand and position fist thumb side in against victim's abdomen -fist must be slightly above navel and well below rib cage -push fist with sudden upwards thrust
Respiratory membranes
-wall of alveoli and wall of blood capillaries that surround alveoli
-covers trachea during swallowing -forces food down esophagus -point where resp. and digestive pathways diverge -made of elastic cartilage
epiglottis
-parasympathetic div. & mediators of allergic reactions..._____. have the opposite effect causing constriction of bronchioles
histamine
reduced oxygen supply to tissues; this can be due to anemia, blocked arteries (ischemia)
hypoxia
-voice production organ -air expired through glottis between vocal cords causes vocal folds (cords) to vibrate -made of cartilage
larynx
exists in intrapleural space (IP) is very imp; any condition that equalizes IP w/ the intra-pulmonay (atmospheric) pressure causes immediate lung collapse.
negative pressure
Pleural fluid is actively pumped out of the pleural cavity continuously into the lymphatics or else fluid would accumulate in the intra-pleural space (fluids move from high to low pressure);
positive pressure
abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces & alveoli; most often coinsides with congestive heart failure
pulmonary edema
-nicotine stimulant -is so toxic its used as a pesticide -nicotine and tar paralyze the cilia, trapping smoke-laden mucuus as it accumulates -EACH CIG COSTS 12 MIN OF LIFE
smokers cough
Ducts connect all sinuses to the nasal cavity; mucus is swept by cilia from each paranasal sinus into the nasal cavity to pharynx & swallowed or spit out as
sputum
Partial pressure gradient between pulmonary blood and alveolar air = 5 mm Hg
this is the driving force of CO2 diffusion out of pulmonary blood.
Partial pressure gradient of O2 between the alveolar air and pulmonary blood = 64 mm Hg
this is the driving force of oxygen diffusion into blood
-called adam's apple -biggest cartilage -laryngeal prominence
thyroid cartilage
-difference between intra and inter pulmonary pressures that keeps air spaces of the lungs open and the lung from
transpulmonary pressure
-Determine partial pressure by multiplying the component of each gas multiplied by atmospheric pressure which is
760 mm Hg
-earth;s atmosphere is __% N and __% O2
78; 21
-A collapse of part or all of a lung, caused by a tumor in the thoracic cavity, pneumonia, or an injury (inhaled foreign object)
Atelectasis
-A respiratory inflammation caused by allergens such as plants, dust, and food (haptens)
Hay fever
amount of air that mopves into and out of resp tracr with each breath
airflow
sympathetic NS
dilates bronchioles
A third type of cell that is part of the alveolus is the alveolar macrophage also called ____. This leukocyte (macros) can be fixed or free roaming, wandering w/in connective tissues & over the alveolar surface engulfing microbes.
dust cell
-most are current or past smokers -a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged, causing breathlessness -irreversible loss of pulmonary gas exchange surface area as well as destruction of pulmonary elastic connective tissue
emphysema
-inflammation of the bronchi; become swollen and clogged with too mucb mucus
bronchitis
-90% have history of smoking -malignancy of pulmonary tissue that destroys vital gas exchange but can invade other parts of the body -75% of lung cancers are attributed to smoking lung cancer aka ______
bronchopulmonary carcinoma
involuntary spasmoduc contraction of diaphragm; sound is closure of the glottis
hiccup
upper resp. tract
-nose, nasal cavity, and pharynx -air passageway from nostrils --> trachea
airway resistance
-
-Nasal cavity subdivides into meatuses to... -As inhaled air moves over conchae & meatuses it is warmed by cap. blood while mucus is secreted by _______moistening & trapping dust particles moving towards pharynx.
- inc surface area & prevents dehydration by trapping water droplets during exhalation. -goblet cells
-lungs contain approx million alveoli -the spongy nature of lung is due to packing of millions of alveloar together
-300-400
-respiratory membrane layers consist of (4 layers)
-Alveolar wall w/ layer of type I&II alveolar cells & assoc macros -Epithelial basement mem underlying alveolar membrane -Capillary basement mem, often fused to epithelial basement mem - Capillary endothelium
-a gas's volume is inversely proportional to its pressure - the volume is directly proportional to temperature (V=T) -when a gas is actually a mixture of diff kinds of gases, then the; total pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of the individual gas pressures. - describes how the pressure of a gas relates to the concentration of that gas in a liquid solution called solubility
-Boyle's Laws -Charle's law -dalton's law -henry's law
-caused by a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure which results in nitrogen gas bubbling out of the tissues, fluids and organs.
-Decompression sickness (Bends)
-external vs internal respiration
-E: exchange air between lungs and atmosphere -I: absorption of oxygen and the release of CO2 by cells
-medicine dealing with diagnosis and treatment of ears, nose, and throat -vestibule: lined with skin containing coarse hairs that help...
-ENT otorhinolaryngology -filter dust particles
-lobectomy vs pneumonectomy
-L:only infected lung is removed -P: surgically removes entire lung
Gas: Inhaled and exhaled -O2 -CO2 -H2O
-O2: 20.71%; 14.6% -CO2: 0.004%; 4.0% -H2O: 1.25%' 5.9%
IRDS (Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome)
-Premature babies w/o mature surfactant cells in their lungs used to die of a condition known as ____in which death occurs due to the collapsed alveoli.
Breakdown of brachial tree
-Primary Bronchi(with cartilage rings) -secondary bronchi (cartilage disappears) -bronchioles -terminal bronchioles -Resp. bronchioles zone -alveoli
-pneumonia is caused by alveoli and bronchi become clogged with mucous -most cases result from _____ pneumonia, but can be caused by ______ pneumophilia(transferred from contaminated cooling towers and whirlpool spas) -can also be caused by virus such as ______ virus; highly contagious leading to SARS
-Streptococcus -legionella -corona
Functions of resp system
-air distribution -gas exchange -produce sound for speech -facilitates detection of olfactory stiumuli and receptors -protects resp surfaces -defends resp tissues
Lower resp. tract
-air passageway from trachea -->lungs
-alveolar pores allow.. -wall of alveolus is made of 2 types of squamous epithelial cells
-air to pass from one alveolus to another -type 1 and 2 cells
surface tension
-alveolar fluid coating alveoli exerts a force -occures whenever air interfaces with water bc water molecules are more strongly attarcted to each other than they are to gas mol in air
-External framework is ___ and ______ -Nasal cavity lies over roof of mouth & is composed of _______ bones that separate nasal cavity from mouth; failure to unite results in ____ -Separated from cranial cavity by _______ plate w/in ______bone that allows branches of olfactory nerves to enter & reach brain.
-bony and hyaline cartilage -palatine; cleft palate -cribiform plate; ethmoid
-pulmonary arteries -bronchial arteries
-carry deoxygenated blood and enters left lobe -branches from aorta delivering 02 blood
COPD
-chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
pharynx: -lined with 2 layers of skeletal muscle (name both) and mucous membranes -function -subdivided into
-circular and inner longitudinal -common passageway for air and food -change in pharynx shape allows for diff vowel sounds -nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
Atelectasis
-collapsed lung
-spirogram
-commonly used to measure volumes of air exchange during breathing and resp rate
2 functional org of resp. systems
-conducting zone -respiratory zone
-Loudness of voice depends on ____ w/ which the air stream rushes across the vocal folds. -Range of a voice (soprano or bass) is determined by ____ and ____ of the vocal folds. -Our vocal folds increase in length as we grow, which is why our voices become lower or deeper as we mature. -Pitch is controlled by the_____ on vocal cords...if pulled taut by muscles, they vibrate more rapidly resulting in a higher pitch. -Due to androgens in males, vocal cords are usually thicker, longer & vibrate more slowly, giving a deeper pitch. There is no pitch during whispering as vocal cords do not vibrate.
-force -length and thickness -tension
-hemoglobin can hold ___ O2 molecules -RBC's also carry 23% of CO2 in blood =
-four -carbaminohemoglobin
-Paranasal sinuses -lined continuously with respiratory mucosa producing secretions that are swept by ____ into the _____
-frontal, ethmoidal, spenoidal, maxillary -cilia; nose
-complete cartilage in trachea -incomplete cartilage in trachea
-gives trachea shape and keep it open -allows esophagus to expand anteriorly when swallowing big bolus of food
SEM: -trachea lining consisting of mucous secreting goblet cells ____ amid ciliated epithelia _____
-goblet: brown -cilated epithelia: red
Gas transport in blood: -Oxygen: 90% bound to ______; 1% as ___dissolved in plasms -Carbon dioxide: 70% as _____ (HCO3-); 23% bound to ____ and 7% as __ dissolved in plasma
-hemoglobin; O2 -bicarbonate ion; hemoglobin; CO2
-gases move from an area of __ to ___ pressure -during inspiration- diaphragm _____ and lungs ____ -when lungs expand it ___ the volume which ___ the pressure inside the kungs -lung pressure is ___ than outside pressure ao air moves in
-high; low -pulls down; expand -increases; decreases -lower
Exchange of resp gases:External resp: -Partial pressure of O2 is ____ in qlveoli than blood so O2 difuses out of alveoli and into blood -PP of CO2 is ____ in blood than alveoli, so CO2 moves into alveoli in opposite directionand gets exhaled out
-higher -higher
Bronchial Tree
-highly branched system of air-conducting passages, originating at the main bronchi & progressing branches into narrower tubes that diverge throughout the lungs
compliance of lungs
-how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest wall -high compliance: lungs expand easily -low compliance: resist expansion
resistance
-include all factors that make it more difficult to move air from atmosphere through resp passageway -dec in elasticity of chest walla dn lungs -change in bronchiole diameter -size of other passageways
-alveloi... -covered with ___ that keeps them from collapsing
-increase surface area for gas exchange -Co2 and O2 gas exchange -surfacant
-diaphragm contracts and incr thoracic space air flows in -diaphragm relaxes and decr thoracic space air flows out
-inspiration -expiration
-IRV -ERV -RV
-inspiratory reserve volume; amount of air forcefully inhaled beyond normal breathing(3100 mL for males ands 1900 mL for females) -expiratory reserve volume; amt air forcefully exhaled after normal breathing -Residual volume: amount of air still in lungs
conducting zone
-interconnecting series of tubes + cavities -filters, warms, and moistens air + conducts air into lungs -includes nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, + terminal branches
muscles of forced experation
-internal intercostals, abdominal muscles, transversus thoracis, and serratus posterior inferior
Lung expansion is dependent upon _____pressure being lower than the _____ pressure.
-intra-pleural -intrapulmonary
-tube placement from mouth (or nose) → pharynx → larynx → trachea; used in emergency situations especially if patient has reaction to muscle relaxant in surgery -cutting an opening into trachea to facilitate breathing when an airway is blocked or compromised by disease of injury; surgeons may perform to allow a suction device be inserted to improve ventilation of the lungs
-intubation -tracheotomy or tracheostomy
Lower Resp. system
-larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
Functional org. of respiratory tract
-lining of resp. tract is epithelium containing cilia, goblet cells, underlying lamina propria, mucous and serous glands
-total lung capacity -vital capacity -inspiratory capacity -functional residual capacity
-max amount of air contained in lungs after max inpiratory effort -max amount of air taht can be expired after max inspiratory efforts -max amount of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration -volume of air remaining in lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration
-Tidal Volume (TV) -minute ventilation or pulmonary ventilation
-mount of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing -total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each min is respiratory rate X tidal volume
Air distribution
-moves air to and from exchange surfaces of lung along resp tract
-posterior to nasal cavity extending to soft palate -normally only air passes through; most substances are blocked by soft palate -elevates swallowing -contains pharyngeal tonsils
-nasopharynx
begins at the level of hyoid bone & contains larynx, thyroid cartilage, and epiglottis
Laryngopharynx
Partial pressure of a gas in a gas mixture is proportional to its percentage volume in the gas mixture (Dalton's law)
Partial pressure gradient
-occurs when air gets into the pleural cavity. It may develop two ways. -Air may be introduced externally from a penetrating injury to the chest, (knife-wound or gunshot) or can originate internally either when a broken rib lacerates the surface of the lung or an alveolus ruptures.
Pneumothorax:
-"crib death"; third-ranking cause of infant death. A person can "forget" to breathe. Breathing is disrupted; called apnea (as many as 500x/night). An infant sometimes cannot awaken from an apneic episode and may have a heritable basis. SIDS occurs in higher rates in African-Americans & Native Americans.
SIDS: sudden infant death syndrome
-chronic bacillus infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis; highly contagious -inflammatory leisions form around colonies of TB bacilli coughinh in excess can lead to hemmorage. -scar tissue may reduce lung volume -recently has re-emerged and is an antibiotic resistant strain
TB
"windpipe"; serves as an open passageway to lungs; the fifth thoracic vertebra (T5) is where divergence of right & left primary bronchi occur. 1" diameter & 4.5" long from larynx to primary bronchi.
Trachea
The endothelial cells of the alveolar capillaries are the primary source _______which converts circulating angiostensin I to angiostensin II. This enzyme plays an imp role in the regulation of blood volume & blood pressure. Also present are fibroblasts that make reticular & elastic fibers. Emphysema does damage to fibroblasts thereby decreasing elastin & collagen.
angiostensin converting enzyme (ACE)
_______ pneumonia contracted by inhalatyion of vomit...common in acute alcohol intoxication and/or complications of anesthesia
aspiration pneumonia
-recurrent inflammation of smooth bronchial muscles causing contraction and spasms of the muscles surrounding the air passages and swollensubmucosa w increased mucus production -may result from exposure to an allergen, cold temp, exercise, emotion, stress etc -inhaled irritants acitvate PARASYMPATHETIC division to constrict smooth muscles
asthma
-When straining during a bowel movement, the vocal folds act as a sphincter that prevents air passage (shuts down exhalation) allowing pressure to increase which helps to empty the rectum -also participates in urine release, the expulsion of fetus during childbirth, and in both the sneeze & cough reflex.
called Valsalva's maneuver;
-typically occurs from breathing in too much carbon monoxide (CO).[3] Symptoms are often described as "flu-like" and commonly include headache, dizziness, weakness, vomiting, chest pain, and confusion.[1] Large exposures can result in loss of consciousness, arrhythmias, seizures, or death
carbon monoxide poisoning
-mucosal covered cartilage -located at the split into the main bronchi containing sensory receptors that are extremely sensitive..can induce a forceful cough when stimulated by irritants (cough contracts trachea to expell air rapidly helping to dislodge objects or food).
carina
When bicarbonate ion increases, some will follow concentration gradient and move out of RBC. To balance the ion concentration choride ions diffuse from plasma into RBC. This electrical exchange is called the
chloride shift
parasympathetic NS
constricts bronchioles
-defective CFTR gene(missing aa phenylalanine so degrades protein instead of inserting into cell membrane -lethal inherited disease caused by abnormal plasma membrane protein channel -mucous secretions become too thick
cystic fibrosis
-As pH increases, the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 ____ so less O2 combines with Hb and more is available to tissues
declines
-passive process -air moves out; no muscular ontractions involved and results from elastic recoil -diaphragm and muscles relax -vol in lungs and chest cavity decreases so now pressure inside incr
exhalation
Defends resp. tissues from pathogen invasion by _____
filtering
Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs bc CO binds to _____ more effectively
hemoglobin
laryngitis
inflammation of vocal folds causing swelling leading to hoarseness
-active process -gases move from an area of high pressure to low pressure -diphragm pulls down and lungs expand incr in volume which decreases pressure inside lungs
inhalation
-Lymph nodes & vessels are located within the connective tissue of the lung as well as around the bronchi & pleura. -The lymph nodes collect carbon, dust particles, & pollutants that were not filtered out by the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
lymphatic drainage
3% of cancers in Us; caused by asbestos being used in insulation, textiles, cement, roof shingles, floor products.
mesothelioma
provides a medical and legal tool for the determination whether a baby is born dead (stillborn) or died after birth by placing the lung in water.
minimal volume
if alveolus begins to collapse like an expiratioon, surfacant moles become... and tend to collectively oppose the collapse
more tightly packed
resuscitation; provides 75% oxygen of inhaled air
mouth to mouth
Facilitates detection of ______and ____ in superior portions of nasal cavity
olfactory stimulus and receptors
-immediately posterior to oral cavity; contain palantine tonsils & lingual tonsils at base of tongue; also contains the uvula
oropharynx
-Erythrocyte Function carries 99% of O2 bound to hemoglobin called...
oxyhemoglobin
-nerve that originates in the neck -passes down between the lung and heart to reach the diaphragm. -It is important for breathing, as it passes motor information to the diaphragm and receives sensory information from it.
phrenic nerve
-occurs in higher rates in African-Americans & Native Americans. Pleural effusion - A condition in which air or fluid enters the pleural cavity
pleural effusion
-virus can attack nerves controlling diaphragm because it is a striate muscle...spend the rest of their lives in iron lung
polio
SARS
sever acute respiratory syndrome
protects resp. surfaces from dehydration by ______ and ____ we breth during environmental variations
warming and humidifying air
