Speech Communication Study Guide

Nature of Language

"Language is symbolic" "Meanings are in people, not words" "Language is rule governed"

developmental model

(of relational maintenance) A theoretical framework based on the idea that communication patterns are different in various stages of interpersonal relationships.

Four Loves

1. Storge/Family 2. Philia/Friendship 3. Eros/Romantic 4. Agape/God's selfless Love

Transaction Model

A characterization of communication as the simultaneous sending and receiving of messages in an ongoing process that involves feedback and includes unintentional (often ambiguous) messages.

collectivistic cultures

A culture in which members focus more on the welfare of the group as a whole than on individual identity.

individualistic cultures

A culture in which members focus on the value and welfare of individual members more than on the group as a whole.

high-context culture

A culture that relies heavily on subtle, often nonverbal cues to maintain social harmony.

low-context culture

A culture that uses language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly as possible.

Johari Window

A model that describes the relationship between self-disclosure and self-awareness. We can also divide this frame in another way: The top row contains the things about you that others know, and the bottom row things about you that you keep to yourself. Altogether, the Johari Window presents everything about you divided into four parts. It's worth considering each block in the model separately. Quadrant 1 represents your open area, information about you that both you and your relational partner are aware of. For example, you may both know that you aspire to be a CEO one today. Quadrant 2 represents the blind area—information you are unaware of but others know. Do you get snarky after a couple of beers? Do you talk about yourself too much? Do your jokes hurt others' feelings? Quadrant 3 represents your hidden area—information that you know but aren't willing to reveal to others. Do you have romantic feelings for a good friend? Are you shyer than you let on? Items in this hidden area may eventually become known to others if you self-disclose them. Quadrant 4 represents information that is unknown to both you and others. For example, it's not unusual to discover that you have an unrecognized talent, strength, or weakness. Recognizing that you still have plenty to learn about yourself and others can foster an attitude of humility that is likely to serve you well.

dialectical perspective

A perspective built around the idea that relationships are never completely stable but are constantly changing as people manage seemingly contradictory tensions (such as autonomy and connection).

Transitions

A phrase that connects ideas in a speech by showing how one relates to the other.

self-fulfilling prophecy

A prediction or expectation of an event that makes the outcome more likely to occur than would otherwise have been the case.

assertive communication

A style of communicating that directly expresses the sender's needs, thoughts, or feelings, delivered in a way that does not attack the receiver.

social penetration model

A theory that describes how intimacy can be achieved via the breadth and depth of self-disclosure. proposes that communication occurs within two dimensions: (1) breadth, which represents the range of subjects being discussed and (2) depth, how in-depth and personal the information is.

organizing your outline into a logical pattern

An outline should reflect a logical order for your points. You might arrange them from newest to oldest, largest to smallest, best to worst, or in a number of other ways that follow. The organizing pattern you choose ought to be the one that best develops your thesis. time pattern An organizing plan for a speech based on chronology. climax pattern An organizing plan for a speech that builds ideas to the point of maximum interest or tension. space pattern An organizing plan in a speech that arranges points according to their physical location. topic pattern An organizing plan for a speech that arranges points according to logical types or categories. problem-solution pattern An organizing pattern for a speech that describes an unsatisfactory state of affairs and then proposes a plan to remedy the problem. cause-effect pattern An organizing plan for a speech that demonstrates how one or more events result in another event or events.

Talk vs. silence

Beliefs about the value of talk differ from one culture to another. Members of Western cultures tend to view talk as desirable and use it for social purposes as well as to perform tasks. Silence can feel embarrassing and awkward in these cultures, since it's likely to be interpreted as lack of interest, unwillingness to communicate, hostility, anxiety, shyness, or a sign of interpersonal incompatibility. Yet, members of many cultures tend to perceive talk quite differently. Unlike most Westerners, who find silence uncomfortable, Japanese and Chinese traditionalists more often believe that remaining quiet is proper when there is nothing to be said. To many Asians, a talkative person is often considered a show-off or a fake. Silence is also valued in some European cultures. For example, Swedes are more reluctant than Americans to engage in small talk with strangers. And members of some Native American communities honor silence. Traditional members of Western Apache tribes maintain silence when others lose their temper. As one member explained, "When someone gets mad at you and starts yelling, then just don't do anything to make him get worse."

Competition vs Cooperation Cultures

Cultures are a bit like people in that they may be regarded as competitive, cooperative, or somewhere in the middle. Competitive cultures—including those in Italy, Nigeria, and Great Britain—embody qualities such as independence, competitiveness, and assertiveness. In those cultures, women are often expected to take care of home and family life, whereas men are expected to shoulder most of the financial responsibilities. Gender roles are less differentiated in cooperative cultures—which emphasize equality, relationships, cooperation, and consensus building. In Iceland, the Netherlands, and Norway, both men and women tend to consider harmony and cooperation to be more important than competition. When doing business, members of cooperative cultures are likely to strive for mutually satisfying outcomes, whereas people from competitive cultures often negotiate to "win" and consider it a "bargain" when a deal is resolved to their benefit. This short-term gain may result in damaged relationships, however, if people on either side feel disrespected or treated unfairly.

bystanders

Followers who are aware of what's going on around them but tend to hang back and watch rather than play an active role.

activists

Followers who are energetically and passionately engaged.

isolates

Followers who are indifferent to the overall goals of the organization and communicate very little with people outside their immediate environment.

participants

Followers who are moderately involved and attempt to have an impact either by supporting leaders' efforts or working in opposition to them.

diehards

Followers who will, sometimes literally, sacrifice themselves for a cause they believe in.

supporting materials - functions and types

It is important to organize ideas clearly and logically. But clarity and logic by themselves won't guarantee that you'll interest, enlighten, or persuade others; these results call for the use of supporting materials. These materials—the facts and information that back up and prove your ideas and opinions—are the flesh that fills out the skeleton of your speech.

Creating the Persuasive Message

Persuasive speaking has been defined as "reason-giving discourse." Its principal technique, therefore, involves proposing claims and then backing those claims up with reasons that are true. Preparing an effective persuasive speech isn't easy, but it can be made easier by observing a few simple rules.

identity management

Strategies used by communicators to influence the way others view them.

legitimate power

The ability to influence group members based on one's official position.

connection power

The ability to influence others based on having relationships that might help the group reach its goal.

reward power

The ability to influence others by granting or promising desirable consequences.

coercive power

The ability to influence others by threatening or imposing unpleasant consequences.

referent power

The ability to influence others by virtue of being liked or respected.

expert power

The ability to influence others by virtue of one's perceived expertise on the subject in question.

Power

The ability to influence others' thoughts and/or actions.

ethnocentrism

The attitude that one's own culture is superior to other cultures.

credibility

The believability of a speaker or other source of information.

uncertainty avoidance

The cultural tendency to seek stability and to honor tradition instead of welcoming risk, uncertainty, and change.

power distance

The degree to which members of a group are willing to accept a difference in power and status.

communication climate

The emotional tone of a relationship as it is expressed in the messages that the partners send and receive.

social exchange theory

The idea that relationships seem worthwhile if the rewards are greater than or equal to the costs involved.

presenting self

The image a person presents to others. It may be identical to or different from the perceived and ideal selves.

reflected appraisal

The influence of others on one's self-concept.

functions of a speech introduction and conclusion

The introduction and conclusion of a speech are vitally important, although they usually will occupy less than 20% of your speaking time. Listeners form their impression of a speaker early, and they remember what they hear last; it is, therefore, vital to make those few moments at the beginning and end of your speech work to your advantage. It is also essential that you connect sections within your speech using effective transitions. introduction (of a speech) The first structural unit of a speech, in which the speaker captures the audience's attention and previews the main points to be covered.

perceived self

The person we believe ourselves to be in moments of candor. It may be identical to or different from the presenting and ideal selves.

Communication

The process of creating meaning through symbolic interaction.

face

The socially approved identity that a communicator tries to present.

social judgment theory

The theory that opinions will change only in small increments and only when the target opinions lie within the receiver's latitudes of acceptance and noncommitment.

Informative vs. persuasive topics

There are many similarities between an informative and a persuasive speech. In an informative speech, for example, you are constantly trying to "persuade" your audience to listen, understand, and remember. In a persuasive speech, you "inform" your audience about your arguments, your evidence, and so on. Nonetheless, two basic characteristics differentiate an informative topic from a persuasive topic.

facework

Verbal and nonverbal behavior designed to create and maintain a communicator's face and the face of others.

intrapersonal communication, dyadic/interpersonal communication, small-group communication, organizational communication, public communication, mass communication, social media communication

What are the types of Communication?

Dramatism

a technique of analysis of language and thought as basically modes of action rather than as means of conveying information

the power of language

a way of speaking that helps you boost your feeling of control simply by changing the words you use

managing communication apprehension

address issues to which you are committed, be well prepared, develop a positive attitude, practice your speech, anticipate the speech situation, practice active listening, exercise for relaxation, acknowledge potential benefits of moderate communication apprehension, maintain a sense of perspective

types of nonverbal

body movement, voice, appearance, touch, space

techniques of informative speaking

defining, describing, explaining

Communication Strategies for Leaders (11.1)

emergent leader - A member who assumes leadership without being appointed by higher-ups. 1) good listener 2) open to innovation 3) able to work well with teams 4) good at facilitating change 5) appreciative of diversity 6) honest and ethical

types of followers

isolates, bystanders, participants, activists, diehards

types of delivery

manuscript, memorized, impromptu, extemporaneous

characteristics of persuasion

not coercive, usually incremental, interactive, can be ethical

Proposition of fact, value, and policy

proposition of fact A claim bearing on issue in which there are two or more sides of conflicting factual evidence. proposition of value A claim bearing on an issue involving the worth of some idea, person, or object.

A Structured Problem-Solving Approach (page 284 in textbook)

reflective thinking method - A systematic approach to solving problems that involves identifying a problem, analyzing it, developing and evaluating creative solutions, implementing a plan, and following up on the solution. Also known as Dewey's reflective thinking method. nominal group technique - A method for including the ideas of all group members in a problem-solving session, alternating between individual contributions and group discussion.

the rhetoric

the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route