soc pysch test 3
high school and college sports face uncertainties today
primary issues causing uncertainities: -cost containment and budget inequality -changing orientations and rising expectations -injuries
experiences of college athletes
Intercollegiate sports are NOT all the same- they vary by: -Division in the NCAA -Type of program and team -The cultures that are created on teams -The importance of sports in the context of the campus and larger community
current change in the works
MLBs Cleveland Indians agreed to drop their monikers -adjustments to their traditions but have defended their names and logos
budget inequity
Oregon University or Nike University -Phil Knight (CEO of Nike) has donated over $300 million to athletic department -Oklahoma St University supported ($265 million) by billionaire T Boone Pickens issues: -paid football players with donation -eligibility of players maintained through academic fraud -tolerated drug use -recruited skilled players with sexual favors
public money and private profits
Sport venues are sites for transferring public money to wealthy individuals and private corporations by - Using sales taxes to build facilities controlled by team owners and private corporations - Funding construction with tax-exempt bonds purchased by wealthy investors - Discounting property tax rates for sport facilities and development around stadiums - Granting tax deductions for tickets purchased for business purposes (nearly all luxury box and club seats are purchased this way)
bracketed morality
The level of morality necessary for everyday life is often suspended during athletic competition -athletic teams create a "moral atmosphere" that is conducive to a willingness to be aggressive -coaches, parents, and society all contribute to the "moral atmosphere"
recent reforms in big time programs
the purpose of new rules and standards passed from 1983 to 2008 was to: -send message to students (in HS and college) that academic achievement does matter in college sports -set new guidelines for universities that had ignored academic issues -provide to college athletes the support they need to succeed academically -establish sanctions for teams and universities that do not meet standards
the catharsis effect
the release(purging) of anger and frustration associated with not being able to accomplish a goal -hitting a punching bag to vent--okay -hitting an opponent intentionally--not okay -supported by research- aggressive sports good way for people to get rid of aggression urges ---biaggio (1987) found that females provided a stronger endorsement of hostility catharsis than did males -an important component of instinct theory and to a lesser degree of frustrating aggression theory -rejected by social learning theory -research supports the position that aggressive begets more aggression and that it can become learned behavior
societies winners play golf here
this is what wealthy and powerful people want everyone to believe because it legitimizes their claim to privilege in society
Athletes who most successfully balance athletic and academic commitments
those who have: -past experiences that consistently reaffirm the importance of education -social networks that support academic identities -perceived access to career opportunities following graduation -social relationships and experiences that expand confidence and skills apart from sports
identity theft in sports
Using stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis for team names, logos, & mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the intentions of those who do it
Injuries, especially to the brain
as injury rates increase, and as more reports are published on brain damage caused by concussions and repetitive sub concussion head trauma, the liability issues become great -universities have clearly been negligent in informing athletes of risks and they are being used -high schools deal with young people under the age of legal informed consent
pattern has not changed since 2008-2009
athletic directors 81.1% male 18.9% female
major beliefs that constitute class ideology in the US
belief in the american dream + belief that US is a meritocracy = class ideology -opportunities to support self and family are available to all -a system in which rewards go to only those who deserve them
Exclusive sport clubs are widely perceived as a legitimate privilege of people in the upper class. This thinking is rooted in ________
belief of meritocracy
race ideology portends that
black players are considered fast and physically gifted ---assigned to outfield in baseball; running back in football
student culture in high schools
- Being a student-athlete often is a source of status and popularity - More so for men than for women - Sports are sites for major social occasions in the school - Sports often reproduce dominant ideologies related to gender, social class, and race and ethnicity ---friday night lights ---high school football is expected to provide sense of manhood and toughness in boys ---women expected to be gender non conformists and support boys
class relations in action
- Cuts in publicly funded sport programs disproportionately affect people with few economic resources (eg., school programs) - Tickets to pro sports events are too expensive for many people today ---Ticket prices increase about 30% after new facilities are constructed (even when regressive sales taxes provide the capital)
class and gender relations
- Girls and women in low-income households often face the greatest constraints to sport participation ---often have time constraints of housekeeping and childbearing responsibilities besides lacking finances ---often juggling schedules fro home responsibilities vs getting children to sport activities - Boys and girls from higher income families seldom face constraints that interfere with participation in after school and summer programs, camps, and leagues - Gender-related factors have a greater impact on sport participation patterns in lower income households
Athletes in big-time programs
- Participants in revenue (football and basketball) sports often have scholarships - Time and energy commitments to sport are high, and participants often must choose between ---Working out and practicing sports ---Doing coursework ---Engaging in social activities - Academic detachment is a commonly used coping strategy among male athletes
economic inequality, class relations, and sports
- The meaning, organization, and purpose of sports are heavily influenced by money and economic power - Class relations in the US are based on an ideology in which economic success is equated with individual ability, worth, and character --- Competitive power and performance sports reaffirm this ideology ----in society, an individuals success is measured in competition ----in sports, athletes who are successful are perceived (metaphorically) as meeting society definition of achievement status, ex sport competition success
athletic scholarships and occupational success
- The perceived number of full athletic scholarships is greatly exaggerated. ---One third of 1% of all students in NCAA universities receive full athletic scholarships. - Athletic scholarships are awarded year to year, but athletes are obligated for 4 years, unless opting to transfer (1 year transfer rule) - Class and race/ethnicity is related to who receives scholarships in what sports - Many students with athletic scholarships would attend college without such aid.
careers for ethnic minorities
- There are 28 times more African Americans working as doctors, lawyers, and college teachers than there are black athletes in top-level professional sports. - Ethnic minority athletes have faced entry and retention barriers in the past. - Employment barriers for ethnic minorities remain in many sports, especially in off-the-field positions of power in sport organizations.
sports and high school budgets
- There are great variations in the budgets of high school sport programs. Total costs are difficult to determine, and they vary widely depending on the wealth of students' families. - In the face of budget problems, schools use these strategies: - Assess sport participation fees - Depend on support from booster clubs - Seek corporate sponsorships - As injuries become an issue, the cost for protective equipment and liability insurance increase; this may force some schools to drop certain sports
class and gender in mens lives
- ideas about sports and masculinity vary by social class (boys from lower-income backgrounds often see sport participation as a means of obtaining "respect") (boys from upper and middle class backgrounds often don't see sports participation as a necessary means to establishing an identity of financial success so disengage sooner from sports as means to succeed - early, exclusive commitments to a single sport are more likely among boys from lower-income backgrounds - this is a reflection of life chances
reformulated frustration aggression theory
-Berkowitz's reformulation of frustration aggression theory is that a frustrating event creates a readiness for aggression -in order for aggression
careers for women
-Careers as pro athletes for women have existed primarily in tennis and golf ---fewer than 40 out of 90 million US women golfers make enough to cover their tour expenses ---out of top 100 money making athletes noted in Forbes only 2 women were on the list ---Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova -Other pro sports have been formed recently, but they generate little revenue, and careers are insecure. -Other job opportunities in sports remain limited by traditional gender ideology. ---The characteristics associated with being a woman are not seen as fitting many job qualifications in sports.
arguments against interscholastic sports
-Distract attention from academics -Create dependence and conformity -Too many injuries, too many spectators -Create superficial, transitory spirit -Waste resources -Create pressure, distort status system
People seldom share power voluntarily
-Even when sport participation is racially and ethnically mixed, power in sports is not readily shared. -The movement of minorities into coaching and administrative positions has been very slow. -Social and legal pressures are still needed before power is fully shared.
social class
categories of people who share an economic position in society based on a combination of their income, wealth, education, occupation, social connections
hurting an opponent in game situation
denotes 3 aspects of aggression -team norm for aggression (would teammates engage in aggressive acts) -stage of moral development (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional) -self described likelihood to engage in acts of aggression
situational factors that might contribute to aggression
environmental temperature -hot temp=more aggressive pitching -perception of victims intent -fear of retaliation (inhibits) -structure of game ---point differential- greater, more aggression ---playing home or away ---outcome of participation-losing team more aggressive ---league standings-lower teams more aggressive ---periods of play- more acts of aggression as game proceeds, fewer in 1st period -rivalry, familiarity, and frequency of play -personal characteristics of athlete -athlete and sport differences -coach characteristics
global inequalities and sports
-People in the U.S. have (on average) $60/day to live; in 39 less-developed nations, people have 58¢ per day to live. ---Nearly 50% of the world's population live on less than $2/day. ---Example: In 2008 Tiger Woods made as much money as 200,000 people in less- developed nations used to live for the entire year. -Sports and sport participation is a luxury for over half the world's population.
effects of aggression on performance
-True aggression (intent to harm) should not result in better performance, because it should be penalized. A case in point, is the power play in ice hockey. -Conversely, hard fought assertive play on the part of athletes in American football, rugby, and ice hockey are important for team success
physical harm
goal to physically harm another person
social class and college sports
-bulk of college athletes are well off and white -college sports offering the best odds for scholarships are played primarily by young people from upper-middle class families -the revenues generated by black male athletes often pay for the scholarships received by white athletes
Economic and career opportunities in sports
-career opportunities are limited and, for athletes, they are short term ---the odds of making big money as an athlete are so low that nobody should bet much on them, and bets should be hedged with other career goals ---team sport average career is 3-7 years ---individual sport average career is 3-12 years -opportunities for women are growing but remain limited -opportunities for African Americans and other ethnic minorities are growing but remain limited
research shows that spending money on big-time college sports
-increased 4 times faster than academic budgets in recent years -has no effect on general academic quality or the academic qualifications of incoming students -does not increase alumni donations -does not improve win loss records -created a massive wealth gap between athletic departments
changes that have increased the likelihood of athletes career success
-increased salaries for many professional athletes (after 1970s) -increased visibility and name recognition that has value as a form of social capital -increased awareness among athletes that resources must be managed carefully to maximize opportunities in the future -increased diversity opportunities through policy changes
fan violence
-intense rivalries, nationalism, and alcohol abuse are the major factors that contribute to fan violence -some fans score high in personality dispositions of anger and physical aggression ---false consensus effect: false belief about the willingness of other fans to participate in acts of violence -fan identification: psychological connection that individuals have with their team, highly identified sport fans feel less control over their behavior at basketball, soccer, or football games than moderately identified fans
instrumental aggression
-intent is to harm another person -objective is to gain an external goal such as money, victory, or prestige -no anger ---manager tells pitcher to throw ball at batter but pitcher is not angry with batter -apologies are offered more
creative adaptive sport- goalball
-intercollegiate game for visually impaired -game originated out of veterans of ww2 -SUNY Cortland- 1st and 2nd place teams at collegiate national championships
assertive behavior
-no intent to harm opponent -involves legitimate physical or verbal force to achieve purpose -unusual effort and energy expenditure
issues to consider about social class
-perceptions ---26% of parents hope their high school athlete will play in the pros ---this varies by socioeconomic status (44% of these parents have a high school education or less) (9% of parents are college graduates) -facts associated with poor status in children ---37% black children, 32% hispanic -rich children are twice as likely to play sports and be sports captains -poor children become pessimistic and detached
ways to minimize aggression in sport
-reduce frustrating aspects of sport (losing) -reduce retaliatory aggression -reduce aggression through social learning
change requires
-regular and direct confrontation of racial and ethnic issues by people in positions of power -a new vocabulary for dealing with new forms of racial and ethnic diversity in our lives -training sessions for management and players dealing with practical problems and issues, not just feelings
Ichiro suzuki
-signage and advertising language -most hits amongst professional baseball league -first non pitcher to shift from Japanese professional baseball to American major leagues
Former athletes experience career benefits from playing sports if
-they learn interpersonal skills that carry over to off the field jobs -people with power and influence define them as good job prospects because they were athletes -they can use their sport reputations to create the publicity needed to achieve career success -they are well connected with others who can provide opportunities or advocate their interests
reducing aggression in sport
-unlikely to be eliminated from sport -there are way to minimize
characteristics of big time (division 1) programs
-usually emphasize football or mens basketball and their revenue generating potential -revenues can be high but very few teams or athletic departments make more money than they spend -athletic scholarships may be awarded within limits set by the NCAA -teams often travel extensively
world wealth
1) US 2) China 3)Japan 4)Germany
"honoring Chief Osceola at Florida State University
if you put him on a statium seat as a logo- sit on his face on a car floor mat- wipe your feet on his face napkin- wipe your face w his face beanbag chair-relax on his face
White men hold nearly ___% of the major power positions in elite sports today?
100% ALL of top 20
New NCAA rules for Division I schools
Academic progress rate (APR) -calculated each semester but APR based upon rolling 4 year average -1 point awarded for each player eligible and each player returning to school -point scores are adjusted for team size -must have minimum score of 925 out of 1000 graduation success rate (GSR) -proportion of athletes entering a school during 4 year window and graduating in 6 years -adjusted transfers and playing turning pro -must have graduation rate of 60% If unable to meet these goals, may lose one or more scholarships the following year
class ideology
interrelated ideas and beliefs that people use to understand economic inequalities, identify their class position, and evaluate the impact of economic inequalities on the organization of social worlds
Global inequities: The Olympics & Paralympics
-Wealthy nations are the medal winners at the Olympic Games. Going into the 2012 Games in London ---80 of the 204 participating nations had never won an Olympic medal ---51 had won fewer than five medals in Olympic history ---Many nations had not won a medal for at least 40 years ---The United States, with its wealth and population size, had won 2,549 medals—many more than any other nation. -Training for elite competition is now so expensive that about 80-percent of the global population has no realistic chance of winning a medal—unless they find a way to train in the U.S. or another wealthy nation. ---This pattern is even more pronounced in the Paralympics ---athletes from host nations have advantages of resources ---the GDP, monetary value of all goods and services available to a country are highly correlated to the number of medals they win
Does a stadium and team create jobs?
-Yes but at a price that far exceeds other forms of job creation ---A large department store or a university provides many more jobs than a pro sport team and stadium ---Most sport stadium jobs are seasonal and low paid ---Jobs from other areas may move to new businesses around the stadium, but the net increase in jobs is small ---estimated that for every job created in a new stadium 10-20 jobs could have been created in community related projects
Academic Support Programs
-academic support programs have been in existence since the early 1980's -research is needed on these programs because they vary from campus to campus -recent media coverage suggest that some programs focus more on eligibility than learning ---there is evidence that athletes have had tutors complete homework assignments ---players given answers to upcoming exams ---coaches register players in easy graded courses -too many programs are administered by athletic departments rather than tenured faculty
social learning theory
-aggression is a function of learning and biological drive and frustration are inadequate explanations of the phenomenon -aggression does not result in a catharsis of pent up aggression as in instinct theory -the circular effect of aggression is that aggression precipitates more aggression, particularly if it results in athletic success ex, fighting in hockey ---youngsters learn aggression by watching role models ---circular effect will continue until broken by some type of positive or negative reinforcement
instinct theory
-aggression is an inborn drive similar to hunger, thirst, and sexual desire, based on writings of Sigmund Freud and Konrad Lorenz -because humans are innately aggressive it benefits society to promote sports and games that provide an acceptable outlet -aggression results in a purging of pent up aggression known as catharsis!
Bredemeier's Theory of Moral Reasoning and Aggression
-an individuals willingness to engage in aggression is related to his stage of moral reasoning -contact sports because of their supposed legitimized acts of
gender inequity
-at high school level there are many schools that have never had gender equity across the schools -only a handful of colleges have consistently had gender equity in their athletic programs ---none of the offending schools have ever been fined by the US Department of Justice -women are far underrepresented in all leadership positions and professional staff, there have been no major positive changes for over a decade ---since 1999 men have been hired in nearly 75% of the job openings for womens college teams -women coach only 2-3.5% of mens teams (usually gender mixed teams)
students vs athletes
-at the university of texas non FB athletes receive about 7000 hours of tutoring a year -members of the FB team receive 12000 to 15000 hours of tutoring annually
the crossroad issues for high school and college sport programs
-cost containment and budget gaps -rising expectations of athletes and parents -dealing with concussions and
Asian Pacific Americans (APAs)
-cultural heritage and histories of APAs are diverse -traced to at least 18 nations and dozens of cultures -the sport participation patterns of APAs vary with their immigration histories ---people from Asia are seen by many Americans as "foreign" even if they are natural born US citizens in families that have been in the US for many generations -hace long histories of sport participation in US ---some have used sports to challenge and discredit stereotypes, some to gain acceptance in schools -tensions may occur is APAs dont embrace
behaviors that are not examples of aggression
-destructive violence to an inanimate object -unintentionally injuring another person during athletic competition -behavior in which there is no chance for the target to be injured ex: aggressor
due to sponsorship of sport clubs by local communities, racial rhetoric is more likely in sport statiums
-differs from North American venues since fans dont identify with management of teams, dont see stadiums as sites for political expression, and public expression is more controlled
interscholastic sports are most likely to be positive learning experiences if they
-enable students to be noticed, rewarded, and taken seriously as human beings - connect young people with adult advocates and mentors -are explicitly linked with non sport
research suggests that playing sports may be related to success when it
-enables people to complete degrees and gain knowledge about the world apart from sports -increases support from others who foster overall development and not just sport development -provides opportunities to develop social networks reaching beyond sports -provides material resources and guidance on how to use them -expands experiences, identities, and abilities unrelated to sports -does not lead to serious injuries
questions about benefits of varsity sports: budgets
-high school sport budgets vary greatly, when general budgets are cut, money spent on sports can create controversy -nearly all college sport programs lose money -are losses worth it in academic and developmental terms? -losses are covered primarily by student fees, general funds at the university, and donations to the athletic department -are the public and community relations functions of varsity sports worth their costs? do community fans of sports interfere or make contributions?
hostile aggression
-intent is to make the victim suffer -goal is to injure another person -always accompanied by anger -self justification is offered more
measurement of aggression as a personality disposition or trait
-judgements about moral behavior in youth sport questionnaire (JAMBYSQ)!!!! ---measures athletes self described behavior as a function of -buss aggression questionnaire (BAQ) -aggression inventory
concerns of most high school students
-most are concerned with academic achievement and attending college -other concerns: ---social acceptance, personal autonomy, sexual identity, becoming an adult -sports are viewed as a means to satisfy some of these concerns ---boys interested primarily in self identification ---girls interested in bigger picture of achievement involving academic social and personal accomplishments
as social conditions change so do ideas and beliefs about race and the bodies of athletes
-most top boxers today are latino eastern european and south asian -africans are widely recruited by previously all white mens soccer clubs in europe -white americans replaced
sports participation among african americans that facts show that
-prior to 1950s, sports in US were racially segregated -African Americans participate in a very limited range of sports ---black men and women are absent (or nearly) in 39 out of 44 mens and womens college sports -African americans are clearly underrepresented in most sports ---theyre not "taking over" sports, as some whites continue to believe
curtailing aggression and violence by athletes
-provide athletes with role models -severe penalties for aggression -penalty must be greater than reward for being aggressive -coaches who encourage aggression must be punished -remove all potential cues that might evoke aggression -provide in service training for coaches and officials -reward athletes for showing restraint and patience -teams should practice coping skills designed to curtail aggression -encourage social interaction between athletes and coaches of opposing teams
major challenges faced by retiring athletes
-reconstructing identities in terms of activities, abilities, and relationships unrelated to sport participation -renegotiating relationships with others so as to gain feedback and support for new identities
measuring aggression as an observed behavior
-requires the use of trained observers -archival data from actual game statistics (may fail to distinguish between aggression and assertiveness) -video taping ganes ---john McEnroe
social class, gender, and race/ethnicity
-research shows that for some low income minority men, boxing is an alternative to the violence of the streets ---boxing is a refuge from the violence, hopelessness and indignity created by racism and poverty -men of low incomes try to make a name for themselves in boxing
Experiences of High School Athletes
-research shows that there are differences between students who play varsity sports and those who don't -most of the differences are due to selection in, filtering out, and in-season control processes ---those who play varsity sports often have pre existing characteristics making them different from those who don't play ---those with lower grades or have discipline issues may opt out from sport voluntarily or are cut from teams ---structured schedules of athletes may have carry over value to academics ex: better study habits
athlete graduation rate at Syracuse university (2010-2014)
-school recorded a mark of 94 out of 100 for athletes who enrolled between 2010-11 and 2013-14 -
Social Class and Sport Participation
-social class and class relations influence who plays sports, who watches sports, who consumes information about sports, and the information that is available ---generally, the higher the social class, the greater the involvement and influence ---even in the health and fitness movement, generally people in low income jobs don't run, bicycle, or swim as often as high income counterparts ---lacking resources for exercise tends to lead to inactivity and higher incidences of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease -sport participation occurs in the context of class-related lifestyles ---wealthy peoples lifestyles include golf, tennis, skiing, swimming, sailing, and other self funded activities
racial and ethnic diversity creates management challenges related to
-social dynamics on teams -social dynamics among spectators -marketing athletes, teams, and leagues the global recruitment of players ensures it will always exist in sports
"Power 50" in U.S. sports
-sports illustrated "50 most powerful people in sports" ranks people on their power in and over sports -rankling change each year but they consistently show that: ---power os baed in organizations and rests in the hands
AAUP (American Association of University Professors) Report, 2014
-the median institutional subsidy in 2012 accounted for 27.5% of the athletics program budget in D1-A, 73% in D1-AA and 81.7% in D1-AAA -during the academic year 2013-14 all four year colleges universities spent about $16 billion on athletic programs
legitimacy of aggressive behavior
-this is an oxymoron in that true aggression should never be considered legitimate -legitimacy of aggressive behavior is often studied when it is difficult to determine if dangerous behavior is intentional or not (ex: high sticking in hockey) -researchers study perceived legitimacy of various acts of rule breaking that may or may not be examples of aggression -perceived legitimacy of aggressive behavior increases as a function of increased age and competitive level
religious perspective
-what is missionary mascot walked sidelines swinging a rosary, carrying plastic crucifix, led crowed in rap version of sacred chants
opportunities for students with disability
-where are the paravarsity sports in US schools? ---virtually invisible -US department of education guidelines require that schools take seriously the sport participation of students with disabilities -these guidelines are creating panic due to financial power of federal government support for higher education ---high school principles, athletic direc
Eight Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement
1 Displacement of responsibility (it's not my fault). 2 Attribution of blame (it's not my fault). 3 Minimizing or ignoring the consequences (it's not serious). 4 Euphemistic labeling (common rule breaking). 5 Diffusion of responsibility (everybody does it). 6 Moral justification (the action was justified). 7 Advantageous comparison (comparison with daily life or other sport context). 8 Dehumanization (dehumanize opponent or recipient of aggressive act).
what the research tell us
1) be careful when generalizing about the educational value of sports -sports participation may not guarantee success in academics 2) longitudinal and qualitative studies are needed to identify changes related exclusively to sport participation -a CEO of a successul company may have have positive experiences unrelated to those as a high school athlete 3) varsity athletes may be treated differently by significant others 4) varsity sports exert an influence on the larger student culture in high schools, but we don't know much about this 5) the impact of sport participation depends on the meanings given to it- and meanings emerge through social interaction with many people in and out of schools
curtailing aggression and violence by fans
1) potential troublemakers should be supervised -text number availability to call security during games 2) limit sale, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages at sporting events -not selling alcohol after 3rd quarter of football game 3) athletic events should be promoted and encouraged as family affairs -preseason games directed to family focus 4) media should promote responsible behavior by not glamorizing acts of aggression -not showing fans running onto field during a contest 5) fan aggression must be severely penalized -removing fans from stands -barring them from future attendance
certain sports have built in incentives for eliminating racial segregation
1) team owners and management benefit when they dont exclude talented players 2) 3) 4) superior performance by a player does not mean he or she will be promoted to management, team decision making 5) teammates can socialize and be friends off the field and still win games 6) athletes remain under control of team management associated with ethnically dominant group in society -these incentives offset the threats often perceived by dominated group members when desegregation occurs; sports without these incentives remain segregated to some degree
research indicates that the effects of playing school sports depends on
1) the contexts in which sports are played -prep schools or public schools 2) the organization of sport programs -are we talking about well established heritages 3) the social characteristics of athletes -socially integrated athletes or socially withdrawn athletes
theories of aggression
1. instinct theory 2. social learning theory 3. nature of the games 4. violence in media/professional levels
Adapted sports in high schools
- Basketball, bowling, floor hockey, soccer, softball, and track are approved high school sports. - Only .7%, or fewer than 130 schools out of 18,000 U.S. high schools have any "paravarsity" teams. - There are 7.71 million varsity athletes, but fewer than 9,000 students play on adapted teams, and half of those play 3 sports: bowling, softball, and soccer.
academic integrity in college sports
- Restoring/maintaining academic integrity is difficult when athletic success is tied to big money and the emotions and identities of boosters and alumni - Raising academic standards is important, but it must be done so it does not unfairly exclude certain students Current sanctions include: • Reduction of scholarships • Ban schools from post-season games • Suspend entire athletic department — if graduation rates fall below a certain level for multiple years
class relations and cultural ideology
- Sports are valuable cultural vehicles for developing ideological "outposts" in the minds of people around the world - This is why transnational corporations spend billions of dollars to be primary providers of popular pleasure and entertainment ---then corporate spokespersons use sports to deliver messages about what should be important in peoples minds
issues in high school sport programs
-As schools & coaches strive for state rankings, team membership increasingly requires massive time commitments, year round specialization in one sport, off-season training and club participation. ---This focus cannot be defended in educational terms; so much time, attention, and funding go into sports that it skews the culture of schools away from academic focus -As budgets fail to meet expectations of parents and community boosters, they raise funds for programs, but then want to participate in managing them. ---Their focus is on-the-field excellence with little or no attention paid academic issues.
Grades and graduation rates among college athletes
-Graduation data are confusing because there are many different ways to compute statistics -Information on grades must be qualified because ----athletes often are overrepresented in certain courses and majors ("clustering") ---athletes select classes to be with other teammates ---black athletes take classes where they feel respected and supported by faculty views of racial inequalities ---coaches recommend classes taught by easier professors and have greater chance for good grades -Athletes in entertainment-oriented sports come to college with lower grades and test scores than other entering students - Graduation rates among all varsity athletes are slightly higher than rates for all students - Graduation rates in some big-time revenue sports are shamefully low, basketball, football - Female athletes have higher graduation rates than male athletes - Black athletes have graduation rates higher than black students as a whole, but lower than rates for white athletes.
arguments for interscholastic sports
-Involve students in activities and increase interest in school -Build self-esteem and other positive traits -Enhance fitness and lifetime participation -Generate spirit and unity -Promote support -Develop and reward valued skills -promote parental and community support
sport participation among native americans
-Native Americans comprise dozens of diverse cultural groups. ---groups come from 566 federally recognized tribes ---participation affected by poverty rates (50% on reservations; 30% outsider reservations) -Traditional Native American sports combine physical activities with ritual and ceremony. -Native Americans often fear losing their culture when playing Euro-American sports. -Widely accepted racial and ethnic stereotypes about Native Americans have restricted their access to sport participation.
sources of isolation for black athletes
-Racial and ethnic stereotypes used by some people on campus make it difficult for black athletes to feel welcome on campus -The amount of time that athletes must devote to their sports makes it difficult to be involved with other aspects of campus life -Campus activities often fail to represent the interests and experiences of black students, making them feel unwelcome and may withdraw from activities that could connect them with other students -Black athletes, feeling unwelcome, may withdraw from activities that could connect them with other students -White students who lack experience in racially diverse groups may not interact freely with black athletes -Tensions are created when white students conclude that black athletes have things easy and are unfairly privileged
issues in college sport programs
-Scandals and Rule Violations ---academic cheating, athlete criminal actions and sexual assault, rule violations by coaches and boosters -Likeness Lawsuit ---if the NCAA has violated antitrust laws, court rulings could force it to pay billions to former players and current players -Pay for Players ---the issue is forcing NCAA to make significant changes, even before any court ruling -Distorted Racial and Ethnic Priorities ---African Americans are valued as revenue producing athletes but not as general students
cost containment and budget inequality
-The cost of HS & college programs has increased far beyond the rate of inflation and academic expenditures ---Given current expenditures, most sport programs are unsustainable financially. -Budget and program inequality has become so great that it creates difficulties in scheduling games. ---Some private high schools have budgets many times greater than the public schools they play. ---The University of Texas has an annual athletic budget of over $160 million; other universities with football teams have annual budgets of less than $25 million. ---This form of inequality is self-perpetuating; championships and even winning seasons are beyond hope for poor programs.
mechanisms of moral disengagement
Cognitive mechanisms that allows an athlete to disengage from usual moral standards and engage in transgressive behavior categories of transgressive behavior: 1) using rules to ones advantage 2) unintentional fouls or violatins 3) aggressive behavior in which there is an attempt to harm
sport participations among Latinos
Native born and naturalized citizens -participation patterns vary by national origin, heritage, and generation ---many southwestern states were part of mexico before 1620 -experiences include bridging cultural gaps and dealing with stereotypes dealing with mexicans, puerto ricans, and cubans Latin Americans working as athletes in the US -long history of Latino players in US sports -40% of players under contract in MLB
methodological problems
Research on the consequences of playing varsity sports is difficult to do because -Growth and development among students is related to many factors beyond playing sports -Meanings given to sport participation vary by context (circumstances that surround the situation) and from one person to another
according to Antonio Gramsci (Italian marxist who developed notion of hegemony- power, dominance, and leadership are main features)
Sports and other forms of exciting entertainment are cultural vehicles for establishing "ideological outposts" in the minds of people. These outposts relay into the popular consciousness messages that reaffirm a class ideology that legitimizes current forms of class inequality in society.
post-conventional stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values -individual guided by moral principles (the athlete less likely to engage in aggressive behavior)
preconventional stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor -concerned with rewards punishment and own welfare
conventional stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules -concerned with group or team norms
athletes must be studied in context
because the meanings given to sport participation vary according to... 1. The status associated with being an athlete in various contexts -good golfer vs all state football player 2. The identities young people develop as they play sports -all around athlete vs single sport athlete 3. The ways that young people integrate sports and an athlete identity into their lives -are athletes from low income areas expected to have higher grades vs athletes from upper middle class schools 4) how gender is viewed -girls on sports teams have tended to have less sexual activity than their non athletic peers but the opposite for boys
global issues
global soccer, found 3 expressions of racism: Direct racism- fans insulting players for ethnic, racial, and religious reasons with bigoted slurs (throwing bananas on field of play) indirect racism- chants or banners promoting bigoted political agendas racism on field- negative comments made by and to athletes, coaches, and refs -global migration patterns bring peoples into contact w each other ---immigration policies are less strict in many European countries
verbal or emotional harm
goal to emotionally or psychologically harm another person
relational aggression
goal to harm another person through relationships (social ostracism and malicious rumor) -there is a positive correlation between relational aggression and peer rejection for men and women -there is a positive correlation between relational aggression and alcohol use in women
Changing orientations and rising expectations
high school and college players today increasingly come from "its all about me" club and youth programs, and they expect special treatment in varsity programs -parents of athletes today are more directly involved in the sport careers of their children and have expectations for hs and college programs -atheltes becoming more assertive about how they should be treated when it comes to their health
questions about the benefits of varsity sports: school spirit
high school spirit may be enhanced but does this improve overall academic climate or distract from it? we don't know at this time spirit on college campuses is enhanced by sport but not for all students? big time sport events are made into social occasions during which students are more likely to party, binge drink, avoid the library, and study less
basic kinds of aggression
hostile or instrumental
identifying those fans who would participate in violence
in ice hockey, individuals most likely to take part in fan violence are young males who travel in packs, have a history of fighting, like to watch fights, attend hockey games in the hope of seeing fights, react impulsively, and score high on the trait of aggressiveness
social stratification
structured forms of economic inequalities that are part of the organization of everyday social life -these inequalities influence life chances -life chances: are similar odds for achieving economic success and power in society, vary from one social class to another in the social stratification system, are improved by being part of social class not by oneself
class ideology in the US is based on
the American Dream and a belief in meritocracy American Dream: hopeful vision of boundless opportunities for individuals to success economically and live a happy life based on consumption --this idea doesn't acknowledge a persons class position, dreaming of vision should be counterbalanced with critical examination of current economic circumstances, low income often associated with weakness of character Belief in meritocracy: a form of social organization in which rewards go to people who earn them due to their abilities and qualifications
Educational (ir)relevance
the assumption: sport is education and playing sports is learning -tensions exist between core mission of universities and commercial values of high profile sports ---these tensions have grown significantly since 1990 as universities pursue television contracts, FB bowl game invitations, NCAA basketball championships ---the result: athletic departments have turned into profit seeking programs with diminished educational relevance -conference schools, the annual median spending for athletes exceeds academic spending for students by 3-12 times ---the SEC has the greatest spending gap: median academic spending per student was $13000 while academic was $156000 -during march madness the library use declines at universtities with teams in the tournament, students viewed 6% fewer articles a day as long as their team was in contention ---when a team won an upset or close game, article access fell 19% the day after the victory, neither dip was made up later with increased downloads
class relations and power in sports
the most powerful people in sports are white men who control the resources that sponsor sports and represent sports in the media -the most visible sports around the world revolve around the meanings and orientations given priority by people with wealth and power does this create health problems for athletes? NHL doesn't care about health of players, didn't get him proper head care or inform him of the risks cuz he was a good player
class relations
the ways that social class is incorporated into the organization of our everyday lives -social class differences affect most parts of peoples lives in the US -why do Americans accept the reality of class and class relations without debating it? because not worth the effort
defining aggression
two factors must be present in order for a behavior to be labeled aggression: 1) goal to inflict bodily harm on another person 2) reasonable expectation of success
fan willingness to participate in violence
with a fight in nearby stands -61% said they'd watch -26% said they'd try to break up the fight ---peacemakers: not older or of larger stature than other fans yet willing to risk harm by intervening -7% said they'd applaud or join in ---troublemakers: tend to be young, small in stature, and have a history of violence and fighting -6% said they'd leave the area