Quizlet for Psych test 1 ppts
Recognizing deception
-Micorexpressinos -interchannel discrepancies (difficult to regulate all channels at once) -paralinguistic cues -change in eye contact -self correction in grammar
Dual processing-Deliberate
-cold -explicit -consciously available
6 basic steps of research
1. Select a topic and review past research 2. Develop a theory, generate hypothesis, and select method 3. Obtain approval IRB 4. Collect data 5. Analyze data and reevaluate theory 6. Report results peer review
Kurt Lewin
1890-1947; Field: social psychology; Contributions: German refugee who escaped Nazis no research without action, and no action without research.
Self-awareness
A self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions It seems reasonable to suggest that the higher their self-awareness, the more likely they are to respond with careful processing to persuasive messages dealing with issues they find important."
social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
Theory of Correspondent inference (Jones & Davis 1965)
A theory describing how we use other's behavior as a basis for INFERRING their stable dispositions based on inferring the persons position inferring they are angry you imply by what you said they are angry you can only imply what they are doing inferring is a process that you do by yourself You cannot tell someone what they are inferring, only what you think they are implying, or what you are inferring.
developing a theory
A theory helps generate testable hypotheses A theory advances knowledge in a specific area must be predictable internal coherence parsimony fertile (heuristic) a __ is your best explanation for any observed relationship THEY ARE NEVER PROVEN
correlation coefficient (linear regression)
Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) strength and magnitude (absolute value) direction is indicated by (positive or negative) -1/+1
Cognitive Consistency Theory
People are motivated to keep their own explicit (conscious) attitudes organized in a consistent and tension-free manner. Fritz Heider 1946
Non verbal communication- Facial Expression
Anger, Fear, Happiness, Sadness, Disgust, and surprise CHARLES darwin Paul ekman: did a facial study LIE to ME
Part of the brain associated with Self awareness
Anterior cingulate cortex prefrontal cingulate dorsal, anterior, orbitofrontal
affected by the imagined presence of others
As I think about going out later I'm embarrassed by what my friends will think of my clothes
drive theory
Attitude Discrepant behavior (I'm Honest but I Lied to a fellow student) ---> cognitive dissonance--> effort to reduce dissonance ($1 change attitude $20 enough to justify the lie)
implicit theories of personality
Birth order affect personality NOT TRUE
Surveys are
CORRELATIONAL research RANDOM SELECTION is important for representative sample SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS: may effect the responses
Martin seligman
Conducted experiments with dogs that led to the concept of "learned helplessness" now coined learned optimism this is under positive psychology approach
Stanely Milgram
Conformity test to show the power of an authority figure searched to explain nazi atrocities
Aronson and Mills (1959)
Female participants, who were joining a discussion group about the psychology of sex, were either accepted into the group (control condition), had to go through a mild initiation, which involved reading aloud sex-related words, or had to go through a severe initiation by reading aloud explicit sex words (Aronson 1959). When the participants were later asked the rate the discussion and the group members, those who went through severe initiation rated both categories much higher than both the control and mild initiation groups. Because the female participants had to justify the effort and humiliation they experienced to enter the group, they rated the group as more attractive than the other conditions. Effect of Severe initiation had to justify the reason for reading obscene words and they had a greater "liking score"
Methods of Impression (self-presentation)
Flattery: favor eye contact smiling
Example of a variable with different levels
Gender: 1 Variable with two levels: M or F Height is a Variable: with: infinite levels
Non verbal communication-body language
Gestures including Emblems that are specific to a culture posture: rounded (good) vs angular (bad) movement
example 2 causal attribution: He always gets very anxious in the presence of that dog. Everyone else also gets very anxious in the presence of that dog. He does not get anxious around most dogs.
High consistency High consensus High distinctiveness
example 1 causal attribution: He always gets very anxious in the presence of that dog. No one else acts that way to that dog. He gets very anxious every time he sees any dog.
His behavior is Highly consistent there is low consensus Low distinctiveness
Qualitative
Data in the form of recorded descriptions
Linden Cooper & jones 1967
Decision freedom as a determinant of the role of incentive magnitude in attitude change, JPSP There were 2 independent variables Incentive (low and high) $.50 or $2.50 Choice (choice and no choice) about essay The Dependent Variable was attitude change (about barring people from speaking on campus) lower incentive choice: higher attitude change higher incentive choice: low attitude change Lower Incentive no-choice: low attitude change higher incentive no-choice:higher attitude change THIS IS A 2 x 2 study design choice vs no choice and incentive vs no incentive One independent variable has a different effect at the different levels of the other I.V.
Causal Attribution Theory (stable external)
Difficulty the test must have been easy
Schema
Mental framework, automatic & controlled processing sources of Error on social cognition
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts and potential sources of error fallacies and biases or principles used to make quick/easy conclusions or inferences
Causal Attribution Theory (unstable internal)
Effort- she must have worked real hard
Implied presence of other
Even though, I can't see a TSA agent I don't leave my bag unattended at the airport you may never meet this person like your favorite muscian
Representative Heuristic
Make best guess based on similarity to typical patterns or general types she looks like a librarian she is a librarian she is: quiet unpopular, intelligent, serious
IQ scores and self-fulfilling prophecy
Told the teachers that certain kids where going to have increase in IQ and they did bc the self-fulfilling prophecy IQ should not change it is consistent
Personality (kurt lewin)
Trait internal stable typical
Type 1 and Type 2 error
Type 1: False positive Type 2: False Negative
Need for cognition
Verbal Intelligence/general intelligence Education level(knowledge) (Don't confuse intelligence (the ability to learn) with knowledge (the result of learning))
the augmenting principle (unexpected)
When a factor which might facilitate a behavior and one which might inhibit the same behavior are both present and the behavior occurs, we add weight to the behavior. republican endorsing democrat
Who argued for the development of Social Psych
Wilhelm Wundt 1862
Post decisional dissonance
a kind of cognitive dissonance You choose an option in spite of known negatives. Resolve this with selective attention eX; study election--> vote---> if candidate wins selectively attend to data that makes vote seem right if candidate looses selectively attend to data that proves the majority was wrong
A primacy effect
a person is describes as Intelligent or if that last word is intelligent which person is rated more highly by participant when intelligent is first
directionality problem
a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable
Meta-Analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies it calculates the EFFECT SIZE this was a shift from the Majority rules
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably OVERUSE EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS
Self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably takes responsibility for credit deny responsibility for failure
self-report
a series of answers to a questionnaire that asks people to indicate the extent to which sets of statements or adjectives accurately describe their own behavior or mental state survey
Priming
a situation that occurs when stimuli or events increase the availability in memory or consciousness Primed for rudeness with scrambled sentences (bold, rude, impolite, bluntly)or politeness(cordially, patiently, polite, courteous) = interrupted experimenter or not. If primed for elderly = walked slower.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher focused on rewards and punishments
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events subliminal conditioning pairing stimuli
True Experiments
Randomly divide subjects manipulate the independent measure dependent variable manipulates the IV measures the DV all other variables are CONTROLLED
Value-laden perspective
Social science and social action should be connected; Scientists are morally obligated to try to improve society
Consistency
The extent to which HE reacts in the SAME way
Distinctiveness
The extent to which the same person reacts in the same way to different stimuli.
The discounting principle (expected)
The importance of one particular explanation for a given behavior is reduced to the extent that there are other possible explanations for that behavior. democrat endorse democrat
The Hostile Media Phenomenon
The problem with any one-sided "news" outlet is that it leads the "true believer" into delusional thinking.
If there is a SIGNIFICANT difference between means height and gender it is said that
There is a GENDER EFFECT on HEIGHT should always report effect size SIGNIFICANT does not imply LARGE: A highly significant effect could be so small as to be meaningless. That is, a statistically significant effect might have no practical significance because the effect size is so small.
Causal Attribution Theory (stable internal)
ability- shes smart
Vested interest
an inherent motivation to pay attention extremity of the strength to which attitudes will predict behavior hard to change attitude when there is a vested interest ex: Many congressmen and women blindly believe in absolutely unregulated Gun access in America because they are heavily funded by the NRA gun lobby. Many congressmen and women blindly refuse to believe that climate change is real because they are heavily funded by the fossil fuel industries. The list goes on and on. HAS TO DO WITH FUNDING
Age resistance to Persuasion
and attitude change. Old dogs resist new tricks.
fallacies & biases
are errors or distortions that crop up in the was people process social information Both of these minimize information overload and speed up the decision process. They may be helpful or harmful to objectivity. They are more often right than wrong, but they're often wrong.
direct observation
assessment in which the professional observes the client engaged in ordinary, day-to-day behavior in either a clinical or natural setting watching people
The A-B problem LaPiere
attitudes don't always match behaviors wealthy chinese couple allowed in resturants but said they couldnt come demand characteristics social desirability bias
Selective avoidance resistance to Persuasion
avoiding info that challenges existing attitudes
Reducing dissonance
change attitude seek external justification
Role playing can
change attitudes
Paiget
cognitive development Assimilation and accommodation
Quasi experiments
comparisons of groups that differ in exposure to a variable of interest that cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons they are CORRELATIONAL not a true experiment
demand characteristics
cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected
A testable hypothesis
derived from a theory term variables in a hypothesis must be operationally defined testable prediction based on explanation
Leon Festinger
developed cognitive dissonance theory lying to others may change your attitude
reactance resistance to Persuasion
doing the opposite when freedom is threatened
Norman Triplett
first official social psychology experiment on social facilitation; cyclists performed better when paced by others
Edward Ross
focused on groups and the structure of society
William McDougal
focused on the individual as the unit of analysis
Population
group of people being described in the question or hypothesis
If initcially opposed
have a two sided argument
Central route
high elaboration, hence degree of persuasion depends on quality of arguments.
basic research
increase knowledge for the sake of knowledge does not attempt to solve a specific problem in the real world
automatic processing
is emotion based and occurs in the limbic system.
Problems with augmenting and discounting principle
it is a SELF-SERVING thing easier to discount info. we don't like
Example of a constant in data
it is a variable with only one factor: Human there is no levels you either are or you are not
Human thinking- COGNITIVE SHORTCUTS
it works on decreasing the time, but leaves us open to predictable errors in judgment
Attitudes are
lasting general evaluations of people (including self) objects, or ideas they are HEURISTICS- they are decision making rules or principles
observational learning (modeling)
learning by observing others and imitating their behavior
Impression management
looks at things we do to present ourselves favorably
Peripheral route
low elaboration, hence distraction allows attitude change with weak arguments and shallow processing Trump did the peripheral route lock her up trump's entire 2016 campaign used the peripheral route. " build the wall", "lock her up", "drain the swamp", "bring back the jobs" and loads of distractions. He did it for 4 yrs. He never made a detailed, reasoned argument for anything. Several new distractions every week.
reliable
means that it is generalizable it means it is SIGNIFICANT=REAL= SHOULD REPLICATE
Emily Loftus
memories are reconstructed around existing schemas
Facial expression 2000 olympics
most gold happy middle: sad bronze: happy
Floyd Allport:
moved to experimental direction
Selecting topic
must do a LIT REVIEW
Web based studies
non-representative sample run remote
Quanitative
numbers
Dual processing-automatic
outside of conscious awareness HOT= uses a rule of thumb driven by emotions and desires Implicit-effortless and easy
Cafe wall illusion
parallel lines don't look parallel due to staggered black and white boxes
Self-monitoring
people high in this can adjust their social behavior to situation
low-ball technique
persuasive technique in which the seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price and then mentions all of the add-on costs once the customer has agreed to purchase the product
Non verbal communication-eyes
pupil dilation: attraction Blinking: lying avoiding eye contact when lying
Controlled Neuroscience Studies
reasoning and logical occurs in the prefrontal cortex.
Self Awareness
recognizes that the self is separate from others
forewarning resistance to Persuasion
reduces persuasion
Impression formation
refers to studies of factors that influence our assessment of others
Unpriming
refers to the fact that the effects of the schemas tend to persist until they are somehow expressed in thought or behavior and only then do their effects decrease
positive thinking
saying can become believing
Value free perspective
scientists should not be concerned with how their discoveries are applied trying to influence social policy is irresponsible
Elaboration
scrutinizing arguments and developing own arguments in same direction.
Schemas can distort
self-fulfilling prophecy rosenthal and jacobson false IQ test
Sample
smaller group of people participating in the study
Non verbal communication-Scents
smelly T-shirt wore by women ovulating true experiment IV: ovulating vs not ovulating testosterone was affected
actor-observer effect
sometimes we observe others, sometimes we are the actor
Yale approach to persuasion
source: credible, attractive, similarity Message: 1/2 sided Audience: gender, knowledge, forewarning, inoculation
social psychology (kurt lewin)
state external unstable situational
Significant means real
statistical significance p less than 0.5 means that it is likely that the results will replicate it will have a REAL EFFECT in the population it is reliable
Inferential
statistics estimate the degree to which these responses can be generalized. T-test
Descriptive
statistics summarize the responses of the sample. mean median mode IQR
Non verbal communication- Touching
status and touching, handshakes
Availability Heuristic
the Recency happens where the most readily available information carries the most weight
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present If no-one acts, onlookers may believe others believe action is incorrect, and may therefore themselves refrain from acting.
fundemental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition OVER USE INTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
The Elaboration Likelihood Model
theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route Elaboration = scrutinizing arguments and developing own arguments in same direction. Central route = high elaboration, hence degree of persuasion depends on quality of arguments. Peripheral route = low elaboration, hence distraction allows attitude change with weak arguments and shallow processing. E
inoculation resistance to Persuasion
brain washing
direct experience
traumatic experience with object or in situation, including panic attack type of learning
genetics plays a role in attitudes
twin study conclude a high % of personality is due to genetics
Asch's Central Traits
warm and cold carry more weight warm: generous, happy, good-natured, sociable, popular, and altruistic.
self-perception theory (daryl BEM, 1965)
we can infer our internal states such as our attitude by observing our own behavior we dont know our attitudes but rather infer them by reviewing our behavior challenges cognitive dissonance
cause and effect illusion
when two variables are related (correlated), there is a natural tendency to assume that one causes the other, but correlation does not allow us to infer causality
plauralistic ignorance
when you misunderstand what attitudes others hold and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than ours ex: people who are prochoice do not hate babies nor do they endorse killing babies and prolife people do not hate women. Many NFL players were not protesting the flag, the American military or the country by "taking a knee" bias about a social group help by the members of that social group . causes groupthink and bystander effect
self-fulfilling prophecy
you can make a person behave the way you expect that person to behave think about the expectations you have for sibling leads the person to falsely believe that their prediction was accurate and they understand the world EX: trump's relationship with the media perceiver forms expectation--> perceiver acts towards the target based on expectations--> Target interprets the perceiver's actions and responds in a consistent manner
Factors that influence us regarding
-source: of information -+/- -unusual info. -primacy effect -schemas
The message
1. More persuasive if message appears not intended to persuade 2. Message that evokes strong emotion (especially fear) more persuasive. 3. 1-sided vs 2-sided messages (see audience)
Two step compliance
1. foot-in-the-door 2. Low ball technique
Guidelines to Human Research
1. informed consent -use deception only when necessary 2.right to decline or discontinue 3. minimize harm 4. right to privacy 5. debrief provide feedback if requested
Correlational method
1. measure two variables 2. calculate the relationship has a pearson's correlation +.90 correlation does not imply causation correlation is necessary but not sufficient for causality Coffee--> HR HR---> Coffee
The Audience
1.Easier to persuade distracted audience (sometimes). 2. Audience with low self-esteem more easily persuaded. 3. If audience initially opposed, present two-sided argument. 4. If initially in favor, present one-sided argument. 5. Knowledge.The more the audience knows, the more difficult to persuade.
The speaker
1.Experts are more persuasive 2. *Attractive speakers are often more persuasive 3. *Familiarity and liking matter (Humor) 4. *Credibility of speaker matters Sleeper effect with low-credibility source 5. *Rapid speakers can be more persuasive, prevents central route see slide 39
third variable problem
A problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest. Age--->coffee or Age--> HR
behavior impacted by presence
All these students are looking at me
The effect of perceived choice
Cognitive dissonance in free choice, operant conditioning in no choice To experience Cognitive dissonance, people must feel they had a choice.
Archival info.
Compare number of children below the poverty line in 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010.
Applied
Increases the understanding of social problems finds solutions to social problem uses current scientific
Cognitive illusion
It is any superstition like seeing a black cat it is the cause and effect illusion
Causal Attribution Theory (unstable external)
Luck- I guess she she got lucky
Who conducted the first psychological experiment in 1895?
Norman Triplett
IRB approval
Protects patients avoid deception: -not fully disclosing the nature of the study -use of confederates is deception
Function of attitudes
Provide Knowledge Help with identity help with self esteem Ego defense impression management
Psychology vs. Sociology
Psych: individual level -thoughts processes -emotional reactions -behavioral tendencies Soc: focus on group level variables -status -norms -social roles
6 approaches to psychology
Psychoanalytic, Behavioral, Gestalt, Humanistic, Cognitive, Biological
Collectivism
Takes care of others within your group group goals are more important than the individual 70% of the world is collectivistic
Individualism
Takes care of the self and immediate family only pursues one's own goals does not like being influenced by the group
Social Perception
The process through which we seek to know and understand other persons
Social Psych. Definition
The scientific study of the interactions between 2 or more people, one of whom may be implied
ABC model
affect (emotion), behavior (action) , cognition (thinking)
Consensus
the extent to which OTHERS react the same way that "he" does to a stimulus.
Effect Size
the magnitude of a relationship between two or more variables it happens in meta-analysis
Social Cognition
the manner in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use information about the social world
Groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives