PSYC 304 EXAM 2
Some traits may decrease survival are selected for if:
- If the reproductive success is increased, a shorter lifespan may be tolerable - Any competitive edge gained on others of the same sex is useful
Benefits of resource holding?
- Larger body size - Able to easily chase off smaller rivals - May have more energy reserves• However, often older individuals win more often than younger ones
What are birds cues for parental recognition?
- Vocalizations - In colonial bank swallows each chick has its distinctive call - In the rough-winged swallow, which nests alone, the chicks do not have a distinctive call
Costs of territoriality
- takes time to patrol and defend territory - Risk of injury and exhaustion - The increased levels of testosterone (associated with territoriality) lead to greater health costs - Unless the benefits of having a territory are quite high, peaceful coexistence should evolve
What calculates the overall parental benefit and predicts which sex is more likely to parent?
A cost-benefit analysis
What is intrasexual selection?
A direct competition among individuals of one sex (usually the males in vertebrates) for mates of the opposite sex.
How do males participate in mate guarding?
A way to distract the female, Lure suitors away from the female, and Seal the female's genitalia
Why would animals disperse to avoid local resource competition with relatives?
Although it will lower the fitness for all individuals sharing genes, it will increase the fitness of those who stay behind. The ones leaving will then compete with nonrelatives in a new habitat
Male fish produce vast quantities of sperm, so why do they expend time and energy parenting rather than finding new mates?
Because females may be more attracted to males that can demonstrate parenting ability
Why do male side-blotched lizards defend territories that contain rocks that females use for basking and cover?
Because females prefer sites that have rocks to bathe in the sun and can be used for protection
Why do benefits outweigh the costs for those who have lower social status?
Because they don't have to share???
Who studied this: - In some primates, females may base their mate choice on the male's copulatory performance - In species in which females copulate with several males in a single breeding season, a male with an elaborate penis may be more stimulating
Bill Eberhard
Mate Monogamy is common in
Birds and Mammals
What is this? Species that can SWITCH between conditions, such as migration or hibernation.
Conditional Migration
What are these examples of? Flight/travel uses lots of calories/energy. Food must be available to increase body weight otherwise it is more difficult to escape predators
Costs of migrations
What is Healthy Mates Theory?
Courtship displays and plumage indicate that a male is healthy and/or has few parasites
What is this an example of? A desirable trait in a male is their height, but males can be too tall
Runaway Seleciton Theory
What theory is this? The females are trying to runaway from a trait but if it is enhanced, such as the color red, they still end up mating
Runaway Selection Theory
How do females decide whether or not to mate with a polygynist male?
Sharing resources with another female could reduce fitness
TRUE/FALSE: some species can even change dispersal patterns under certain conditions
TRUE
What is a cost for lizards who gained rocks in their territory?
They lost land and may attract females since they prefer rocks
Having more eggs ____ the risk that all of a particular female's eggs will be eaten or destroyed
decreases
Why would males participate in lek polygyny?
if other mating tactics fail, this may be the only option
What are the costs of defending a territory?
in competition with males and always using energy
Benefits of mate guarding _____ with the probability that unguarded females will mate again and the new male's sperm will fertilize the female
increase
Species who are less dominant may _____ their survival rate by migrating to an area with more resources
increase
A _____ has more to lose than an ______
resident ; intruder
What are exceptions to resource-holding?
- A resident has more to lose than an intruder - For example, older residents may not have as many future opportunities for reproduction - Resident pairs may be closer to laying eggs or mating - A resident has already established boundaries with the current neighbors
Why is male monogamy common in birds?
- Both parents are needed to protect the nest and feed the young - Young birds are often completely helpless until they can fly - Both males and females are equally able to provide food for the young
Defining male vs. female might not always be accurate. An example of this:
- Female blue whales are larger than males, which makes a secondary sex characteristic abnormal. - Female spotted hyenas with the pseudo penis
Why don't females live in groups in resource defense polygyny?
- Female distribution may rely more on the distribution of resources. - Mating strategies for males are then constrained by these factors.
What are dolphins cues for parental recongition?
- Produce whistles that are unique to each individual - Develops in the first few months and remains stable for life
Why might males have greater costs for parental care?
- The reproductive potential is generally greater for males - Parental care prevents them from investing time and energy into finding a new mate
How is polyandry (mating with numerous males) costly?
-Do not get additional parental care from the additional mate. -Takes time to find extra-pair males. -Social partner may leave if he discovers the extra-pair mating. -May acquire a sexually transmitted disease.
male managomy
-Gains by guarding high quality mate -Females are scarce -Females are dispersed -Males brood the offspring -Male assistance is need for success of offspring
How does extra-pair copulations benefit the male birds?
-Those males that can mate with both a social partner and an extra-pair female maximize their fitness -Truly monogamous males are the only ones who suffer
In the Cost-Benefit Analysis of Parental Care, two factors influence parental activities in birds. What are they?
1. The type of predator • Does it attack adults or chicks? 2. The annual mortality rate of breeding adults • Do adults live long or short lives?
Each parent has a _____% investment in the survival of its offspring into adulthood
50%
Some species, like the European blackbird, get to CHOOSE if they want to migrate or hibernate. This is an example of?
A CONDITIONAL migration
What is polygyny?
A male mates with multiple females/female mates with a single male
If the parasite is larger and louder than the birds own chicks, it will get more food
Abrupt Shift Hypothesis
Size disparity has been tested experimentally - Larger offspring in a smaller bird's nest do much better than smaller birds placed in a larger bird's nest
Abrupt Shift Hypothesis
This shift to smaller, unrelated species occurred abruptly to take advantage of automatic feeding mechanisms
Abrupt Shift Hypothesis
What is this an example of? Parents generally feed larger, louder offspring more than smaller, quieter ones. They are more likely to survive and reproduce
Abrupt Shift Hypothesis
Why are there are so many polygynous systems?
Because unlike male monogamy and polyandry, polygyny is easy to explain in evolutionary terms
How do parents assure that they are caring for their own young?
Being able to evolve a recognition mechanism is especially important when there is a risk of caring for a nonrelative
Following food or water resources and avoiding freezing temperatures are examples of
Benefits of Migration
What is this an example of? Songbirds in the US feed off a large population of insects and have longer days to hunt for foodWh
Benefits of Migration
What kind of birds creates an elaborate nest to attract females by using blue items as a courtship display because females are interested in the blue items? What kind of strategy is being presented?
Bower birds. Mating strategy
Females may mate with males that have a sensory bias trait but decreases the fitness of the females
Chase-Away Selection Theory
What is this an example of? A male has a mutation that yields a novel trait and does not indicate any genetic or health advantage
Chase-Away Selection Theory
What is this an example of? Bed bug males actually pierce females in abdomen with knifelike genitalia and insert sperm directly
Chase-Away Selection Theory
What is this an example of? Scorpionflies offer a dead insect, saliva, or force females to copulate
Conditional mating strategies
What is this an example of? The European blackbird decides to migrate to a warmer enviornment since winter is coming
Conditional migration
What helps rebuild or allows animals to find new places to live?
Conservation tools
What is this an example of? females crickets who are capable of flight have ovaries that develop more slowly
Cost of dispersal
What is this an example of? Dolphins produce whistles that are unique to each individual
Cues for parental recognition
What is this an example of? In colonial bank swallows each chick has its distinctive call
Cues for parental recognition
Who proposed that sexual selection may drive evolutionary change?
Darwin
What is this an example of? Despite identification cues, offspring are sometimes adopted by nonrelatives
Darwinian puzzle, because it decreases fitness
What hypothesis is this? • Neighboring territory holders are less aggressive towards a known territory holder -e.g., pursue them for shorter distances •Any new territory holder will require the neighbors to expend energy in aggressive encounters -The neighbors may help a resident defend against an intruder to ultimately save themselves work
Dear enemy hypothesis
How might same sex fight for mating chances?
Destroy another's courtship display or dual one another for a female
What is this an example of? In lions, females remain near their natal pride and males always leave before their daughters start mating. Males also kill young cubs in a new pride.
Dispersal
_______ may be limited by behavior for both r- and k- selected species
Dispersal activity
the availability of suitable habitat in a particular area is what determines its ultimate population size
Dispersal activity
Costs of dispersal
Dispersal requires a large amount of energy ‣ This energy use comes at a cost to reproduction ◦ Dispersing also increases exposure to predators
The intraspecific competition hypothesis happens when there is competition with others in the same species for resources. What happens when dispersal is involved in this scenario?
Dispersing may decrease competiton
What is distinct mating strategies due to?
Due to genetic differences - The mean reproductive success of the different types should be equal
Who proposed that the distribution of females plays a big role in the male's mating strategy?
Emlen and Oring
What is this an example of? Game theory has been applied to the problem of why intruders tend to lose territorial contests
Evolution of dispersal
What is this an example of? Intruders always give up and residents never give up • If this arbitrary rule has become prevalent, individuals with a different strategy would rarely have the opportunity to spread their genes - Even if they are stronger, the intruder will give in and stop fighting and the resident will refuse to leave
Evolution of dispersal
A strategy that can't be replaced by an alternative is a..
Evolutionary stable strategy
What is this an example of? Intruders always give up and residents never give up
Evolutionary stable strategy
What is Chase-Away Selection Theory?
Exploitation and conflict between the sexes drives the selection process
All females are receptive during a single night
Explosive breeding assemblage
Horseshoe crab females and males have an orgy for the night
Explosive breeding assemblage
What is this an example of? Females are only receptive for a very short time and males gather in large groups to attempt to mate with females
Explosive breeding assemblage
TRUE/FALSE: Since our bodies can eventually adapt to cold temperatures, it is ideal for us to choose a habitat there
FALSE ; it is not ideal to be in cold temperatures even if we do adapt
TRUE/FALSE: An adult bird will disperse the young birds
FALSE ; it is responsible for food resources and will not leave
TRUE/FALSE: Lion males don't stay long enough to ensure that their cubs survive
FALSE ; they do stay long enough
TRUE/FALSE: Older individuals aren't always stronger, larger, or more energetic supports the resource holding hypothesis
FALSE ; this doesn't support this hypothesis
TRUE/FALSE: Only females attempt to control reproduction
FALSE; both males and females attempt to control reproduction
TRUE/FALSE: both parents provide care in all species
FALSE; sometimes it's males providing care and sometimes it's females or neither
TRUE/FALSE: If given the opportunity, inferior individuals will NOT switch to the dominant strategy
FALSE; they WILL
TRUE/FALSE: In many species, males do not have to compete with rivals for females
FALSE; they do have to compete
TRUE/FALSE: females produce smaller and fewer reproductive cells (aka eggs)
FALSE; they do produce fewer BUT also LARGER
What determines if an animal is not prepared to migrate?
Fat reserves/physical size
What is this an example of? Potential mates fight with other males to monopolize females and occurs if receptive females gather in defensible groups
Female Defense Polygyny
What is this an example of? Razorbill females attack their male partners if they show interest in a neighboring female
Female-Enforced Monogamy Hypothesis
What is this? It may be advantageous for males to mate with several females, but females prevent the males from being polygynous
Female-Enforced Monogamy Hypothesis
Male vs. female. Who tends to make a larger parental investment?
Females
How do females attempt to control reproduction?
Females invest in the egg (food, materials, and qualities), mate choice, and offspring investment
Across all animals, mothers are more likely to give parental care than fathers. WHY?
Females invest more energy into making eggs
What is female preference hypothesis in Lek Polygyny?
Females prefer a site with lots of males, so they all have more mating opportunities if they gather in a group
Female mates with several males to reduce chance that some eggs will remain unfertilized because of unviable sperm
Fertility Insurance Hypothesis
A bird is starting to notice that is getting darker faster which doesn't give it enough time to hunt. What should this bird do in this example?
Find a better habitat that has daylight for longer periods; a habitat that fits the bird's needs of survival.
How have birds evolved their behaviors to reduce costs of migration?
Flying in a "V" formation
Why do different migration patterns co-exist?
Fox sparrows, for example, have 6 different populations. 1 does not migrate while the remaining populations do choose to migrate.
Benefits can be gained by mating with a males whose sperm may be exceptionally compatible with her eggs.
Genetic Compatibility Hypothesis
Have a pair bond and both the male and female only have offspring with the pair bond
Genetic monogamy
Females copulate with numerous males in order to increase the chances of getting sperm of high genetic quality.
Good Genes Hypothesis
What is this an example of? Characteristics such as bright plumage and elaborate courtship behavior may indicate a male's parental abilities
Good parent theory
_________ will occasionally adopt an unrelated chick. The chick is more successful if it voluntarily leaves its own nest and begs for food in the nest in a submissive position
Ground-nesting gulls
_____ and _____ nest in dense ground colonies and chicks begin to run several days after hatching
Gulls and Terns
Health or few parasites, or fullness of feathers are examples of...
Healthy Mates Theory
________ increases the survival of offspring. -Thus, mating with several males may improve the chances that the female will produce offspring that have few recessive traits.
Heterozygosity
Will a bird choose to migrate or hibernate if they are having a mild winter?
Hibernate
In an _______ _______ _______, organisms distribute themselves among sites so that average payoffs are the same at each site
Ideal free distribution
If dispersal is so costly, why do animals do it?
Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis
There are some species that rely on other species to raise their young, such as cowbirds and cuckoos. What is this?
Interspecific Brood Parasitism
What is this an example of? the emperor penguins competing for nesting areas
Intraspecific competition hypothesis
While mate guarding a male can miss out on copulations with new females. Is this adaptive?
It must calculate the costs and benefits for guarding versus moving onto another female
Who demonstrated that specked wood butterflies do not always show this result - Original male captured and put in a cooler - A new male takes over territory - In 50 of 52 confrontations the original territory holder won - Those who hold territories may often also be the stronger individuals
Kemp & Wiklund
_____ don't have a recognition mechanism because they Will adopt older chicks, even those from other species
Kittiwake
_____ gulls nest on tiny ledges on cliffs
Kittiwake
What benefits of migration might be so great as to outweigh the costs?
Large populations of insects, long days for hunting for food, following food or water resources, avoiding freezing temperatures
Males defend small territories/arenas to showcase their own fitness or attractiveness
Lek (Area) Polygyny
What is Hotshot hypothesis of Lek Polygyny?
Lower quality males gather around a high quality male to get a chance with females drawn to the attractive male.
What is Good Genes Theory?
Male courtship displays and ornamentation indicate that the male has high quality genes
What kind of animal defends territories that contain rocks in which females use for basking and cover?
Male side-blotched lizards
Promiscuity
Males and females have multiple partners
Male assistance hypothesis
Males remain with a single female because ecological factors give an advantage to male parental care and offspring protection
What are some species that migrate?
Mammals, birds, fish, and sea turtles
- Many species of primates that practice monogamy do not require males to prevent infanticide - Across a wide variety of mammalian species, there is no significant correlation between parental care and monogamy
Mate Assistance Hypothesis Problems
What is this an example of? In seahorses, the male carries a clutch of eggs in a pouch until they hatch
Mate Assistance Theory
When parents do not help parent, the immediate causes may be song quality, visual appearance, or courtship dance.
Mate Choice When There is No Parental Investment
What are is this an example of? Male may keep watch over the female to prevent her from mating again
Mate guarding
What is this an example of? Male walking sticks stay in physical contact with the female for days or weeks
Mate guarding
What is this an example of? Some insects may guard the female until she is ready to mate and after fertilizing her
Mate guarding
What is this an example of? Some species of butterflies leave a scent after mating that repels other males
Mate guarding
Females may mate with numerous males to obtain resources other than genes & may be able to gain access to food in a neighboring male
Material Benefits Hypothesis
What is this an example of? Female insects get more nutrition so she can produce more eggs
Material benefits hypothesis
Males may provide additional parental care/protection and may reduce infancide
Material benefits theory
How were the red-winged blackbirds influenced on mate choice based on the territory quality?
More attractive territories were chosen even if he already had a mate and these females ended up having more surviving offspring
Individuals who achieve the same fitness by choosing the optimal migration patterns for their region is?
Multistrategy hypothesis
Do animals make conscious choices and critically evaluate all factors when choosing a place to live?
No, not all
What is this an example of? Males bring a food item to a female to convince her to mate with him
Nuptial gift
What is the gradual shift hypothesis?
Parasitic egg laying evolved gradually
Who proposed that spiny penises may have evolved to reduce the likelihood that a female will mate with another male? Also, the discomfort and tissue damage may decrease the period of time in which they are receptive
Paula Stockley
What hypothesis is this? • A resident values the territory more -The resident male is familiar with the territory • The longer a new resident has had control of a territory the more likely that resident will win against a previous resident
Payoff Asymmetry Hypothesis
What is a benefit of being larger than a female?
Protect/fight
What is this an example of? Found in many marine fish in which pairs defend territories together
Quality Partner Hypothesis
What is this? Males and females both gain by guarding a partner of a high quality and Each partner possesses valued characteristics
Quality Partner Hypothesis
Males defend a resource which attracts females or which a female visits and females do not live in groups
Resource Defense Polygyny
______ are more likely to give up than territory holders
Rivals
What theory is this? - Some females prefer males with a particular trait - These females have sons who possess that trait and daughters who prefer the trait
Runaway Selection Theory
Who studied red-eyed vireos?
Sandberg and Moore
What is it when males compete to be the first to reach receptive females by roaming around?
Scramble Competition Polygyny
How do we define male and female?
Secondary sexual characteristics and external sex organs also usually differ
What is this an example of? <ales competing for females switched to females competing for males
Sex role reversal
How can females use sperm competition as a method for mate selection?
She can choose to mate with another male who will remove the sperm of the previous male. If she is satisfied with the quality of the male, she can stop mating
Do tropical species have short or long-range migrations?
Short ; they move form one region to another on a small scale
Have a pair bond with a single male and female for a season
Social monogamy
What is this an example of? Birds have a bond only during the winter season
Social monogamy
Do animals have very specific preferences?
Sometimes. For example, Birds such as the European great tit prefer mixed woodland (branches down low and high) to hedgerows (branches on the side of a stream)
What is this an example of? Damselflies has a device on their penis that removes the sperm
Sperm competition
TRUE/FALSE: Animals choosing a habitat may be an automatic reaction to the key factors in the envionrment
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Animals play an active role in finding a place to live
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Even if the female does know, it may be better to mate in less than ideal circumstances than not at all.
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Females are likely to gain more benefits from parental care
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Females may choose males based on qualities that increase the fitness of female and/or the offspring
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Male and female contribute 50% of their genes to offspring
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Males kill young cubs in a new pride
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Migration is an example of a circannual rhythm
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Species who are less dominant may increase their survival rate by migrating to an area with more resources
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: There are many more sexually active males than there are receptive females
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Those within the same sex may actively fight one another or destroy the other's chances of mating
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: Winners of territorial contests are privy to direct and indirect reproductive benefits
TRUE
TRUE/FALSE: males may have greater costs for parental care
TRUE
Animals defend the areas in which they breed
Territoriality
What do females use to make their choice?
Territory and bright colored males
What is a cost of adopting unrelated offspring?
The parent may make a mistake - If they accidentally identify their own chick as a stranger they may starve or attack and kill their own young
What factors may play a role in a species choosing to hibernate or migrate?
The weather, physical abilities/conditions, such as age, or social status
stickleback females are more likely to mate with egg-guarding males because ...
These males are demonstrating a clear sign that they are good parents
What was the end result for the lizards who gained and lost rocks in their territories?
They each established territories that attracted one female
What is a benefit for lizards who lost rocks in their territory?
They gained land and the female is now able to see the male which could result in mating. BUT females also prefer rocks, so they may go to a territory that has rocks instead
Why do female seals stay on the beach with the male?
They may not have many more opportunities to mate because of their limited amount of eggs
Why are females are likely to gain more benefits from parental care?
They usually produce fewer offspring than males, so assuring that those few survive is critical and their time/energy is invested usefully
Why do male side-blotched lizards defend territories that contain rocks?
To attract the females since they prefer areas to have rocks to bathe in the sun and use for protection
Why do male lions disperse/leave their natal pride?
To become nomads or take over new prides, some males may be forced to leave if another male takes over, or they leave voluntarily.
What is a cost of Explosive breeding assemblage?
Too many males to be able to successfully defend territories
- Two closely related British species of birds: tree pipit and meadow pipit - both are ground nesters and eat similar food - the tree pipit is absent from treeless areas◦ The tree pipit ends its aerial song on a perch (tree or pole) and the meadow pipit ends its aerial song on the ground - Without a perch, the tree pipit is unable to occupy areas with no trees
Tree and meadow pipits
What position of the V-formation has the best cost/benefit ratio? Name one possible method in for which position in the formation might be determined.
Whatever position contains the lowest wingbeat frequency has the best cost/benefit ratio because there is less energy being used. The position may generally be determined due to one's fitness.
What is multistrategy hypothesis?
When individuals are achieving the same fitness by adopting the optimal/favorable migration patterns for their region.
_______ counts are higher in polyandrous species
White blood cell
Do both lower and higher ranking males mate around the same number of times?
Yes
What are some reasons long-term migration may start with dispersal?
Young birds may have been kicked out of their nest or they weren't fitting in or were bullied. They may have gone beyond the usual home range or go to another habitat where they would have an advantage
Data from ____ contributes to habitat restoration/management and vice versa
Zoos
What are the benefits of defending a territory?
ability to own it, security, safety
Researchers removed rocks from some side-blotched lizards territories and added them to others. The lizards responded by....
adjusting territory boundaries
In order for long distance migration to evolve in stages, each stage should have provided ________.
an adaptive advantage (the benefits outweigh the costs)
What is a sink habitat?
an area where the population declines
What is a source habitat?
an area where the population grows
Elaborate courtship displays may indicate the health of a male - The ability to produce a complex song, elaborate plumage, or specific "dance" may ______- females
attract
Enhancing a male's feathers makes it more
attractive
In lek polygyny, A particularly _____ male may mate with numerous females, while an _____ male may not mate at all
attractive ; unattractive
When resources are scarce in the winter months, the ______ are outweighing the ______ for those that have lower social status
benefits ; costs
How do males attempt to control reproduction?
by the resources they provide, elaborate courtship (if it's a high status female they will show off), sexual coercion (force copulation), and infanticide (kill offspring to control who female is mating with)
In some cases of territorial ________ evenly matched individuals evaluate habitat quality and adjust territorial ________ accordingly
competition ; boundaries
If something is _______, there is choice involved and is not controlled by genetics.
conditional
Scorpionflies use _____ mating strategy?
conditional
Since there is choice involved and no control by genetics, this situation must be
conditional
Females have lower reproductive potential, so investing time and energy in parental care results in a smaller _____
cost
Even though living in groups temporarily ____ fitness for females, it may ____ the lifetime fitness
decrease ; increase
In an Ideal ______ distribution, some individuals are competitively superior and can exclude other individuals from an area
despotic
Distinct mating strategies may be related to
different phenotypes that coexist
Long-term migration may have started with ....
dispersal
red-eyed vireos migrate from .......... to the .......... of South America
eastern US ; Amazon basin
When males bring a nuptial gift, the female may mate only if she ___ the food item
eats
Studies show that birds flying in v-formation save ....
energy costs
In order to have reproductive success, ______ invest lots of resources into the offspring, while ____ invest lots of resources into fertilizing as many eggs as possible
female ; male
what is polyandry?
female breeds with several males and males raise offspring
In Lek Polygyny, A main theme in these studies is that for most species the male mating system evolves due to pressure created by the .......
female mating system
Mammals have significant _____ - Females carry young and provide milk
female parental investment
One sex (usually ______) choose who they mate with
females
Polyandry =
females
______ produce larger, fewer, reproductive cells.
females (eggs (ova))
In skinny Australian katydid, the ____ fight for ____
females ; males
Dominant males mated with females while they were _______
fertile
lower ranking males father _____ offspring
fewer
What kind of animals participate in polyandry?
fish and birds
Since female bower birds are attracted to blue items. The more blue items a male collects, indicates his ....
fitness
With Ideal _____ distribution, organisms like fairness and know when they're being treated unfairly
free
Distinctive mating strategies are
genetic
If something is conditional and choice is involved, that means it's not controlled by ______
genetics
What is this an example of? Cuckoos have a longer evolutionary history - May have allowed them to become more generic parasites
gradual shift hypothesis
What is this an example of? More recently evolved parasitic species (cowbirds) do exploit a single species that is a fairly close relative
gradual shift hypothesis
What is this an example of? When species shifted to exploiting other species they may have initially chosen closely related species
gradual shift hypothesis
Leks do give females a chance to examine and compare males & are better able to choose a ____ quality male
high
Birds with a ___ mortality rate should more ___ likely to risk their own lives for their offspring because they won't have many opportunities to produce
high ; more
Species with a high rank should have _____ reproductive success
higher
an undefended living space where you coexist together
home range
Animals that don't have a defined or undefended living area is
home-range
If the ______ hypothesis is right, then the remaining males will disperse?
hotshot
In the great snipe, removing the dominant male caused the remaining to leave. What hypothesis does this support?
hotshot hypothesis
If the _____ hypothesis is right, then another male will take over the spot
hotspot
Leks formed in areas where female tracks were found. What hypothesis does this support?
hotspot hypothesis
Due to ____ use, many animals have lost their habitat
human
The more crowded conditions of the preferred habitat leads to an ______ in fitness for the less-crowded habitat
increase
Monogamy may reduce the risk of
infanticide
Individuals who are _____ use alternative tactics to reproduce
inferior
Low-ranking males mated with females during ______ phases
infertile
If males bring a less tasty food item as a nuptial gift to the female, will they still choose them as a mate?
it is unlikely
_ refers to the number in the population at the upper limit for the environment
k
Elephants, large sharks, rhinoceroses are what type of species?
k-related species
What kind of species have - low reproductive rates - slow development - limited powers of dispersal - often large - often fail to colonize new areas even if a very minimal barrier exist which makes them prone to extinction
k-related species
In many species, those who have territories are _____
larger
lethocerus eggs are much ____ than other waterbugs
larger
Male waterbugs, such as ____, Guard and moisten clutches of eggs that females attach to water vegetation above the water
lethocerus
Overland routes may be _____ compared to open water, causing animals to use more ______
longer ; energy
Benefits of territoriality
longer lasting food supply, increased access to mates, greater opportunity to rear offspring
Birds with a ____ mortality rate should be ____ likely to risk their own lives for their offspring because they can produce more during their long lives
low ; less
Birds that had _____ fat reserves were more likely to use an overland route
lower
Species who are older and more dominant will obtain ____ of the limited resources
majority
The operational sex ratio is _____- biased
male. meaning there are more males competing than females
polygamy =
males
______ produce smaller and mobile reproductive cells in great numbers
males (sperm)
n skinny Australian katydid, males offer spermatophore (provides nutrition when very little is available), and as food becomes more available ____ compete for _____-
males ; females
What is the hotspot hypothesis of Lek Polygyny?
males cluster to take advantage of a popular route for females
What is a cost of male parental care?
males may end up parenting a kid that isn't theirs
Monogamy in males is a by-product of
mate guarding
Reproductive capacity of the sexes may change as resources change, which may lead to a shift in ......
mating strategy
Why might females choose/view males that are well-fed as a good parent?
may be better able to provide food for offspring
What is dominance hierarchy?
members of one sex (usually males) fight with another to develop hierarchy in which a rank order is established
How can males be sneaky?
mimic females
A male or female mates (genetic) or partners (social) with only one individual
monogamy
In crowded conditions a male may invest ____ time mate guarding than in less crowded conditions
more
What is migration?
movement away from and later returning to the same location on an annual basis
Only when the trait becomes excessively costly, then natural selection should ____ select for that trait
not
higher ranking males have an advantage in the number of _____
offspring
Species that contain individuals who can choose to hibernate tend to be _____ and we assume to be more _____
older ; dominant
Usually ___ parent provides directly for the embryo and gives birth or lays eggs
one
Many mammals are ______ because males mate with more than one female and males disperse to find more females to mate with
polygynous
Most mammals are
polygynous
_ refers to the rate of population increase
r
Mice, insects, rabbits are what type of species?
r-related species
What kind of species have - High reproductive rates - rapid development - great powers of dispersal - Are the first to colonize new territory - Jared Diamond called them "supertramps"
r-selected species
What is the operational sex ratio?
ratio of receptive males to receptive female
Because parents often contribute so much time, energy, and risk for one offspring, it _____ their chances of successful reproduction in the future, and will ______ the chances the offspring will eventually reproduce
reduces (decreases), increase
What is sperm competition?
removal or beat out the sperm of other males
"The advantage which certain individuals have over others of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to ________"
reproduction
What is the general definition of males vs. females?
reproductive cells
Even if animals are capable of surviving and reproducing in a variety of habitats, those habitats that yield greater __________ _________ will be preffered
reproductive success
Those who hold territories have an advantage over those who don't is an example of
resource-holding hypothesis
Sneaky males =
satellites
Some species of butterflies leave a _____ after mating that repels other males
scent
What type of animals have males investing more than females?
seahorses and pipefish
Researchers believe that migratory species evolved from _______ ones
sedentary
Species that have long migrations may have evolved from those that have .......
short migrations
What happens if males have a greater parental investment? Will the operational sex ratio be biased toward females?
should lead to sex role reversal and females would compete for males
Many arenas or display grounds may be congregated in a ____ area, or lek
single
Individuals can't find space in a source habitat are forced to live in a _____ habitat?
sink
What is this an example of? A habitat that doesn't have as many mates there, survival rate is difficult, lots of pollution
sink habitat
Fit male bullfrogs lie in the pond and crock loudly to attract females and the less fit males stay near the large croaking male to attempt to intercept approaching females. The less fit frog is being a
sneaky male
A species has been around along time and has been a good neighbor & mutual trust has been established. They have gained ....
social status
Just because they're older and more dominant doesn't mean they're faster or larger, it's solely because of their _______ _______
social status
What may migration patterns related to?
social status
What kind of habitat has more reproductive success and better food sources?
source habitat
What kind of habitat is it when the animal is going to occupy a habitat under ideal conditions?
source habitat
The chick is more ____ if it voluntarily leaves its own nest and begs for food in the nest in a submissive position
successful
If a condition was controlled by genetics, we would be able to ______ the condition
switch
How do you test hotspot vs. hotshot?
temporarily remove successful males
Females may give these males an added bonus by adding _________ to the eggs which gives a developmental ________ to the offspring
testosterone ; advantage
What does the polygyny threshold model predict?
that at a specific resource level it is better to mate with a polygynous male with a good territory than a monogamous male with a poor territory
What animal can nest in deciduous forest (shedding its leaves annually) at the edges of streams or in a mixed conifer forest away from the water?
the blackcap warbler
What is dispersal?
the movement of organisms from one place to another
What is the intraspecific competition hypothesis?
there is competition with others in the same species for resources.
How do lower ranking males find other ways to reproduce?
they become friends with females, offer protection to a female, or form coalitions with other males to bring down a single dominant male
What is a benefit of female parental care?
they can be assured they are caring for only their own offspring
What is a cost in scramble competition polygyny?
they expend their energy searching for females and may not find a mate
How do females choose a male regarding the good parent theory?
they will look for qualities that will make a male highly qualified as a parent and males that are well-fed
Carotenoid-based foods give them their bright color and may be an obvious sign that it is good at foraging food. What does this mean?
they're a potential good parent
Parents often contribute ____, _____, and _____ for a single offspring
time, energy, risk
Why do females live in groups?
to defend aganist predators, may increase lifetime fitness, and it may improve the fitness of those that are weaker and fit females would waste a lot of energy chasing away less fit females
TRUE/FALSE: Egg-guarding in fish is common
true
Why do the sexes differ in parental investment?
two types of reproductive cells evolved. one cell was good at fertilizing the other cell (small with great mobility), while the other was good at developing after fertilization (large, not very mobile). Overall, each type of cell serves a useful purpose
Even though females are more likely to parent than males, this doesn't account for species where females lay the eggs and leave care to the male. What do we do?
use a cost-benefit analysis to calculate the overall parental benefit and predicts which sex is more likely to parent
What may migrating animals due to decrease the mortality risk/possible death?
use overland routes rather than those over open water even if it means it's a longer route to decrease risk of drowning
What cues do Mexican free-tailed bats use?
use vocal and olfactory cues
What is a conditional migration?
when a species get's to choose it's conditions/enviornment and it's not controlled by genetics
Scramble Competition Polygyny may occur in species in which females and resources are ____ scattered
widely
Benefits of dispersal
‣ Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis • inbreeding depression ◦ the tendency of inbred individuals to have lower fitness than noninbred members of their species ◦ more likely to pass down two damaging recessive genes