PSYC/SOC

A ________ reinforcement schedule, which provides a reward after every desired behavior, is most effective for training an animal to perform a new behavior. _______ (ie, rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior) is often needed initially. Depriving the animal of the reward (eg, food) prior to training heightens its ________, making training easier.

A continuous reinforcement schedule, which provides a reward after every desired behavior, is most effective for training an animal to perform a new behavior. Shaping (ie, rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior) is often needed initially. Depriving the animal of the reward (eg, food) prior to training heightens its motivation, making training easier.

A correlation coefficient (r value) describes the ______ relationship between two variables; r values range from −1 to 1 and describe the ______ (sign) and _______of an association. The ______ of the r value indicates a positive or negative association, and the closer r is to −1 or 1, the stronger the relationship. _________ describe relationships between variables, but it is not possible to determine if one variable caused the change in the other.

A correlation coefficient (r value) describes the linear relationship between two variables; r values range from −1 to 1 and describe the direction (sign) and strength of an association. The sign of the r value indicates a positive or negative association, and the closer r is to −1 or 1, the stronger the relationship. Correlations describe relationships between variables, but it is not possible to determine if one variable caused the change in the other.

A meta-analysis statistically analyzes data combined from multiple studies with a common experimental goal. To combine study results for a meta-analysis, studies must use parallel ________ and outcome ______. Averages between groups cannot be compared if they are not based on the same -------- -------

A meta-analysis statistically analyzes data combined from multiple studies with a common experimental goal. To combine study results for a meta-analysis, studies must use parallel methodology and outcome measures. Averages between groups cannot be compared if they are not based on the same outcome measures

A token economy ________ reinforces certain behaviors through the use of tokens, which are _________ reinforcers that can be _______ for a desirable reward. For example, a teacher gives each child a gold star (ie, token) for completing homework, and 5 gold stars can be _______ for candy. The encouragement of certain behaviors through the use of secondary reinforcers (that can be exchanged for rewards) illustrates a _________

A token economy positively reinforces certain behaviors through the use of tokens, which are secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for a desirable reward. For example, a teacher gives each child a gold star (ie, token) for completing homework, and 5 gold stars can be exchanged for candy. The encouragement of certain behaviors through the use of secondary reinforcers (that can be exchanged for rewards) illustrates a token economy.

Stimulation of the nucleus accumbens would be expected to alleviate which of the following symptoms of depression? A.Anhedonia B.Difficulty concentrating C.Fatigue D.Insomnia

ANS: A

Acquisition refers to the learning that takes place as an association is formed between the _______stimulus (eg, food) and the ________ stimulus (eg, bell).

Acquisition refers to the learning that takes place as an association is formed between the unconditioned stimulus (eg, food) and the neutral stimulus (eg, bell).

Alpha and beta waves are _____-frequency, _______-amplitude waves characteristic of waking states. Beta waves have the ________ frequency and are characteristic of awake, alert states. Alpha waves have more regularity and are characteristic of awake, relaxed states.

Alpha and beta waves are high-frequency, low-amplitude waves characteristic of waking states. Beta waves have the highest frequency and are characteristic of awake, alert states. Alpha waves have more regularity and are characteristic of awake, relaxed states.

As an object approaches the eye, ______muscles alter the shape of the _______. This is referred to as ________ and is processed by the brain as a _______perception cue. However, accommodation is a ______ cue because it can be performed by only one eye and therefore does not contribute to stereopsis.

As an object approaches the eye, ciliary muscles alter the shape of the lens. This is referred to as accommodation and is processed by the brain as a depth perception cue. However, accommodation is a monocular cue because it can be performed by only one eye and therefore does not contribute to stereopsis.

Attention, cognitive processes that focus on certain stimuli while filtering out others, can be ______ or _______. ________ attention ("multitasking") describes attending to more than one stimulus/task at a time, while _________attention describes focusing on one stimulus and ignoring others.

Attention, cognitive processes that focus on certain stimuli while filtering out others, can be divided or selective. Divided attention ("multitasking") describes attending to more than one stimulus/task at a time, while selective attention describes focusing on one stimulus and ignoring others.

Binocular cues are less informative at _______distances because retinal disparity and convergence _______ as distance increases Therefore, ______ cues become more important for ________ perception over great distances.

Binocular cues are less informative at great distances because retinal disparity and convergence decrease as distance increases. Therefore, monocular cues become more important for depth perception over great distances.

Binocular depth cues result in ________ perception (stereopsis) based on information from ______eyes. _________ _________allows for integration of slightly different images from each retina. Convergence refers to the ________ positioning of the eyes as they focus on objects.

Binocular depth cues result in depth perception (stereopsis) based on information from both eyes. Retinal disparity allows for integration of slightly different images from each retina. Convergence refers to the angular positioning of the eyes as they focus on objects.

Both monocular and binocular cues are used to determine _____ and ______. Monocular cues are depth cues that can be perceived using one eye only and often rely on comparisons between objects. Examples of monocular cues include: Interposition: ______ Light and shadow: _______ Texture gradient: ________ Relative size: _________ Relative height: ________ Linear perspective: _________

Both monocular and binocular cues are used to determine depth and distance. Monocular cues are depth cues that can be perceived using one eye only and often rely on comparisons between objects. Examples of monocular cues include: Interposition: Closer objects will overlap in front of objects that are further away (Choice A). Light and shadow: Highlights and shadows help to give objects the appearance of depth (Choice C). Texture gradient: Closer objects show more fine detail than objects that are further away (Choice D). Relative size: Further objects appear smaller than closer objects of the same size. Relative height: Further objects are perceived at higher distances within a field. Linear perspective: Distances between parallel lines appear narrower as they become further away.

Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that did not previously elicit a meaningful response (ie, _________stimulus) takes on the properties of a biologically arousing stimulus (ie, _________ stimulus) after being paired (eg, infant fears a white rat after it is paired with a loud noise).

Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that did not previously elicit a meaningful response (ie, neutral stimulus) takes on the properties of a biologically arousing stimulus (ie, unconditioned stimulus) after being paired (eg, infant fears a white rat after it is paired with a loud noise).

__________-_______ therapy (CBT) is a major therapeutic approach designed to help individuals replace negative thoughts and behaviors with healthier thoughts and behaviors.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a major therapeutic approach designed to help individuals replace negative thoughts and behaviors with healthier thoughts and behaviors.

Common fate in Gestalt principle describes our perception that objects that move together are grouped together.

Common fate is a principle that describes our perception that objects that move together are grouped together.

Constancy refers to our perception that characteristics of an object (eg, shape, color, brightness, size) remain ________ even when the sensory input from that object _______ due to alterations in the environment (eg, distance, lighting).

Constancy refers to our perception that characteristics of an object (eg, shape, color, brightness, size) remain stable even when the sensory input from that object changes due to alterations in the environment (eg, distance, lighting).

Convergence occurs because of the ________ positioning of the eyes: The closer an object is to the observer, the more the eyes turn _______(or converge) to focus on that object. The brain interprets the angle of convergence as an indication of _________ from the observer

Convergence occurs because of the angular positioning of the eyes: The closer an object is to the observer, the more the eyes turn inward (or converge) to focus on that object. The brain interprets the angle of convergence as an indication of distance from the observer

Depression is a ________disorder characterized by emotional and physical symptoms, such as sadness, hopelessness, anhedonia, difficulty concentrating, fatigue, body aches, and changes in sleep and appetite. Stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in the brain's reward pathway may help alleviate ________, allowing depressed individuals to feel _______ again.

Depression is a mood disorder characterized by emotional and physical symptoms, such as sadness, hopelessness, anhedonia, difficulty concentrating, fatigue, body aches, and changes in sleep and appetite. Stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in the brain's reward pathway may help alleviate anhedonia, allowing depressed individuals to feel pleasure again.

__________ threshold and just noticeable difference are equivalent concepts: The _________ difference between two stimuli that a person can detect ______ of the time is called the _______ threshold, or just noticeable difference.

Difference threshold and just noticeable difference are equivalent concepts: The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time is called the difference threshold, or just noticeable difference.

_________ attention (multitasking) occurs when an individual attends to more than one stimulus or task simultaneously. The ability to multitask is significantly impacted by task ________, ________, and ________. Tasks that are _________, less _________, and/or well practiced are easier to perform simultaneously.

Divided attention (multitasking) occurs when an individual attends to more than one stimulus or task simultaneously. The ability to multitask is significantly impacted by task similarity, difficulty, and practice. Tasks that are dissimilar, less difficult, and/or well practiced are easier to perform simultaneously.

Dopamine has several functions in the central nervous system, including mediating the _______pathway and ______ control. The basal ganglia are composed of three _______ pathways: the direct pathway, the indirect pathway, and the nigrostriatal pathway. The direct and indirect pathways have ________ and inhibitory effects on motor function, respectively, and the nigrostriatal pathway helps maintain the balance between these two pathways. The __________ pathway is damaged when dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra are destroyed. Therefore, the balance between excitatory and inhibitory motor commands deteriorates.

Dopamine has several functions in the central nervous system, including mediating the reward pathway and motor control. The basal ganglia are composed of three dopaminergic pathways: the direct pathway, the indirect pathway, and the nigrostriatal pathway. The direct and indirect pathways have excitatory and inhibitory effects on motor function, respectively, and the nigrostriatal pathway helps maintain the balance between these two pathways. The nigrostriatal pathway is damaged when dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra are destroyed. Therefore, the balance between excitatory and inhibitory motor commands deteriorates.

Escape learning occurs when an organism learns how to terminate an _______ unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to flee from or stop a continuous electric shock). Escape learning becomes avoidance learning when an organism ________ coming into contact with an unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to avoid the electric shock before it occurs).

Escape learning occurs when an organism learns how to terminate an ongoing unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to flee from or stop a continuous electric shock). Escape learning becomes avoidance learning when an organism prevents coming into contact with an unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to avoid the electric shock before it occurs).

_______/______ memory is memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled. Explicit memory consists of _________ memory, which is memory for personal experiences (eg, what you ate for dinner last night), and _________ memory, which includes knowledge about facts (eg, apples are a type of fruit).

Explicit/declarative memory is memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled. Explicit memory consists of episodic memory, which is memory for personal experiences (eg, what you ate for dinner last night), and semantic memory, which includes knowledge about facts (eg, apples are a type of fruit).

Flashbulb memories are ______, _______ autobiographical memories of an event that was extremely ______ or distinct or ________ significant. Flashbulb memories may be best defined by the degree to which individuals feel ________about their recollections, even when the recollections are not completely _______or ________over time.

Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed autobiographical memories of an event that was extremely emotional or distinct or personally significant. Flashbulb memories may be best defined by the degree to which individuals feel confident about their recollections, even when the recollections are not completely accurate or consistent over time.

Hemispheric lateralization is the specialization of each brain hemisphere for certain cognitive functions. The right hemisphere is specialized for __________, __________, and ________/__________ processing. The left hemisphere is specialized for _________and ________processing.

Hemispheric lateralization is the specialization of each brain hemisphere for certain cognitive functions. The right hemisphere is specialized for visuospatial, emotional, and artistic/musical processing. The left hemisphere is specialized for linguistic and analytical processing.

If the ________ stimulus (20-cm ring ) was repeatedly presented in the absence of the electric shock (________ stimulus), this would eventually extinguish the startle (__________ response).

If the 20-cm ring (conditioned stimulus) was repeatedly presented in the absence of the electric shock (unconditioned stimulus), this would eventually extinguish the startle (conditioned response).

__________/_________ memory is memory for things that cannot be consciously recalled, such as skills, tasks, emotions, and reflexes. Classically conditioned responses rely on __________ memory.

Implicit/nondeclarative memory is memory for things that cannot be consciously recalled, such as skills, tasks, emotions, and reflexes. Classically conditioned responses rely on implicit memory.

In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the ________ stimulus alone no longer produces the _______ response.

In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus alone no longer produces the conditioned response.

In classical conditioning, ______________ occurs when a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the original _________stimulus (eg, infant who is conditioned to fear white rats also fears white cats).

In classical conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (eg, infant who is conditioned to fear white rats also fears white cats).

In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement is the _________ of an unpleasant stimulus (eg, ongoing electric shock) following a behavior, which ________ the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. Negative reinforcement can lead to ______ and/or _______learning.

In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus (eg, ongoing electric shock) following a behavior, which increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. Negative reinforcement can lead to escape and/or avoidance learning.

In operant conditioning, partial reinforcement schedules provide reinforcement after a certain number of _______ (ratio) or amount of ______(interval). The schedules are either ______(consistent) or _________(inconsistent). Partial reinforcement schedules are best used to maintain behaviors that have already been learned through ________ reinforcement.

In operant conditioning, partial reinforcement schedules provide reinforcement after a certain number of behaviors (ratio) or amount of time (interval). The schedules are either fixed (consistent) or variable (inconsistent). Partial reinforcement schedules are best used to maintain behaviors that have already been learned through continuous reinforcement.

Interference is a ______ (not attention) process describing when old information prevents recollection of new information (________ interference) or new information prevents the recollection of old information (retroactive interference).

Interference is a memory (not attention) process describing when old information prevents recollection of new information (proactive interference) or new information prevents the recollection of old information (retroactive interference).

__________ suggests that objects can be recognized despite alterations in orientation, lighting, scale, and slight alterations in the objects' component features. This allows for the recognition of an object in different spatial orientations or when it is depicted with dotted rather than solid lines.

Invariance suggests that objects can be recognized despite alterations in orientation, lighting, scale, and slight alterations in the objects' component features. This allows for the recognition of an object in different spatial orientations or when it is depicted with dotted rather than solid lines.

Kinestethic sense _________ in muscles, joints, tendons & skin detect movement & position of body/limbs Kinesthetic input provides awareness of _______ of parts of the body in space & how they are moving

Kinestethic sense Proprioceptors in muscles, joints, tendons & skin detect movement & position of body/limbs Kinesthetic input provides awareness of location of parts of the body in space & how they are moving

Located in various areas of the brain, mirror neurons are specialized neurons that fire both while ________ and _________ a behavior. Mirror neurons are hypothesized to play a central role in __________ learning.

Located in various areas of the brain, mirror neurons are specialized neurons that fire both while observing and performing a behavior. Mirror neurons are hypothesized to play a central role in observational learning.

MAOIs inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the ________ (breakdown) of monoamines such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. This enzyme functions in the ________ neuron to recycle _______s that have been removed from the synaptic cleft. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase therefore ________ the concentrations of monoamines in the axon terminal and eventually within the synaptic cleft.

MAOIs inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the oxidation (breakdown) of monoamines such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. This enzyme functions in the presynaptic neuron to recycle monoamines that have been removed from the synaptic cleft. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase therefore increases the concentrations of monoamines in the axon terminal and eventually within the synaptic cleft.

Maintenance of spatial orientation and balance relies on coordinated input from the ______system, the _______ system, and the ________ system:

Maintenance of spatial orientation and balance relies on coordinated input from the visual system, the vestibular system, and the somatosensory system:

_________ describes when an individual learns how to perform a behavior by watching someone else (eg, toddler combs hair after watching father comb hair).

Modeling describes when an individual learns how to perform a behavior by watching someone else (eg, toddler combs hair after watching father comb hair).

Which of the following processes assists in the perception of depth and motion required during the driving simulation? A.Motion parallax B.Retinal disparity C.Convergence D.Phi phenomenon

Monocular (one eye) and binocular (both eyes) cues are important for visual perception. Motion parallax (relative motion) is a monocular cue important for the perception of motion and distance. Motion parallax describes when objects in the foreground appear to be moving faster than objects in the background.

Monocular cues are ______ cues that can be perceived using one eye only and often rely on ________between objects. Examples include relative size, texture gradient changes, relative height, and the distance between parallel lines. _______from standard objects could interfere with monocular distance cues.

Monocular cues are depth cues that can be perceived using one eye only and often rely on comparisons between objects. Examples include relative size, texture gradient changes, relative height, and the distance between parallel lines. Deviations from standard objects could interfere with monocular distance cues.

Motion parallax (or relative motion) is a ______ cue whereby objects in the foreground are perceived as moving ______ than objects in the background. Motion parallax is a perceptual process that would not require _______-dimensional depth but would still allow subjects to perceive both _______ and _______

Motion parallax (or relative motion) is a monocular cue whereby objects in the foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in the background. Motion parallax is a perceptual process that would not require three-dimensional depth but would still allow subjects to perceive both depth and motion.

Multitasking is impacted by task ________, _________, and _______. It is easier to perform two dissimilar tasks than two similar tasks. Driving, which requires visual attention, is easier to do while engaging in a hands-free call (auditory attention) than while texting, because both texting and driving require visual attention.

Multitasking is impacted by task similarity, difficulty, and practice. It is easier to perform two dissimilar tasks than two similar tasks. Driving, which requires visual attention, is easier to do while engaging in a hands-free call (auditory attention) than while texting, because both texting and driving require visual attention.

Neither SSRIs nor MAOIs ________ stimulate the release of serotonin or other monoamines. However, some drugs, such as serotonin-releasing agents and amphetamines, _______ the release of neurotransmitters to increase the activity of these in the synaptic cleft.

Neither SSRIs nor MAOIs directly stimulate the release of serotonin or other monoamines. However, some drugs, such as serotonin-releasing agents and amphetamines, promote the release of neurotransmitters to increase the activity of these in the synaptic cleft.

_______ processing refers to processing multiple sources of information that occur simultaneously, such as perceiving auditory and visual events together when watching someone talk.

Parallel processing refers to processing multiple sources of information that occur simultaneously, such as perceiving auditory and visual events together when watching someone talk.

Parkinson disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by death of _________ neurons in the ______ nigra, located in the ______ (mesencephalon), which is part of a group of neural structures collectively known as the _______ ganglia, which are involved in the selection and execution of voluntary _____ programs.

Parkinson disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, located in the midbrain (mesencephalon). The substantia nigra is part of a group of neural structures collectively known as the basal ganglia, which are involved in the selection and execution of voluntary motor programs.

People use a variety of monocular (one eye) and binocular (both eyes) visual cues to perceive ______ and ______. If a driving simulator projected computer-generated two-dimensional visuals on a screen a few feet away from participants, _____ cues would generate a sense of motion and depth. In other words, since there is no real depth or distance, participants are not relying on binocular cues.

People use a variety of monocular (one eye) and binocular (both eyes) visual cues to perceive depth and motion. Since the driving simulator projected computer-generated two-dimensional visuals on a screen a few feet away from the participants, monocular cues would generate a sense of motion and depth. In other words, since there is no real depth or distance, participants are not relying on binocular cues.

_______ reinforcers are naturally rewarding (eg, candy), whereas _______ reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable (eg, money).

Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding (eg, candy), whereas secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable (eg, money).

Principles of perceptual organization are _______-_____ cognitive processes, which are guided by prior __________ and _______. Therefore, differences in expectations might cause one person to perceive a cup while another perceives a wastebasket, a thimble, or any number of other objects.

Principles of perceptual organization are top-down cognitive processes, which are guided by prior experience and expectations. Therefore, differences in expectations might cause one person to perceive a cup while another perceives a wastebasket, a thimble, or any number of other objects.

Reduced need for sleep is a symptom of ______, which is also characterized by increased energy or agitation, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), feelings of grandiosity, distractibility, and/or impulsive or reckless behaviors. Mania is indicative of _______ disorder

Reduced need for sleep is a symptom of mania, which is also characterized by increased energy or agitation, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), feelings of grandiosity, distractibility, and/or impulsive or reckless behaviors. Mania is indicative of bipolar disorde

________ describes the degree to which a measure or experiment is consistent (eg, a test produces a similar score for one person who takes it twice).

Reliability describes the degree to which a measure or experiment is consistent (eg, a test produces a similar score for one person who takes it twice).

Retinal disparity and convergence are both ________cues for depth/distance. Retinal disparity occurs because each eye transmits a slightly different image to the brain, which infers _______ from the disparity. _________ is the extent to which the eyes turn inward (converge) to focus on an object; closer objects require _______ convergence, which helps the brain infer ______. The two-dimensional simulation makes the use of _______ cues irrelevant, and neither convergence nor retinal disparity is involved with ______ perception.

Retinal disparity and convergence are both binocular cues for depth/distance. Retinal disparity occurs because each eye transmits a slightly different image to the brain, which infers distance from the disparity. Convergence is the extent to which the eyes turn inward (converge) to focus on an object; closer objects require more convergence, which helps the brain infer distance. The two-dimensional simulation made the use of binocular cues irrelevant, and neither convergence nor retinal disparity is involved with motion perception.

__________ _________, or distance between the two eyes, results in slightly different images projected onto the respective retinas. The closer an object or scene is to the two eyes, the _______dramatic the disparity. ________-order processing in the brain compares the difference between the ________-dimensional retinal images to help give rise to the perception of _______-dimensional depth.

Retinal disparity, or distance between the two eyes, results in slightly different images projected onto the respective retinas. The closer an object or scene is to the two eyes, the more dramatic the disparity. Higher-order processing in the brain compares the difference between the two-dimensional retinal images to help give rise to the perception of three-dimensional depth.

Which of the following is true regarding two classes of drugs commonly used to treat depression, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)? A.Both classes of drugs stimulate the release of serotonin into the synaptic cleft. B.SSRIs block uptake of serotonin into the post-synaptic neuron. C.MAOIs decrease the breakdown of serotonin within the pre-synaptic neuron. D.MAOIs promote uptake of serotonin into the pre-synaptic neuron.

Reuptake inhibitors such as SSRIs block the uptake of neurotransmitters into the pre-synaptic cleft, where they were originally synthesized and released.

Rewarding the mouse after some amount of time has passed is a ______ (ie, consistent) ________ (ie, time-based) reinforcement schedule which is not an optimal way to train an animal to perform a new behavior because it is more difficult for the animal to associate the desired behavior with the reward.

Rewarding the mouse after some amount of time has passed is a fixed (ie, consistent) interval (ie, time-based) reinforcement schedule. A fixed interval reinforcement schedule is not an optimal way to train an animal to perform a new behavior because it is more difficult for the animal to associate the desired behavior with the reward.

SSRIs belong to another class of antidepressants that selectively block the ________(reuptake) of serotonin into the ________ neuron, thereby _________ the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft

SSRIs belong to another class of antidepressants that selectively block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, thereby prolonging the presence of serotonin in the synaptic cleft

Schizophrenia is the ________common psychotic disorder, with a prevalence of about ______ in the United States.

Schizophrenia is the most common psychotic disorder, with a prevalence of about 1% in the United States.

Schizophrenia typically involves both positive symptoms, which are "_________ excesses" (eg, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech), and _______ symptoms, which are "pathological deficits" (eg, apathy, inability to experience pleasure). Incoherent speech, is a ______ symptom of schizophrenia,

Schizophrenia typically involves both positive symptoms, which are "pathological excesses" (eg, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech), and negative symptoms, which are "pathological deficits" (eg, apathy, inability to experience pleasure). Incoherent speech, a positive symptom of schizophrenia,

________ processing refers to processing one piece of information at a time, such as memorizing a list item by item

Serial processing refers to processing one piece of information at a time, such as memorizing a list item by item

Signal detection theory quantifies how judgments or ______ are made under uncertain conditions amid "_______" (external or internal distractions). This theory describes four possible outcomes. When a signal is correctly perceived as present, it is a correct detection, or a "_____." When a signal is not detected even though it is present, it is a false _____, or a "_______." When a signal is absent but a perception is erroneously reported, this is a false ________, and when the signal is accurately judged absent, this is a correct ________.

Signal detection theory quantifies how judgments or decisions are made under uncertain conditions amid "noise" (external or internal distractions). This theory describes four possible outcomes. When a signal is correctly perceived as present, it is a correct detection, or a "hit." When a signal is not detected even though it is present, it is a false negative, or a "miss." When a signal is absent but a perception is erroneously reported, this is a false positive, and when the signal is accurately judged absent, this is a correct rejection.

___________ input: Proprioceptors, found in skeletal muscles, tendons, skin, and joints, provide information about the location and movement of our body in space

Somatosensory input: Proprioceptors, found in skeletal muscles, tendons, skin, and joints, provide information about the location and movement of our body in space (Choice D).

Spatial orientation and balance rely on input from the _______ system, _________ system (semicircular canals and otolith organs), and ________system (proprioception). Sensory input is processed by the _________ and ________cortex, and by the ________, which coordinates balance.

Spatial orientation and balance rely on input from the visual system, vestibular system (semicircular canals and otolith organs), and somatosensory system (proprioception). Sensory input is processed by the brainstem and cerebral cortex, and by the cerebellum, which coordinates balance.

Speech shadowing is a _______ attention (not multitasking) process used in ______ listening tasks (competing information presented in each ear) that involves repeating information presented in one ear while ________ the competing information in the other ear.

Speech shadowing is a selective attention (not multitasking) process used in dichotic listening tasks (competing information presented in each ear) that involves repeating information presented in one ear while tuning out the competing information in the other ear.

Spontaneous recovery occurs when an extinct _______ reappears after a period of time (eg, a dog will salivate again upon hearing a bell a few days after extinction has occurred).

Spontaneous recovery occurs when an extinct response reappears after a period of time (eg, a dog will salivate again upon hearing a bell a few days after extinction has occurred).

The ______ threshold describes the intensity at which a stimulus is detected approximately 50% of the time. To determine the absolute threshold, researchers must vary the ______ of the stimulus and then measure how often the stimulus is _________

The absolute threshold describes the intensity at which a stimulus is detected approximately 50% of the time. To determine the absolute threshold, researchers must vary the intensity of the stimulus and then measure how often the stimulus is detected.

The ________ threshold is the smallest value of a stimulus intensity at which the stimulus will be just detectable 50% of the time.

The absolute threshold is the smallest value of a stimulus intensity at which the stimulus will be just detectable 50% of the time.

The _______ heuristic is the tendency to judge how _____ or _______ something is based on how easily it is recalled (eg, assuming that shark attacks are common because one was recently reported on the news)

The availability heuristic is the tendency to judge how common or likely something is based on how easily it is recalled (eg, assuming that shark attacks are common because one was recently reported on the news)

The biomedical approach suggests that ________causes (eg, abnormal brain chemistry) result in ________symptoms, and therefore medical interventions (eg, medication) are used as treatment.

The biomedical approach suggests that physiological causes (eg, abnormal brain chemistry) result in psychological symptoms, and therefore medical interventions (eg, medication) are used as treatment.

The cocktail party effect describes when attention quickly shifts from an ________ stimulus to an ______ stimulus when something significant occurs. At a crowded party you tune out all competing noise to focus on the person you are talking to (attended stimulus), but if you hear your name in another conversation, your attention quickly shifts to that _______ stimulus. This is a ______ attention (not multitasking) process.

The cocktail party effect describes when attention quickly shifts from an attended stimulus to an unattended stimulus when something significant occurs. At a crowded party you tune out all competing noise to focus on the person you are talking to (attended stimulus), but if you hear your name in another conversation, your attention quickly shifts to that unattended stimulus. This is a selective attention (not multitasking) process.

The deepest of non-REM sleep, _______ sleep (stages 3 and 4) is characterized by ________ waves, which demonstrate the ______ frequency and _______amplitude observed during the sleep cycle.

The deepest of non-REM sleep, slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4) is characterized by delta waves, which demonstrate the lowest frequency and highest amplitude observed during the sleep cycle.

The humanistic approach is holistic and emphasizes higher aspects of human nature, such as the drive toward ____-________ (ie, achieving one's full potential).

The humanistic approach ( person- centered therapy) is holistic and emphasizes higher aspects of human nature, such as the drive toward self-actualization (ie, achieving one's full potential).

The monoamine hypothesis is a ________model of depression. Central to this hypothesis is the idea that depletion of ________ neurotransmitters in the central nervous system directly causes depression symptoms. The monoamines (serotonin, __________, and __________) are neurotransmitters that have a _______ amine group in their molecular structure and are associated with ________ regulation.

The monoamine hypothesis is a biomedical model of depression. Central to this hypothesis is the idea that depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters in the central nervous system directly causes depression symptoms. The monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) are neurotransmitters that have a single amine group in their molecular structure and are associated with emotion regulation.

The _________ _______ is a structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain. The reward pathway also includes the_____ _________ area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex. DBS of these structures could help alleviate symptoms of depression, as activation of the reward pathway is associated with feelings of ________ and the reinforcement of rewarding behaviors.

The nucleus accumbens is a structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain. The reward pathway also includes the ventral tegmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex. DBS of these structures could help alleviate symptoms of depression, as activation of the reward pathway is associated with feelings of pleasure and the reinforcement of rewarding behaviors.

The organ of Corti is located within the cochlea of the inner ear. Unlike the vestibular organs, the _____is not directly involved in processing spatial information. Instead, the main role of the cochlea is sound processing and transmission of _______ information to the ______ lobe of the brain.

The organ of Corti is located within the cochlea of the inner ear. Unlike the vestibular organs, the cochlea is not directly involved in processing spatial information. Instead, the main role of the cochlea is sound processing and transmission of auditory information to the temporal lobe of the brain.

The prefrontal cortex, the _______ portion of the frontal lobe, regulates _________ functions, including working memory, reasoning, planning, impulse inhibition, attention, making decisions, and solving problems. The prefrontal cortex is still developing during the teens and does not reach full maturity until the mid-twenties

The prefrontal cortex, the anterior portion of the frontal lobe, regulates executive functions, including working memory, reasoning, planning, impulse inhibition, attention, making decisions, and solving problems. The prefrontal cortex is still developing during the teens and does not reach full maturity until the mid-twenties

The _________ approach focuses on revealing the unconscious and understanding how previous conflict influences the present.

The psychodynamic approach (talk therapy) focuses on revealing the unconscious and understanding how previous conflict influences the present.

The _________ difference between two stimuli a person can detect 50% of the time is called the just noticeable difference (JND), or difference threshold. As the intensity of the original stimulus increases, the ________ threshold also increases. For example, although the difference between weights of 100 and 102 g may be detectable, the difference between weights of 500 and 502 g is not, even though the difference is also 2 g.

The smallest difference between two stimuli a person can detect 50% of the time is called the just noticeable difference (JND), or difference threshold. As the intensity of the original stimulus increases, the difference threshold also increases. For example, although the difference between weights of 100 and 102 g may be detectable, the difference between weights of 500 and 502 g is not, even though the difference is also 2 g.

The ____________ ____________ is employed when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (eg, reading a map). The ____________ loop is employed when manipulating spoken and written information (eg, reading a book). The episodic buffer is responsible for __________ processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from _________-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant).

The visuospatial sketchpad is employed when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (eg, reading a map). The phonological loop is employed when manipulating spoken and written information (eg, reading a book). The episodic buffer is responsible for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant).

______waves are characteristic of stage 1 sleep ("light sleep"). During stage 2 sleep, _______waves still predominate but are interrupted by occasional __________ (bursts in frequency) and _________(increases in wavelength).

Theta waves are characteristic of stage 1 sleep ("light sleep"). During stage 2 sleep, theta waves still predominate but are interrupted by occasional sleep spindles (bursts in frequency) and K-complexes (increases in wavelength).

This relationship is quantified by Weber's law, which states that the ratio of the size of the _______ to the _______stimulus intensity remains _______. In other words, the change in a stimulus needed to detect a difference is a ________proportion (ie, if one can just detect a difference between weights of 100 and 102 g, the difference between weights of 500 and ______ g would also be just detectable).

This relationship is quantified by Weber's law, which states that the ratio of the size of the JND to the original stimulus intensity remains constant. In other words, the change in a stimulus needed to detect a difference is a constant proportion (ie, if one can just detect a difference between weights of 100 and 102 g, the difference between weights of 500 and 510 g would also be just detectable).

Top-down processing can involve ______ as well as _______. For instance, when studying a physics textbook (context), a student may interpret a seesaw in the context of its mechanics. When shown ambiguous images, subjects who are hungry (motivation) may be more likely to interpret them as images of food.

Top-down processing can involve context as well as motivations. For instance, when studying a physics textbook (context), a student may interpret a seesaw in the context of its mechanics. When shown ambiguous images, subjects who are hungry (motivation) may be more likely to interpret them as images of food.

Top-down processing is guided by _______, ________, and __________ from prior experience. Bottom-up processing is guided by ________input.

Top-down processing is guided by ideas, beliefs, and expectations from prior experience. Bottom-up processing is guided by sensory input.

Top-down processing often moves from ________ to _______, or "big picture" (our abstract ideas) to details. This is distinct from bottom-up processing, or ________-driven processing, which is guided by incoming data, often _________information

Top-down processing often moves from general to specific, or "big picture" (our abstract ideas) to details. This is distinct from bottom-up processing, or stimulus-driven processing, which is guided by incoming data, often sensory information

_______-______ processing, or conceptually driven processing, is guided by information, beliefs, or ideas already stored in our brain. A mental association between objects that usually make sound, such as a telephone or a bell, may cause subjects to mistakenly believe they hear a tone even when none is present

Top-down processing, or conceptually driven processing, is guided by information, beliefs, or ideas already stored in our brain. A mental association between objects that usually make sound, such as a telephone or a bell, may cause subjects to mistakenly believe they hear a tone even when none is present

__________(ie, biologically arousing) stimuli cause unconditioned responses (ie, innate reactions). _______ stimuli do not produce meaningful responses. After being paired with an ________ stimulus, the previously neutral stimulus becomes a ________ stimulus when it causes the organism to react with a learned (ie, conditioned) response, which is typically similar to the __________response.

Unconditioned (ie, biologically arousing) stimuli cause unconditioned responses (ie, innate reactions). Neutral stimuli do not produce meaningful responses. After being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the previously neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus when it causes the organism to react with a learned (ie, conditioned) response, which is typically similar to the unconditioned response.

Unconditioned stimuli (eg, food) are biologically arousing, causing an ______ (untrained) reaction called an ________response (eg, salivation).

Unconditioned stimuli (eg, food) are biologically arousing, causing an innate (untrained) reaction called an unconditioned response (eg, salivation).

Validity refers to the ________of a study or measure. ________ validity refers to the extent to which a measure or experiment produces a true result. External validity, also known as __________, is the extent to which study results can be applied outside the laboratory to real-life situations.

Validity refers to the accuracy of a study or measure. Internal validity refers to the extent to which a measure or experiment produces a true result. External validity, also known as generalizability, is the extent to which study results can be applied outside the laboratory to real-life situations.

Vestibular input: The __________ organ within the inner ear provides information about motion, equilibrium, and spatial orientation. The organ is composed of three perpendicular _________canals and the _________ organs (utricle and saccule). The semicircular canals detect _______ acceleration, whereas the otoliths detect _______ acceleration

Vestibular input: The vestibular organ within the inner ear provides information about motion, equilibrium, and spatial orientation. The organ is composed of three perpendicular semicircular canals and the otolith organs (utricle and saccule). The semicircular canals detect angular acceleration, whereas the otoliths detect linear acceleration

Vestibular sense • ________ system maintains balance & orientation, detects gravity/acceleration (________ organs) & head rotation (________ canals) • Motion sickness arises from conflict between _________ system & _______ input

Vestibular sense • Vestibular system maintains balance & orientation, detects gravity/acceleration (otolith organs) & head rotation (semicircular canals) • Motion sickness arises from conflict between vestibular system & visual input

Visual input: ________ cues provide information about the relative orientation of our bodies, objects, and light within our surroundings.

Visual input: Visual cues provide information about the relative orientation of our bodies, objects, and light within our surroundings.

Weber's law is based on a constant __________, not a constant value, so the addition of 0.2 g of sugar to 50 mL of oral suspension Z should not be detectable 50% of the time if 0.2 g of sugar addition to 20 ml is detectable 50% of the time.

Weber's law is based on a constant proportion, not a constant value, so the addition of 0.2 g of sugar to 50 mL of oral suspension Z should not be detectable 50% of the time.

Weber's law states that the proportion of the _____ ____________ difference (the smallest difference between two stimuli a person can detect 50% of the time) to the ________ stimulus intensity is a constant

Weber's law states that the proportion of the just noticeable difference (the smallest difference between two stimuli a person can detect 50% of the time) to the original stimulus intensity is a constant

When diagnosing, detecting, or predicting the development or presence of a medical condition, two types of errors are possible: A ________ error occurs when the condition is predicted (or said) to be present but in reality is absent; a false-________error occurs when the condition is predicted (or said) to be absent but in reality is present.

When diagnosing, detecting, or predicting the development or presence of a medical condition, two types of errors are possible: A false-positive error occurs when the condition is predicted (or said) to be present but in reality is absent; a false-negative error occurs when the condition is predicted (or said) to be absent but in reality is present.

Working memory and short-term memory are distinct _______ functions. While both involve a limited and temporary store, working memory involves the _______ and _______ of information while short-term memory does not.

Working memory and short-term memory are distinct executive functions. While both involve a limited and temporary store, working memory involves the manipulation and processing of information while short-term memory does not.

Working memory consists of the _______ _______ (attention, task switching) and three lower subsystems: the ________ _________ (visual/spatial information), the _____________ ___________(linguistic information), and the _________ buffer (timeline, long-term memory integration). The central executive controls the lower subsystems.

Working memory consists of the central executive (attention, task switching) and three lower subsystems: the visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial information), the phonological loop (linguistic information), and the episodic buffer (timeline, long-term memory integration). The central executive controls the lower subsystems.

any antidepressant medications_______ the concentration or ________ the function of one or more of these neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft. These drugs usually function via one of four general mechanisms: _________ production of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron _________ release of neurotransmitters from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft _______ reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron __________ breakdown of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron

any antidepressant medications increase the concentration or prolong the function of one or more of these neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft. These drugs usually function via one of four general mechanisms: Increasing production of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron Promoting release of neurotransmitters from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft Blocking reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron Decreasing breakdown of neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron

Prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia means

preclinical signs of psychosis

providing a reward after every single desired behavior, known as ________ reinforcement, is the best way to train animals to perform a new behavior.

providing a reward after every single desired behavior, known as continuous reinforcement, is the best way to train animals to perform a new behavior.

the principle of subjective contours, also known as ________ or ____________, describes how our mind fills in the gaps.

the principle of subjective contours, also known as reification or illusory contours, describes how our mind fills in the gaps.

Flashbulb memory Produced by events that are:

↑ Emotional ↑ Important ↑ Personal ↑ Distinct

Memory characteristics of Flashbulb memory are:

↑ Vivid ↑ Detailed ↑ Confidence in memory Questionable accuracy