WHAP Guided Reading and Big Picture Questions

What similarities and differences are noticeable among the three major continents of the World?

Among the three major continents in the world, they were similar in ways such as all of them had hunters and gatherers, each had one or more of the seven original hearths of civilization that developed independently, complex societies and technology developed in each. Differences include the larger amount of populations in Eurasia than Africa or America (Eurasia held about 80 percent of the world's population), the Americas were isolated from the exchanging of ideas, crops, animals, and trade in Africa and Eurasia, and metallurgy in the Americas was less developed.

In what ways did the arrival of Bantu-speaking peoples stimulate cross-cultural interaction?

Bantu-speaking people stimulated cross-cultural interaction by bringing agriculture and iron to regions of Africa south of the equator, enabling large numbers of people to live in smaller areas than was possible before. They brought parasitic and infectious diseases to hunter gatherers who had little to no immunity against it. Bantu language "clicks" in local dialects were adopted by the now extinct hunting people, Bantu people made exchanges with the Batwa, and the Batwa adopted Bantu languages.

What were the major sources of opposition to Buddhism within China?

Because it was very foreign it was considered offensive to some Confucianists and Daoists To Confucianist thinkers, the celibacy of Buddhist monks and their withdrawal from society was offensive. It didn't apply to the Confucian-based relationship system. Resentment of foreign culture was prominent in China (particularly among the literate classes) Buddhist monasteries, shrines, and temples were destroyed and Buddhist monks and nuns were forced to go back to a secular life due to a number of imperial decrees.

In what ways were Sufi Muslims critical of mainstream Islam?

Believed that teaching about the laws and proper behavior did little to bring a believer into the presence of God Reading the Quran (Believed the presence of God was better) Ulama was comprised of worldly and corrupt governments Opposed legalistic and scholarly practitioners of the sharia Desired an emotional union with God

How did links to Byzantium transform the new civilization of Kievan Rus?

Borrowed from Byzantine architectural styles Cyrillic Alphabet Extensive use of icons Tradition of prayer and service Political ideas of imperial control over the Church.

How can you explain the changing fortunes of Buddhism in China?

Buddhist influence first grew in China due to the period of disorder after the collapse of the Han Dynasty when many Chinese had lost faith in their original systems of thought. Buddhism benefitted from the support of foreign nomadic rulers, the Mongols, who governed China under the Yuan Dynasty. Once Buddhism was established, it grew because: Monasteries provided social services to commoners Buddhism was associated with access to magical powers Serious effort by Buddhist monks and scholars to present their religion in terms the Chinese could relate (Daoism). Buddhism received support under the Sui and Tang Dynasties Despite this growing popularity, in the 9th century, Buddhism was perceived as a growing threat to imperial authority. There was resentment of Buddhist monasteries due to their enormous wealth Confucian and Daoist thinkers believed Buddhism wasn't correct because it undermines the ideal of the family and was of foreign origin.

How did Byzantium and Western Europe interact with each other and with the larger world of the third-wave era?

Byzantium and Western Europe interacted frequently Byzantine emperor Justinian succeeded in conquering parts of Western Europe in his effort to reconstitute the Roman Empire. The two societies were both Christian Led to frequent interactions, disputes, and ultimately a division between the two confessions. Revival of Western Europe after 1000 c.e. brought it into a closer trade relationship with Byzantium. The crusading movement in Western Europe inspired hundreds of thousands of Western Europeans to travel to the eastern Mediterranean and even led to the sack of Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 c.e. Both interacted with the Islamic world through military conflict, trade, and the ​exchange of ideas. ​Both had a profound impact on Eastern Europe, especially through their promotion of rival versions of the Christian faith.

In what ways was the Byzantine Empire linked to a wider world?

Byzantium continued the Roman struggle with the Persian Empire Economically: Central power in long-distance trade in Eurasia Commercial links to- Western Europe Russia Central Asia Islamic World China Culturally: Preserved ancient Greek learning Transmitted classical heritage to the Islamic and Christian worlds. Responsible for large amounts of religious cultural diffusion among Eurasian civilizations.

How did Eastern Orthodox Christianity differ from Roman Catholicism?

Catholic Church maintained a certain amount of independence from political authorities. In Byzantium, the emperor was both ruler of the state and the church. Byzantine emperor appointed patriarch of the Orthodox Church, made decisions concerning doctrine, called church councils into session, treated church as an extension of the government. Greek became the language of religious practice in the Eastern Orthodox Church Latin became the language of religious practice in the Roman Catholic Church. Byzantine thinkers in the West wanted to create a Christian doctrine in terms of Greek philosophical concepts. Both churches disagreed on doctrinal issues, nature of the Holy Trinity, importance of faith and reason, and icons. Byzantine priests were allowed to marry and grow beards while priests in the west were to remain celibate and clean-shaven. Orthodox ritual called for using bread leavened with yeast in the mass, but Catholics used unleavened bread.

What role did Central Asian and West African pastoralists play in their respective regions?

Central Asia: Timur's armies attempted to regain the Mongol Empire through conquering parts of Russia, Persia, and India. Sophisticated and elite culture: Included artists, poets, merchants, craftsmen, etc. West Africa: Fulbe People (were the largest pastoral society in Africa) lived in small communities among agricultural societies (each depended on each other) Paid Grazing Fees Adopted Islam Political Systems (Simplistic) Gave rise to a new series of states

Summing Up So Far: What accounts for the political and military success of the Mongols?

Charismatic Leader (Genghis Khan) Fictive Kinship: designating allies as blood relatives and treating each other with great respect. Horseback riding Hunting Skills Archery Skills Organized Battle Tactics Egalitarian Principles Ability to extract great wealth from raids or trade with China, Persia, and/or Byzantium Political system reminiscent of Legalism Well led, organized, disciplined army Ideology that they were meant to conquer the entire world Acquired Chinese techniques and technology Siege warfare Ruthless Brutality served for psychological warfare Nomadic Rapid Communication Centralized Bureaucracy Great Commerce Protection on the Silk Roads Religiously tolerant

How did the tribute system in practice differ from the ideal Chinese understanding of its operation?

China often confronted powerful nomadic empires (such as the Xiongnu) that were able to deal with China on less than equal terms. Chinese princesses were promised as wives Approved trade involving goods that benefitted nomads Agreed to annually supply the nomads with grain, wine, and silk These goods were called "gifts" and were granted in accord with the tribute system. However they were more likely protection money

What assumptions underlay the tribute system?

China was the "middle kingdom" and the center of the world The Chinese were superior to their nomadic neighbors and all else beyond the Chinese borders The system was designed to facilitate civilizing contact Required Chinese authorities to recognize Chinese superiority and their place in China In exchange for expressions of submission, the Emperor of China would grant permission to trade to foreigners and provide them with gifts

How did China influence the world of the third-wave era? How was China itself transformed by its encounters with a wider world?

Chinese products, especially silk, were key in Afro-Eurasian trade networks. Chinese technologies such as shipbuilding, gunpowder, navigation, and printing spread across Eurasia. Buddhism had a profound impact on China The growth of Chinese trade made it the richest country in the world. Most highly commercialized society in the world due to various religions producing wider markets. China adopted cotton and sugar crops and refining processes from South Asia.

Summing Up So Far: What features common to all civilizations can you identify in the civilizations of Africa and the Americas? What distinguishing features give them a distinctive identity?

Civilizations in both the Americas and Africa both were agriculture-based societies that included social hierarchies and were patriarchies. They had large urban centers at the cores of each civilization with beautiful and unique architecture. However, all of these civilizations eventually collapsed and were replaced by new ones. Differences between civilizations in Africa and the Americas include the exchanging of ideas, crops, animals, and trade in Africa and Eurasia without the Americas, the development of the Niger River Valley's urban centers without a corresponding state structure and were not encompassed within a larger imperial system, the maya developed writing, and the Maya and Moche practiced human sacrifice.

What makes it possible to speak of the Islamic world as a distinct and coherent civilization?

Common commitment to Islam Nothing was more important in Islamic belief than the Ulama Ulama created a system of education that bound the diverse civilization. Pilgrimage to Mecca drew an extremely large sum of Muslims to Mecca each year from almost everywhere in the Islamic world. Focus on learning and understanding the true meaning of the Quran forced many to learn Arabic because that is the only language it is written in. The understanding of the Quran in Arabic allowed Islam to communicate across the world Sufi emphasis on the Divine rather than law made space for local beliefs and practices: Encouraged blended Islam (The Hajj-pilgrimage to Mecca- served to include and unify traditions that emphasized elements central to the Islamic faith) Exchange and trade in the Islamic Empire fortified Islamic civilization Forms of banking allowed the economy to flourish Spreading of agricultural products and practices allowed for the exposure of new crops and irrigation systems which contributed to the Islamic Green Revolution. Technologies and ideas such as rockets, papermaking, and the blending of Islam with other cultures.

What was the impact of disease along the Silk Roads? Q. What lay behind the flourishing of Indian Ocean commerce in the post classical millennium?

Contact and trade along the Silk Road caused many people to be exposed to unfamiliar diseases for which they had very little or no immunity to as well as no effective methods of coping with the disease. Spreads of particular diseases along the Silk Road caused extreme epidemic diseases which led to a very large amount of death For example, the spread the of Black Death in the 14th century or the Bubonic Plague, Anthrax, or a package of numerous epidemic diseases. This took nearly a third of the European population however, this may have benefitted the Europeans in some aspect because they gained natural protection from many diseases.

In what respects did Byzantium continue the patterns of the classical Roman Empire? In what ways did it diverge from those patterns?

Continuance in: Roads Military Structures Centralized Administration Imperial Court Laws Christian Organization Pursuit of long-term Roman struggle with Persian Empire Diverged in development of reformed administrative system that gave appointed generals civil authority in the empire's provinces and allowed them to raise armies from the landowning peasants of the region. Caesaropapism that defined the relationship between the church and the state.

What motivated and sustained the long-distance commerce of the Silk Roads, Sea Roads, and Sand Roads?

Desire of the elite classes for rare luxury items Accumulation of wealth (particularly among merchants who participated in trade and motivated widespread commerce. Support of empires and smaller states Spread of religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, etc.) Shared beliefs of merchants that connected different societies over large regions and areas Development of technologies Large Ships Maritime Voyages Inventions such as the magnetic compass or the astrolabe developed by the Chinese allowed merchants to easily navigate. Products of forests Northern grasslands of inner Eurasia (mainly pastoral) needed agricultural products and manufactured goods of outer Eurasia (Mediterranean, Middle East, India, China) Construction of classical civilizations and empires Security of the Silk Roads by empires to keep merchants and travellers safe Continued support of later empires and states (Byzantine, Abbasid, Mongol, etc.) which benefitted largely from the trade

How did African proximity to Eurasia shape its history? And how did American separation from the Eastern Hemisphere affect its development?

Eastern Hemisphere affect its development? Geographically: North Africa was very much a part of and fully integrated into the Mediterranean world The east coast of Africa was a part of Indian trade Culturally: North Africa traded with Meroe and Axum and borrowed cultural traits such as Christianity and Islam The camel in the Americas generated a pastoral and nomadic way of life Interactions in Africa below the Equator with the Bantu had a profound impact on Africa from Eurasia through the arrival of new crops and animals The Americas were only able to domesticate llamas and alpacas due to the lack of interaction and inability to trade with Eurasia. This also led to lack of Eurasian crops and technology. However, some technologies in Eurasia were developed independently by people in the Americas and they also had their own set of crops, mainly consisting of maize, beans, and squash (the three sisters). Bantu Expansion Batwa Chaco Phenomenon Meroe

In what ways did Inca authorities seek to integrate their vast domains?

Emperor was an absolute ruler (He was considered to be divine, like the Egyptian Pharaoh) In theory, the Inca State owned all of the land and all of the resources in their domain. Subjects were required to acknowledge the existence of the Inca Gods. However, once they did so, they were free to pursue their own religious traditions. The Inca Empire had a major role in trade, specifically the distribution of goods. The government was constantly involved in their society.

What lay behind the emergence of Silk Road commerce, and what kept it going for so many centuries?

Eurasia is made up of many different kinds of environments which means the trade of many good was essential to some people People in certain geographic areas of Eurasia needed, especially by pastoral societies in area were agriculture was not possible due to climatic conditions. Manufactured goods were traded as well as agricultural products for hides, fur livestock, wool, and amber. Ideas of metallurgy (bronze) horse-based technologies, languages, and other ideas were spread through cultural diffusion. Demand for hard-to-find luxury items among elites of Eurasia Classical civilizations invaded the territory of the nomadic and pastoral people, securing sections of the Silk Road for merchants and travelers. Later states such as the Byzantine, Abbasid, and Mongol Empires benefitted and supported trade along the Silk Road

What variations in the experience of African and Asian Christian communities can you identify?

Expansion of Christianity: Asia: Expansion due to close relation with Daoist and Buddhist ideas Africa: Expanding in due to trade, cultural diffusion from Egypt to Nubia, war, etc. Christianity spread to places like China, Nubia, and Ethiopia but mainly survived and thrived in Ethiopia. Oppression of Christianity in Egypt and Nubia which increased in the 13th century: Leads to decline in Egyptian Coptic Church Disappearance of Nubian Church Arabic conversion due to the arrival of Islam near Coastal North Africa.

What kinds of changes were transforming the societies of the West African Igbo and the North American Iroquois as the fifteenth century unfolded?

Farming Village Societies West Africa: Productivity made larger than populations Rivaling city-states (Like the Greek City-States or Mayan City-States) Kings performed both religious and political functions (Like caesaropapism). Iroquios: Fully Agricultural Warfare led to prestige for Iroquois men Great Law of Peace and Conflict Alliance of 5 Iroquois people through their clan leaders. Peaceful solutions Limited government Social Equality Personal Freedom Matrilineal

Why was Europe unable to achieve the kind of political unity that China experienced? What impact did this have on the subsequent history of Europe?

Geographic Barriers Ethnic and linguistic diversity Shifting balances of power among Europe's many states European nations were engaged in many conflicts with each other. Unable to achieve domestic peace for many centuries.

In what ways was Afro-Eurasia a single interacting zone, and in what respects was it a vast region of separate cultures and civilizations?

Good were able to travel through a large area and cross large plots of land and sea Individual merchants could not move goods alone Afro-Eurasian cultures were separate but the network of trade through numerous civilizations allowed for widespread communication and cultural diffusion. Eventually and separately, parts of the Americas came into play.

Assume for the moment that the Chinese had not ended their maritime voyages in 1433. How might the subsequent development of world history have been different? What value is there in asking this kind of "what if" or counterfactual question?

Had they continued their voyages, the Chinese may have had an extremely profound impact on world history. China was the richest, most technologically advanced, and most prosperous civilization of its time. Reasonably, you can assume had they competed with Europe's maritime voyages, they would've likely prevailed as the strongest maritime power in the world. This would have limited European Christian influence in the Americas. Chinese cultural, economic, and political influences would push beyond Eurasia. The usefulness of counterfactual questions is debatable. They allow one to highlight both the role of contingency in the course of human history and the difficulty of predicting the future because of contingency. More so, counterfactual questions go beyond mere speculation. They cause students to think of the possibilities in light of known historical facts. These "what if" questions allow scholars to think their way into a different historical reality. However, no one can fully predict what consequences Chinese discovery of the Americas could've held. The reality of the situation is it isn't possible to see it as it would've happened.

How was Mongol rule in Persia different from that in China?

Heavy Taxation forced Persian peasants off their land Extensive Mongol use of Persian bureaucracy Mongol rulers were very different from their Chinese counterparts, they were transformed to the Persian culture. Mongols who conquered Persia largely converted to Islam, the local faith. A large number of the Mongol conquerors turned to an agricultural lifestyle. Mongols married the locals When the Mongol rule collapsed in Persia, they were not driven out as they were from China because they had been absorbed into the community.

Why have historians often neglected pastoral peoples' role in world history? How would you assess the perspective of this chapter toward the Mongols? Does it strike you as negative and critical of the Mongols, as bending over backward to portray them in a positive light, or as a balanced presentation?

Historians have a tendency to neglect nomadic peoples because they generally did not fit all the requirements of civilizations. For example, nomads generally did not have written languages and all available sources then came from adjacent agricultural civilizations. Also, agricultural civilizations ultimately triumphed in their conflicts with nomads. The chapter examines the brutal methods of conquest by the Mongols, often discussing their harsh and typically explosive regimes, particularly in China. However, the chapter also highlights the importance of the Mongol Empire as a facilitator of trade and the importance of the exchange of ideas and technologies. It gives credit to the Mongols' skills in mobilization and organization that in part their military success. It also notes the Mongols' tolerance of the religions of conquered peoples.

How did Aztec religious thinking support the empire?

Human sacrifice had great religious importance and shaped the techniques of Aztec warfare: Prisoners of war were taken rather than just killing the enemy. Priests and rulers were interdependent: Human sacrifices were carried out for political means. Massive sacrificial rituals served to impress enemies and allies of the Aztec . Used to display the immense power

In what ways did the gathering and hunting people of Australia differ from those of the northwest coast of North America?

Hunter Gatherers separated into about 250 groups Borrowed Ideas from outsiders such as: Canoes Fishhooks Nets Firestick Farming was used to clean up the country Trade and Exchange occurred North America: Complex Hunter-Gatherer Culture Permanent Settlements and Villages Large Houses Economic Specialization and Structure Social Hierarchy Chiefdoms Food Surpluses

Looking Back: "The histories of Africa and the Americas during the second-wave era largely resemble those of Eurasia." Do you agree with this statement? Explain why or why not.

I disagree with this statement Among the three major continents in the world, they were similar in ways such as all of them had hunters and gatherers, each had one or more of the seven original hearths of civilization that developed independently, complex societies and technology developed in each. Differences include the larger amount of populations in Eurasia than Africa or America (Eurasia held about 80 percent of the world's population), the Americas were isolated from the exchanging of ideas, crops, animals, and trade in Africa and Eurasia, and metallurgy in the Americas was less developed. Eurasia: The Kingdom of Meroë had interactions with neighboring civilizations in which much of their wealth and military power from trade via the Nile (to the north) and caravans (to the east and west), Merotic script eventually took the place of Egyptian writing, and when the Kingdom of Meroë declined, it adopted Christianity when under control of their neighboring state Axum. Axum became a large state because of its participation in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean commerce, created its own form of writing just as the Meroe did, and adopted Christianity from the Romans through Egypt. The Niger Valley witnessed urban center without a corresponding state structure and were not encompassed within a larger imperial system. There were few signs of despotic power, widespread warfare, or deep social inequalities found within this civilization. The closest thing to these unconventional notions of civilization were the early cities of the Indus valley Americas: Teotihuacán shaped the history of Mesoamerica by its great military strength and power that gave it a great presence in the Mayan heartland. Teotihuacán was also a great and massive trade center. The city was also imitated architecturally and artistically by other regions across Mesoamerica. The Chavin exerted influence in the Andes Mountains and were widely imitated within the region. Things such as Chavin-style architecture, sculpture, pottery, religious images, and painted textiles moved across the region. Their religious cult provided economic and cultural integration to much of the Peruvian Andes. The Chavin became a pilgrimage site and possibly a training center for initiates from distant corners of the region Comparison: The Maya can be compared to Classical Greece and Mesopotamia. This is because like Greece and Mesopotamia, city-states of the Maya were imperialistic and failed to unify as one. The Mayans had a very shattered and fragmented political structure just like the Greeks and Mesopotamians. Like Greece and Mesopotamia, the Mayans had city states that fought amongst themselves, commonly fought with their neighboring civilizations, were polytheistic, had upper classes, elaborate architecture, and a written language. Civilizations in both the Americas and Africa both were agriculture-based societies that included social hierarchies and were patriarchies. They had large urban centers at the cores of each civilization with beautiful and unique architecture. However, all of these civilizations eventually collapsed and were replaced by new ones. Differences between civilizations in Africa and the Americas include the exchanging of ideas, crops, animals, and trade in Africa and Eurasia without the Americas, the development of the Niger River Valley's urban centers without a corresponding state structure and were not encompassed within a larger imperial system, the maya developed writing, and the Maya and Moche practiced human sacrifice.

How do you understand areas of the world, such as Bantu Africa and North America, that did not generate "civilizations"? Do you see them as "backward," as moving slowly toward civilization, or as simply different?

I don't believe that you can call this area uncivilized or backwards You can use examples of their uses of animals to expand the commerce of the area For example, the use of camels gained importance of travel through difficult and treacherous desert areas to facilitate trade. They were and are merely different from the current societies we have today. This difference does not make them backward. They just aren't as developed as modern day society, but that's how all societies started. They have their own way of life that is simply different from ours.

In what different ways did classical Greek philosophy and science have an impact in the West, in Byzantium, and in the Islamic world?

In the West after 1000 CE, a belief in the ability of human reason to penetrate divine mysteries and to grasp the operation of the natural order took shape through scientific methods. In the Byzantine Empire, classical tradition was kept alive through scholars. Scholarship thrived in Islam but the scientific method did not become of concern for Islamic higher education. After 1200 Islam became more conservative in its approach towards scholarship as opposed to Christianity.

What was the significance of Wari and Tiwanaku in the history of Andean civilization?

In the history of Andean civilization, the Wari and Tiwanaku have great significance. Both provided a measure of political integration and cultural commonality for the entire Andean region. Their styles of poetry and textiles also spread far beyond regions under their control. The Inca drew heavily on these two civilizations. The Inca drew upon their imperial model, used similar styles of dress and artistic expression, and claimed that Tiwanaku was their place of origin.

In what ways did Indian influence register in Southeast Asia?

Indian Numerical System and language were being used in Southeast Asia Indian art provided models The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia Hinduism and Buddhism began to take hold Southeast Asians liked the idea of Indian rulers being god-kings Indian political ideas

Why did the Mongol Empire last only a relatively short time?

Intense factionalism among the Mongols, rapidly rising prices, furious epidemics of Black Death, and growing peasant revolts forced the Mongols out of China by 1368, which was less than a century after conquering the Chinese. A succession crisis in the Mongol regime in Persia resulted in the collapse of their rule and subsequent assimilation into Persian society. Division among the Mongols and the growing strength of the Russian state enables the Russians to break Mongol hold. The rapid and lethal spread of Black Death threw the Mongol Empire off and decimated pastoral populations of the steppe lands. It also damage commerce.

In what ways did the early history of Islam reflect its Arabian origins?

Islam drew on: Yahweh Distinction as Children of Abraham Denouncement of social hierarchy Values of Arab tribal life Rejection of tribal structure which in many cases led to violence Valued personal bravery, loyalty to those around you, hospitality, and highly expressive poetry (such as the Quran) Monotheistic ideas of Jews, CHristians, and Zoroastrians helped to define Allah (One and only Islamic God) Replacement of Tribal and Clan Structure with the umma (community of all believers)

What similarities and differences can you identify in the spread of Islam to India, Anatolia, West Africa, and Spain?

Islam spread to India, Anatolia, and Spain though force of Islamic Armies. Islam arrived in West Africa through Muslim traders Sufis facilitated conversions by accommodating local traditions (particularly in India and Anatolia, but very little in West Africa). In Spain, India, and West Africa, Islam became one of several important faiths within each civilizations' culture. Islam became the dominant faith of West Africa. Anatolia was more thoroughly Islamized than India due to the Islamic people that settled in Anatolia, coupled with the massacres, enslavement, famine, flight during conquest, centralized society, etc.

How might you account for the immense religious and political/military success of Islam in its early centuries?

Islamic areas allowed the state to mobilize the military potential of entire Arab population. Byzantine and Persian empires were weakened by decades of war with each other and by internal revolts Merchant leaders of the new Islamic community wanted to capture profitable trade routes and wealthy agriculture regions. Expansion provided a common task for Arab community, which enforced fragile unity of umma. Arabs were motivated by their religion and viewed this mission in terms of jihad Islam success in attracting converts (Muhammad's religious message was attractive to many Jews, Christians and Zoroastrianists; could find familiar elements). The growing prestige of the Arab empire attracted many, conquest made them question power of old gods, merchants found Islam was friendly to commerce and in Arab empire a huge and secure area for trade, people who want official positions find social mobility.

In what ways might Islamic civilization be described as cosmopolitan, international, or global?

Islamic world valued commerce and fostered vibrant trade networks Muslim merchants were found across the Silk Roads, Sea Roads, and Sand Roads. Islamic world promoted long-distance economic relationships by actively supporting a prosperous, highly developed, "capitalist" economy Islamic civilization facilitated exchange of agricultural practices and products Rice, new strains of sorghum, hard wheat, bananas, lemons, limes, watermelons, coconut palms, spinach, artichokes, sugarcane, and cotton came to the Middle East from India. Technology diffused across the Islamic world. Ancient Persian technologies for getting water by drilling into the sides of hill spread across North Africa. Muslim technicians improved rockets developed in CHina Techniques for making paper arrived in the Middle East, India, and Europe from China Ideas also spread: Jewish and Christian precedents influenced Islamic thinkers Persian bureaucratic practice, court ritual, and poetry influencing the elite in particular Greek and Indian scientific, medical, and philosophical texts being systematically translated into Arabic and studied throughout the Islamic world.Ancient Persian technologies for getting water by drilling into the sides of hill spread across North Africa. Muslim technicians improved rockets developed in CHina Techniques for making paper arrived in the Middle East, India, and Europe from China Ideas also spread: Jewish and Christian precedents influenced Islamic thinkers Persian bureaucratic practice, court ritual, and poetry influencing the elite in particular Greek and Indian scientific, medical, and philosophical texts being systematically translated into Arabic and studied throughout the Islamic world. Traditions mixed and blended to create a distinctive Islamic civilization that made many contributions to the world of learning Development of Algebra Original work in Astronomy and optics Medicine pharmacology

What accounted for the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Roads?

It had appeal to Indian Merchants who took a liking to its universal message to that of a Brahmin-dominated Hinduism that privileged the higher castes Buddhism was supported by rulers such as Ashoka Indian traders and Buddhist Monks brought the religion to the Silk Road Many inhabitants of the sophisticated and prosperous oasis cities of Central Asia that engaged in long-distance trade found in Buddhism a link to the larger, wealthy, and prestigious civilization of India. This resulted in many voluntary conversions to Buddhism. Well-To-Do Buddhist merchants built monasteries and supported monks to earn religious merit The monasteries provided places of rest for merchants in turn

What made silk such a highly desired commodity across Eurasia?

It was quite comfortable and made a "fashion statement" It became a mark of the Chinese Elite class It was used as a currency It could be exchanged for horse and to buy-off invaders from the northern border of China It as a symbol of a high social status in China and the Byzantine Empire It was associated with Buddhism and Christianity The Chinese kept the process of silk making a secret so no other country or empire knew how to manufacture it. This created a monopoly.

In what different ways did Japanese and Korean women experience the pressures of Confucian orthodoxy?

Japanese elite women largely escaped: Prohibition of remarriage for widows Seclusion in the home Foot Binding techniques and practices Japanese women were able to: Inherit property Live apart from their family once married Make and break marriages with ease

What accounts for the widespread conversion to Islam?

Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians could find familiar elements from their own religions in Islam Islam was associated with a powerful state since it began Conquest made many people question the powers of the previous Gods. The growing power and prestige of the Arab Empire attracted many to Allah. Even though conversion was rare and not an easy process, the Islam-governed state provided a variety of incentives for claiming Muslim identity, such as tax breaks. Merchants could find a religion that was very friendly to trade and commerce. The Arab empire also enjoyed the trade and benefitted from it. Conversion to Islam was considerably easy. All that was need was to follow the Five Pillars.

In what ways did China have an influence in Korea, Vietnam, and Japan? In what ways was that influence resisted?

Korea adopted Buddhism and modeled its capital after China's capital city Brought in Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism Korea developed its own alphabet Korea had political independence Vietnam was fully incorporated into China In Vietnam, Chinese-style agriculture introduced, Chinese clothing, hairstyles became mandatory, adopted Mandate of Heaven, scholar-gentry class created. Rebellions occurred in Vietnam Women had greater roles in Vietnam Vietnam formed a distinctive language Japan voluntarily borrowed from China Japan adopted Chinese model of the bureaucratic state, their ruler was treated like the Chinese Emperor, Confucianism and Buddhism were encouraged, the Chinese calendar, court rituals, tax system, law system, ministries, provincial administration, art, and literature. Chinese power on Japan eventually began to decentralize Japan began celebrating military strengths instead of education feats.

Summing Up So Far: In what different ways did Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and northern nomads experience and respond to Chinese influence?

Korea and Vietnam achieved political independence and participated FULLY in the tribute system as vassal states Japan was not conquered by the Chinese and partially participated in the tribute system as a vassal state In Korea, Vietnam, and Japan, the elite class borrowed heavily from: Confucianism Daosim Buddhism Administrative techniques Examination System Art Literary Styles Despite the many similarities, the cultures Korea, Vietnam, and China, and Japan remained quite distinct Korea and Vietnam experience Chinese colonization Culture of Vietnam was fully incorporated into the Chinese state leading to Chinese style irrigated agriculture, education of elite in Confucian-based schools and inclusion in local bureaucracy. Chinese replaced local languages, hairstyles, and clothing.

Why did the peoples of the Eastern Hemisphere develop long-distance trade more extensively than did those of the Western Hemisphere?

Large absence of domesticable animals in the Americas American absence of sea-faring vessels Geography: East to West Orientation of Eurasia North to South Orientation of the Americas Narrow bottleneck of Panama Dense Rainforests Agricultural practices couldn't adapt to the distinct climate changes and vegetation zones of the Americas Civilizations were scattered over large regions of land Civilizations in the Americas were often independent and traded within their society. Eurasian trade was largely controlled by the Mongols: Safer trade routes Stable governments Heavy support of Eurasian trade

In what ways was European civilization changing after 1000?

Large spike in population New lands for cultivation Long-distance trade sprung back up and was expanded Individual populations of towns expanded and attracted professional groupings creating a more complex and productive society. Women were given more opportunities due to economic growth and urbanization. However, these opportunities were short lived and declined by the 15th century. Territorial states grew More effective governments were established Loyalty and obedience of subjects Roman Catholic Church expanded into Eastern Europe and Islamic Spain.

Summing Up So Far: How did the historical development of the European West differ from that of Byzantium in the third-wave era?

Large-scale rule vanished in the West and was replaced with a large number of regional kingdoms which commonly fought and waged wars with each other. Sharp decline in: Urban life Long-distance Trade Literacy Social System based on reciprocal ties of greater and lesser lords among warrior elites and lords and serfs. Roman Catholic Church was able to maintain a greater amount of independence from political authorities than the Orthodox Church in Byzantium. However, both churches worked actively with their political authorities.

Disease changes societies. How might this argument apply to the plague?

Loss of population could lead to: Conflicts between social classes Scarce workers Undermined Serfdom Greater interest in technology, science, and medicinal studies. Need for more bodies in the workforce creating more employment opportunities for women. Mongol downfall Disruption in trade and exchange, limiting cultural diffusion and transfer of much needed commodities. Forced Europeans to utilized sea routes to trade with Asia.

In what ways did China participate in the world of Eurasian commerce and exchange, and with what outcomes?

Main export products of silk, porcelain, and lacquerware. Size of the Chinese economy provided a market for many goods from distant regions Diffusion of Chinese technological innovation: Papermaking Printing Explosives Textiles Metallurgy Naval Technologies Gunpowder (resulted in European development of the cannon) Imported cotton and sugar from India Imported rice from Vietnam Cultural diffusion of Buddhism

How would you define the major achievements of Ming dynasty China?

Major Achievements: Encyclopedia including history, geography, ethics, government, etc. The capital of Beijing Forbidden City and Temple of Heaven Confucianism Reestablishment of the civil service exam and centralized government Emperors and Eunuchs Rebuilt Canals, reservoirs, and irrigation. Population Grew Recovered from Mongol attack and rule Maritime: South China Sea encompassed new peoples in the Tribute System Chinese Control Trade Most impressive sea expeditions that the world had ever seen

What was the impact of the Crusades in world history?

Marked expansion of Western Christendom and decline of Eastern Christendom and Byzantium Stimulated demand for luxury goods in Europe Allowed Europeans to learn techniques for producing sugar on large plantations using slave labor. Muslim and Greek learning and scholarship moved into Europe Hardened barriers between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism. European empires Notions like Manifest Destiny appeared in the building of empires

How was Arabia transformed by the rise of Islam?

Membership in Medina was not based on birth, but rather faith. Usury was outlawed. Tax Free market places were established Mandatory payment to support and aid the poor Muhammad separated Islam from Judaism Followers of Muhammad prayed towards Judaism until some Jews allied against Muhammad and his followers (then faced Mecca) The Kaaba was declared to be a shrine to Allah by Muhammad There was no longer any distinction between religious and political laws Peace was brought to warring tribes

How did Mongol rule change China? In what ways were the Mongols changed by China?

Mongols united a divided China Mongols took on a dynastic title, the Yuan. Moved capital ( "City of the Khan" ) to present-day Beijing Mongols made use of original Chinese administrative practices and taxation system for their postal system. Made use of Confucian traditions and rituals Gained support politically from Chinese due to their use of Chinese principles

In what ways was the world of Islam a "cosmopolitan civilization"?

Muslim merchants were very prominent in the Silk Roads, Sea Routes, and Sand Roads. Islam promoted long distance trade and economic relationships. Islam actively supported a prosperous, highly developed, and "capitalist" economy. Facilitated a substantial exchange of agricultural products or practices for sugarcane and cotton Techniques for manufacturing paper in the Middle East (from China) Islam made contributions towards education (algebra, political sciences, astronomy, and optics)

Summing Up So Far: In what ways do the civilizations of China, Europe, and the Islamic world in the fifteenth century seem to be moving in the same direction, and in what respects were they diverging from one another?

Paleolithic Persistence: Australia, North America, Siberia, and parts of Africa participated in Paleolithic persistence. Firestick farming Complex Hunter-Gatherer cultures Organized clan leaders Contracted as the Agricultural Revolution Spread More leisure time and a healthier lifestyle Iroquois and Igbo Traded among themselves Pastoral People: Central Asia and West Africa The Mongols Turks (led by Timur) attacked Russia, Persia, and India. Bringing immense devastation to all. Elite Culture of a combination of Turkic and Persian elements Homelands swallowed by expanding empires Ming Dynasty: Promoted Confucianism Returned to the old ways of China Emperor Yongle Civil Service Exams back in place Building of Beijing and the Temple of Heaven Maritime Expeditions Europe: Demographic Recovery Political Consolidation Cultural Blooming Recovered from Black Death Fragmented into independent states and divided Christendom (Spain, Portugal, France, England, Italy, etc.) Russia became centered at Moscow England and France warred over French territory European Renaissance was parallel to the Ming Dynasty RIse in the Arts Maritime Voyages

In what ways did pastoral societies interact with their agricultural neighbors?

Pastoral societies were an alternative way of living to the agricultural societies. Each depended on the other and couldn't exist without the other's products. Agricultural ways of life were disliked by nomadic groups and nomadic ways of life were disliked by agricultural groups. The egalitarianism in nomadic societies was frowned upon by settled communities. Nomads sought access to the food, manufactured goods, and luxury items of the Agricultural societies. Pastoral people united to to extract wealth from the agricultural societies through either trade, raids, or extortion. Some members of either pastoral or agricultural societies adopted the other's religion (such as Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and/or Manichaeism) and other cultural traditions.

In what ways did pastoral societies differ from their agricultural counterparts?

Pastoral societies were: Less Productive Need for large grazing areas Smaller, more scattered villages Organized in kinships, chiefdoms, or clans that made up tribes Highly egalitarian Few social restrictions Everyone was actively engaged in work as well as the political side of society. Nomadic Smaller populations Many people in the small villages were related

In what different ways did the peoples of the fifteenth century interact with one another?

People of the 15th century interacted through: Webs of Empire Large-scale political systems (brought together a large variety of people from many cultures) Religion that linked far-flung people Long-established trade routes: Silk Roads Indian Ocean Trade Sand Routes American Web

What political and cultural differences stand out in the histories of fifteenth-century China and Western Europe? What similarities are apparent?

Political Differences: China: Unitary and Centralized Government Europe: System of Many Independent and Separate Highly Competitive States Feudal System Independent Christendom Efficient Taxes for Structures and Armies Cultural Differences: China: Confucianism Europe: Renaissance Classic Greek Tradition Similarities: Both Western Europe and China returned to the traditions of their classical states, Confucianism and the Classical Greek Empire.

What changes did Islamic expansion generate in those societies that encountered it, and how was Islam itself transformed by those encounters?

Populations across vast regions willing converted to the Islamic faith Regions of the Islamic world were tied more closely together through trade and exchange of technology, crops, and ideas. Older religions and political traditions were swept away or altered Technology diffused across the Islamic world. Ancient Persian technologies for getting water by drilling into the sides of hill spread across North Africa. Muslim technicians improved rockets developed in CHina Traditions mixed and blended to create a distinctive Islamic civilization that made many contributions to the world of learning Development of Algebra Original work in Astronomy and optics Medicine pharmacology

How did the rise of Islam change the lives of women?

Quran banned female infanticide Gave Women the right to own property Allowed men to have relationships with CONSENTING relationships with female slaves. Children born as a result of such relationships would be born free as the mother would be when the owner died. As the empire grew, the position of women became more limited. Women began to stay in their homes and pray here instead of the mosque Veiling and seclusion of women became standard in the upper classes. Patriarchy began to tighten "Honor Killing" of women by male relatives Sufi practice allowed for a greater role for women

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Reestablishment of China through the Tang and Song Dynasties economically and politically China supplied products and consumed products from the Indian Ocean Trade Network China introduced technological innovations such as larger ships and the magnetic compass which helped facilitate trade The sudden rise of Islam, which was friendly to commercial life. The creation of an Arab Empire which stretched from the Atlantic Ocean, through the Mediterranean basin, and to India, brought together in a single political system an immense range of economies and cultural traditions and provided a vast arena for trade. Middle Eastern gold and silver were traded for pepper, textiles, and gemstones. Widespread conversion to Islam among traders in this region gave the trade center a culture that sided in the facility of commercial transactions.

What replaced the Roman order in Western Europe?

Roman imperial order collapsed Replaced by regional kingdoms ruled by Germanic warlords. Maintained some Roman features such as written Roman law and the use of fines and penalties to provide order and justice. Carolingian Empire and the empire of Otto I of Saxony had aspirations to re-create something of the unity of the Roman Empire. Kingdoms were short-lived and unsuccessful in reviving anything approaching Roman authority. In the West, a social system based on reciprocal ties between greater and lesser lords among the warrior elites. This system replaced the Roman social structure. Slavery gave away to serfdom.

In what ways did China and the nomads influence each other?

SOME Nomadic peoples adopted some Chinese ways Few Chinese methods were incorporated but Chinese-style agriculture was purely impossible due to the geography Few pastoral and nomadic societies were incorporated into the Chinese state, if they were, it was typically not for a very significant amount of time Some parts of Northern China were periodically conquered by the nomads and ruled by them

What was the role of Swahili civilization in the world of Indian Ocean commerce?

Set of commerical city-states There was a demand for East African products so Swahili cities accumulated such goods from Africa and exchanged them for products from other civilizations Created many coastal waterways Many Arabs and Persians settled in Swahili Islam provided Swahili with a link to the rest of the Indian Ocean and its trade Allowed for African Trade

What accounts for the often negative attitudes of settled societies toward the pastoral peoples living on their borders?

Settles societies feared pastoral peoples and viewed them as bloodthirsty savages and barbarians who were largely destructive, chaotic, and severely uncivilized. (The Mongols) Settled societies and pastoral/nomadic societies were constantly competing for resources and land. Settled societies didn't appreciate the nomadic lifestyle of the pastoral people who did not have proper housing and diets. Pastoral people were to different from the settled societies and were therefore looked down upon.

Looking Back: What would surprise a knowledgeable observer from 500 or 1000 C.E., were he or she to make a global tour in the fifteenth century? What features of that earlier world might still be recognizable?

Several changes would without a doubt shocked a knowledgeable observer of 500 CE ; Emergence of Islam Revival of China and Western Europe Collapse of the Byzantine Empire Emergence of Russia and the spread of Christianity into it. Emergence of states in Southeast Asia Emergence of Japan Emergence of powerful empires in West Africa Some features would still be recognizable, such as ; Paleolithic persistence Herding Societies Agricultural Villages The continuance, albeit at a more intense rate, of long-distance commerce and exchange Persistence of broad cultural traditions, especially in the Mesoamerican, Andean, Chinese, European, and Indian civilizations.

What were the major economic, social, and cultural consequences of Silk Road commerce?

Silk was used as a currency It was a way to accumulate wealth in Central Asia being that it was so highly sought after and desired It was a symbol of the upper classes and a high social status in both China and the Byzantine Empire It was associated with both the religions of Christianity and Buddhism It caused Peasants in the Yangtze River area to give up cultivation food and focus solely on creating silk, paper, porcelain, lacquer-ware, iron tools, and other luxury items involved in Silk Road trading. Buddhism was spread widely across Asia through cultural diffusion on the SIlk Road

Summing Up So Far: To what extent did the Silk Roads and the Sea Roads operate in a similar fashion? How did they differ?

Similarities: Commerce was the purpose for creating and maintaining both trade networks Cultural diffusion occurred along both Ideas, religions, philosophies, agriculture, manufactured products, technology, crops, livestock, and luxury items were traded along both Commercialization of communities along both routes Both brought wealth and power to many civilizations The role of powerful empires played important roles along each route Differences: No pastoral communities could trade along the sea Commodity goods traded on sea routes but not land routes East Africa and Southeast Asia participated in the Sea Routes but not the Land Routes.

Looking Back: In what ways did Tang and Song dynasty China resemble the earlier Han dynasty period, and in what ways has China changed?

Similarities: Maintenance of the imperial political system Importance of professional bureaucracy Civil service exams Dominant political position over China's neighbors in East Asia Interest in long distance trade Importance of Confucian tradition in elite society Differences: Tighter unification of northern and southern China Vast waterway system Long-term migration of Chinese populations south into the Yangzi River Valley Economic revolution that made China the richest empire in the world Rapid population growth from 50 to 60 million during the Tang to 120 to 1200 million Growth in agricultural production Most highly commercialized economy in the world

In what ways did European maritime voyaging in the fifteenth century differ from that of China? What accounts for these differences?

Size Differences: European voyages had fewer crew members and ships. For example, Columbus' voyage to the Americas had three ships with a 90 person crew. Chinese voyages were much larger. De Gama: Four ships with 130 people in the crew. Zheng He had hundreds of ships with thousands of crew members. Europeans were seeking wealth in Asia and Africa as well as Christian Converts and Allies China had all the wealth and allies it needed. The Chinese had no desire convert people to their religion. Their voyages ended abruptly after 1433 Europe sought to monopolize Indian Ocean Commerce Europe created Empires in the Americas (quite violently) Reasons for Differences: Chinese Unified Empire European Fragmented Political Authority The European Elites had great interest in overseas expansion Chinese Emperor Yongle passed away. He was the main supporter Chinese voyages. After he was out the scene, those opposed to the voyages prevailed within the court. Chinese believed they we were the superior culture and felt that if needed something from abroad, someone would bring it to them. In contrast, Europeans felt the need to seek out the riches of the East.

What is the difference between Sunni and Shia Islam?

Sunni Islam: Caliphs were rightful political and military leaders. Leaders would be selected by the Islamic Community Religious authority came from the larger community (particularly religious scholars known as Ulama) Lacked messianic element Shia Islam: The leadership of the Islamic world should come from the line of Ali and Husayn who were blood relatives of Muhammad. Leaders were invested in. Leaders of the Shia were known as Inams. Inams had religious authority that the Caliphs lacked. This authority allowed Inams and Inams alone to interpret the true meaning of the Quran and wishes of Allah then reveal them to others. Included messianic element

Summing Up So Far: "Islam had a revolutionary impact on every society that it touched." What evidence might support this statement, and what might challenge it?

Support: Islam spread to Spain, West Africa, Anatolia, and India Islam contributed greatly to trade along the Silk Roads, Sand routes, and Sea Routes. Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians could find familiar elements from their own religions in Islam Conquest made many people question the powers of the previous Gods. The growing power and prestige of the Arab Empire attracted many to Allah. Conversion to Islam was considerably easy. All that was need was to follow the Five Pillars. Brought peace to warring tribes Challenge: Islam did not have very much affect on India Islam really only affected civilizations in distress, such as Anatolia It seems that a civilizations had to be in some kind of disaster (such as massacres, enslavement, famine, flight during conquest) for Islam to take hold, enough disaster for that civilization to question their own Gods.

"The particular cultures and societies of Africa and of the Americas discussed in this chapter developed largely in isolation." What evidence would support this statement, and what might challenge it?

Support: The Americas were only able to domesticate llamas and alpacas due to the lack of interaction and inability to trade with Eurasia. This also led to lack of Eurasian crops and technology. However, some technologies in Eurasia were developed independently by people in the Americas and they also had their own set of crops, mainly consisting of maize, beans, and squash (the three sisters). Challenge: North Africa was very much integrated into the Mediterranean world in Eurasia. Even areas below the equator in Africa experienced impacts from Eurasia in the form of new crops and animals. Africa also borrowed from Eurasia culturally and some places took on Christianity and Islam. It was also a part of the Indian trade network from which it gained knowledge and traded. Bantu Expansion Bantu Migration Batwa Meroe Axum

In what ways did borrowing from abroad shape European civilization after 1000?

Technological innovations spread across Eurasia Allowed Europe to technologically catch up and perhaps even surpass China and the Islamic world. More efficient horse collar contributed to the efforts to plow heavy soil in northern Europe. Gunpowder from China Cannons from Europe gave military advantages over other civilizations Improvements in shipbuilding,navigational techniques, including the magnetic compass and sternpost rudder from China and adaptations of the Arab lateen sail, enabled Europeans to build more advanced and developed ships.

In what ways did Teotihuacán shape the history of Mesoamerica?

Teotihuacán shaped the history of Mesoamerica by its great military strength and power that gave it a great presence in the Mayan heartland. Teotihuacán was also a great and massive trade center. The city was also imitated architecturally and artistically by other regions across Mesoamerica.

What kind of influence did Chavín exert in the Andes region?

The Chavin exerted influence in the Andes Mountains and were widely imitated within the region. Things such as Chavin-style architecture, sculpture, pottery, religious images, and painted textiles moved across the region. Their religious cult provided economic and cultural integration to much of the Peruvian Andes. The Chavin became a pilgrimage site and possibly a training center for initiates from distant corners of the region.

How did the Chinese and their nomadic neighbors to the north view each other?

The Chinese and their nomadic neighbors did trade, however, they did not get along very well Nomadic peoples were attached to Chinese goods such as silk and wine Nomads traded, raided, and extorted to get Chinese resources Chinese responded by constructing the Great Wall Chinese often threatened their nomadic neighbors Horses were acquired by the Chinese through their nomadic neighbors

What distinguished the Aztec and Inca empires from each other?

The Inca Empire was much than the Aztec Empire The Aztec Empire controlled a part of the Mesoamerican region. At the peak of the empire, the Inca state controlled the whole expanse of the Andean Mountains. The rulers of the Aztec Empire largely left the people that they conquered alone and did not form any system to administer them or assimilate the people into their culture. The Incas created a bureaucratic empire. The Aztec Empire took tribute from their subjects in the form of goods. The Inca Empire took tribute in the form of labor services. The Aztec Empire had large commercial exchange based on merchants and free markets. The Inca Government was a major factor in the production and distribution of goods as well as society and their economy.

How did the history of Meroë and Axum reflect interaction with neighboring civilizations?

The Kingdom of Meroë had interactions with neighboring civilizations in which much of their wealth and military power from trade via the Nile (to the north) and caravans (to the east and west), Merotic script eventually took the place of Egyptian writing, and when the Kingdom of Meroë declined, it adopted Christianity when under control of their neighboring state Axum. Axum became a large state because of its participation in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean commerce, created its own form of writing just as the Meroe did, and adopted Christianity from the Romans through Egypt

In what respects was the civilization of the Latin West distinctive and unique, and in what ways was it broadly comparable to other third-wave civilizations?

The Latin West shares many features of other third wave civilizations. Willingness to borrow, then modify and improve, ideas, business practices, technological innovations, etc. Western European experiences had distinctive features: Fragmented political structures Independent towns Feudal System Acceptance of the study of natural philosophy

With what Eurasian civilizations might the Maya be compared?

The Maya can be compared to Classical Greece and Mesopotamia. This is because like Greek and Mesopotamian, city-states of the Maya were imperialistic and failed to unify as one. The Mayans had a very shattered and fragmented political structure just like the Greeks and Mesopotamians. Like Greece and Mesopotamia, the Mayans had city states that fought amongst themselves, commonly fought with their neighboring civilizations, were polytheistic, had upper classes, elaborate architecture, and a written language.

What features of Moche life characterize it as a civilization?

The Moche civilization dominated a 250 mile stretch of land along Peru's northern coast. This area included 13 river valleys and these people flourished between 100 and 800 CE. Their economy was rooted to an irrigation system that was highly complex and required constant maintenance. Their political system was governed by warrior-priests, some lived atop large pyramids. The Moche craftsmen were extremely skilled and their remarkable talents were reflected in the elaborate burials given to these rulers. These workers were renowned for their metal work, pottery, weaving, and painting.

What kinds of cross-cultural interactions did the Mongol Empire generate?

The Mongols actively promoted international commerce. Mongol trade routes travelled from China to the Middle East, linking the majority of Eurasia. Brought about diplomatic relationships throughout Eurasia Increased trade exchange in Eurasia with their forced transfer of large populations of skilled people taken as slaves from Mongol conquests. Facilitated cultural diffusion, encouraging the spread of religions and the exchange of ideas.

How does the experience of the Niger Valley challenge conventional notions of "civilization"?

The Niger Valley witnessed urban center without a corresponding state structure and were not encompassed within a larger imperial system. There were few signs of despotic power, widespread warfare, or deep social inequalities found within this civilization. The closest thing to these unconventional notions of civilization were the early cities of the Indus valley civilization.

What differences can you identify among the four major empires in the Islamic world of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries?

The Ottoman Empire, Safavid Empire, and Mughal Empire were of Turkic origins. The Songhay Empire was not of these origins. The Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire ruled over the heart of the Muslim world. Most of their subjects were followers of Islam. The land the Mughal Empire and Songhay Empire ruled over regions where Islam was a minority faith. Rulers of the Safavid Empire were the only rulers to impose a Shia version of Islam as the official religion of the state.

What did the Quran expect from those who followed its teachings?

The Quran expected all who followed its teachings to submit to Allah as the one and only true God Five Pillars of Islam: Profession of faith Regular Prayer Charitable Giving Fasting during the Ramadan Pilgrimage to Mecca (Financially if possible) Rejection of Greed and selfishness Social Equality Umma

Why are the centuries of the Tang and Song dynasties in China sometimes referred to as a "golden age"?

The Song and Tang Dynasties were built a civil service exam-based state structure Built on the Sui foundations of unity Prominent achievements in art, literature, poetry, landscape painting, and ceramics. Explosion of scholarship State structure endured for thousands of years Six Major Ministries (personnel, finance, rites, army, justice, and public works) Printing of books Economic revolution (made China the richest empire on earth) Populations exploded from 50 million to 60 million during the Tang and 120 million by 1200 Massive Urbanization Advance Manufacturing Techniques Inventions such as printing, gunpowder, innovations in navigation, and shipbuilding The Chinese economy became the most commercialized economy in the world Chinese economy produced for the market rather than local consumption.

What facilitated the rooting of Buddhism within China?

The chaos that followed the fall of the Han Dynasty discredited Confucianism and opened up to new alternatives to establish the Mandate of Heaven. Provided comfort to society Buddhist Monasteries provided support to poverty There was a massive effort by Buddhist monks, scholars, and translators to present their religion in terms that the Chinese population could relate to Women are seen as equals in Chinese Buddhism

How does this chapter distinguish among the various kinds of societies that comprised the world of the fifteenth century? What other ways of categorizing the world's peoples might work as well or better?

The chapter organized societies in two ways. Primarily, into Paleolithic peoples, agricultural village societies, herding peoples, and established civilizations and empires. These civilizations are then organized by their region (Western Europe, Middle East, Near East, Northern Africa, the Pulse, South Asia, etc.) Other alternatives of organization include by cultural region: Chinese, Indian, Islamic, Mesoamerican, and Christian. Another possibility would be through webs of connection (trade routes).

In what ways were the histories of the Ancestral Pueblo and the Mound Builders similar to each other, and how did they differ?

The histories of the Ancestral Pueblo and the Mound Builders were similar in the ways that settlements were linked to their trading networks, both participated in long distance exchange, both constructed structures to track the heavens, and both adopted maize from Mesoamerica. The Mound Builders were different from the Ancestral Pueblo because they had an independent agricultural revolution, continued to supplement their diets by gathering and hunting (until the arrival of maize), and built larger monumental agriculture burial grounds and earthwork. The Ancestral Pueblo were different because the arrival of maize occurred much earlier for them, they settled into earlier agricultural development, developed kivas for the use of religious ceremonies, and did not last as long as the Mound Builders.

Why were Arabs able to construct such a huge empire so quickly?

The shared faith of Islam allowed the newly organized state to mobilize the military potential and protection of the Arabian population. This expansion of the military a way to reach wealth and social elevation. Byzantine and Persian Empires were weak after decades of war and issues within the empires such as internal revolts. Merchant Leaders of the new community wanted to capture the profitable routes of the Silk Roads. Expansion gave Arabs a common goal which created unity and reinforced umma. Arabs were motivated strongly by their religion.

What accounts for the different historical trajectories of the Byzantine and West European expressions of Christendom?

The survival of a powerful imperial state in the Byzantine Empire resulted in greater state control over the Orthodox Church. Cultural differences also played a role Greek became the language of religious practice instead of the Latin used in the Roman Catholic Church Byzantine thinkers sought to formulate Christian doctrine in terms of Greek philosophical concepts. Eastern Orthodox faith expanded into Eastern Europe when the Byzantine Empire was at its height. However, it was driven from other regions in North AFrica and the Near East by Islamic expansion. Roman Catholic tradition became the more expansive of the two expressions after 1000.

In what ways was Anatolia changed by its incorporation into the Islamic world?

Turkish-speaking people suffered massacres, enslavement, famine, and flight which led to a large drop in their population. Christians suffered from discrimination Church properties were confiscated Monasteries destroyed/deserted Priests and or bishops were unable to serve congregations Safis replaced Christians Turkish rulers built an inclusive/culturally accepting society and their influence became more egalitarian for women Laid foundation for the Ottoman Empire

In what ways did women's lives change during the Tang and Song dynasties?

Turning point in Chinese patriarchy Chinese women in the north during the Tang Dynasty experience greater freedoms and social lives due to Buddhist influence Revival of Confucianism and rapid economic growth restricted women Foot Binding Factories replace women who worked in the textile industry An increase in the number of elite families and their growing prosperity resulted in the expansion of the role of women as concubines, entertainers,etc. Remarriage for a women was highly frowned upon During the Song Dynasty women focused on education to prepare their sons for the civil service exam Women's property rights expanded

Identify the major steps in the rise of the Mongol Empire.

Unity of the Mongols Temujin (Genghis Khan) Great Mongol Nation was formed by 1206 Military campaigns against settled agricultural societies in Eurasia were held by Genghis Khan in an effort to hold this alliance together Through war, the Mongols and Genghis Khan brought about an empire that included China, Korea, Central Asia, Russia, the Islamic Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe.

What changes did trans-Saharan trade bring to West Africa?

West Africans now had a wide variety of goods that weren't available to them before They were able to get more of the goods they needed and/or wanted Caravans were created to link West Africa to others in the north to trade New city-states, states, empires, and cities were created and all of them received great wealth from taxes, trade, and merchants New hierarchies were formed Introduction of the camel Trading Gold, African ivory, kola nuts, and slaves for horses, cloth, dates, manufactured goods, and salt Became a major international trade route Provided resources for construction and political structures Extremely wealthy rulers

In what ways did networks of interaction in the Western Hemisphere differ from those in the Eastern Hemisphere?

Western Hemisphere: Many inventions Absence of large mammals such as horses or camels Lack of vehicles Many environmental differences Less domestication No diffusion of writing systems between civilizations Little to no contact with other civilizations Absence of ocean-going vehicles No way to facilitate long-distance trade between civilizations Cultural diffusion occurred slowly (if it occurred at all) Geographic obstacles for trade North-South orientation caused less movement of agricultural practices and products due to drastically different climatic zones Eastern Hemisphere: Many technological advancements Easy cultural diffusion Religions and philosophies spread through trade routes and systems Rapid Cultural diffusion Long-distance trade Silk Road Indian Ocean trade Distinct cultural traditions Spread of Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam Horses, donkeys, camels, wheeled vehicles, large ocean-going vessels, domestication of many animals and plants Few environmental obstacles for trade (if there were any they were eventually overcame) East-West orientation allowed for easy, fast, and efficient cultural diffusion.

In what ways did the Xiongnu, Arabs, Turks, and Berbers make an impact on world history?

Xiongnu: Revolution in nomadic life Brought forth a more centralized and hierarchical system Power was more concentrated in a single and "divine " ruler Differences in status became more pronounced Model of this system was later mimicked by the Turks and Mongols. Arabs: Islam emerged Brought forth the largest and most expansive religion of the time. Pastoral Arabs were the troops that carved out the Arabian Empire and Islamic Expansion. Turks: Carried Islam to new regions such as Northern India and Anatolia. Established Islamic civilization Power behind the Abbasid caliphate Made important empires out of settled societies Ottoman Empire Berber: Built the Almoravid Empire in Morocco (1000) Conquered Spain Sophisticated Islamic Cultural

What was distinctive about the Russian experience of Mongol rule?

he Mongols conquered Russia but did not occupy it as they did with Persia and China. Russia was exploited by the Mongols Mongol impact was much more less prominent and uneven as compared Persia or China. Absence of direct rule under the Mongols in Russia resulted in less cultural diffusion. The Mongols were far less influenced by the Russian culture than their counterparts in China and Persia were. Russia suffered from repeated attacks from the Mongols Mongols continues their nomadic lifestyle in Russia, living in the mountains and coming down to raid Russia, taking loot and slaves.