8.04 Terrorism and Human Rights

counterterrorism:

the practices and strategies used by law enforcement, military, and business to prevent terror attacks

Myth or Fact?

1) Saddam Hussein masterminded the 9/11 attacks. Myth ─ While he was pleased by the attack, Hussein was not directly tied to the perpetrator. Osama Bin Laden claimed responsibility and other organizers were taken into custody. 2) The United States intervened in southern Europe in the 1990s to prevent human rights violations. Fact ─ The United States bombed Serbian targets at different times in the 1990s to end ethnic cleansing. 3) The USA PATRIOT Act's greatest failure was 9/11. Myth ─ The controversy of the USA PATRIOT Act is focused on some of its monitoring powers. Yet, the act did not exist until after 9/11 and was a reaction to a failure to detect and prevent the terror attack. 4) Terrorist attacks are state-sponsored. Myth ─ Technically, a terror attack is defined as not originating from a legitimate government. However, governments have been implicated in funding terrorist organizations. 5) The students behind the Columbine shooting were intelligent, had friends, and planned the attack for over a year. Fact ─ The years following Columbine revealed the "Trench Coat Mafia" as well as the drug abuse and bullying allegations to be false. 6) All terrorists are Arab Muslim extremists. Myth ─ While this phrase describes probably the most significant foreign terror threat to the United States, it is a myth. Most attacks in the United States are conducted by residents who are neither Arab nor Muslim. 7) The United States and other countries are committed to preventing the spread of nuclear weapons to certain Middle Eastern and Asian countries. Fact ─ Many believe that allowing certain places to develop nuclear weapons would make it possible for terrorists to gain possession of them and use them against Western civilians.

Bosnia and Kosovo

As the Cold War was ending, the former Soviet satellite country of Yugoslavia broke up into separate countries. They included Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia. Kosovo, a mostly Muslim area of Serbia, also declared independence. Unlike the others, major countries did not recognize Kosovo independence at first. The republics differed in their views on democratization. They had a long history of tensions arising from ethnicity and religion. The major ethnic groups were Serbs (Orthodox Christians), Croats (Catholic), and ethnic Albanians (Muslim). Serbian Slobodan Milosevic, former leader of Yugoslavia and then Serbia, invaded to recapture areas with Serbian residents. The Serbian military practiced "ethnic cleansing," essentially the genocide of non-Serbs where they invaded. In Bosnia between 1992 and 1995, hundreds of thousands of ethnic Albanian Muslims, including children, lost life or livelihood. They were killed, raped, placed in concentration camps, or forced to flee their homes. President Bill Clinton, having promised to stop the ethnic cleansing, called for a NATO bombing campaign against the Serbs in 1995. By the time a peace was settled, over 200,000 Muslims were dead and over two million were refugees. In 1998, NATO returned to the region. Milosevic had launched a wave of attacks against the now-militant Kosovo region. In 1999, bombing once again forced a Serbian retreat. The United Nations established itself as an oversight and protective governing authority for Kosovo with peacekeeping forces.

Tiananmen Square

During the 1980s, China and the United States pursued the "normalizing" of relations agreed upon in the previous decade. Each country established an embassy in the other, and high-level leaders made visits. Cooperative research in various fields flourished. This growing relationship suffered a terrible setback in June 1989. Student protestors had been occupying Tiananmen Square in the capital city of Beijing. They wanted their government to make democratic reforms. Their actions inspired similar protests in other major cities. In early June, the government sent troops in military tanks to drive off the people. The Chinese army fired on the unarmed students, killing hundreds. A heavy crackdown on any resistance followed. President Bush condemned China's actions as an epic human rights violation. He reduced contact and called for reduced funding for investments in the country. However, he did not cancel trade agreements or completely cut off diplomatic ties. Many Chinese fled the country in fear of further repression. Some started new lives in more democratic countries like the United States. China has continued to refuse an investigation into the Tiananmen Square protest and denies any wrongdoing. It would begin to repair relations with the United States in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks.

How Did the U.S. Government Respond to Foreign Terrorist Attacks?

Early investigations identified Osama bin Laden as the suspected leader behind the 9/11 attacks. He denied involvement at first, but admitted responsibility a few years later. Americans and their allies around the world wanted justice. The members of NATO declared the attack as an offense against all members. Most pledged support to the United States. Many of the people responsible for the attack and their supporters were hiding in or were in control of Afghanistan. The Taliban, an extremist Muslim group, had taken control of Afghanistan through civil war following the withdrawal of the Soviets in 1989. Taliban rule included very strict interpretations of the Muslim holy book, the Qur'an. It led to oppression of the people, especially women. The Taliban provided a "safe haven" for Al-Qaeda operatives while it controlled the country from 1996-2001. The United States, with the help of some allies, invaded Afghanistan and removed the Taliban from power. The United Nations later sent peacekeepers to help secure the capital city. In 2003, the U.S. military invaded Iraq and removed dictator Saddam Hussein from power. U.S. officials long suspected Hussein of supporting terrorist organizations. He had used biological weapons against minority Iraqi citizens known as Kurds. They also worried about the possibility Hussein was seeking or developing "weapons of mass destruction (WMD)." Nuclear weapons fall into this category given their ability to kill thousands or millions at once. No direct WMD evidence was found in Iraq, but concern over Middle Eastern and some Asian countries possessing WMDs continued to grow. Some terrorist groups and even some governments openly expressed hatred towards the United States, including Hussein-led Iraq. Many feared that extremists with no fear of their own deaths would not hesitate to use nuclear weapons against civilians if they could obtain them. The U.S. military and government leaders worked to restore peace in Iraq following the 2003 invasion. Hussein was captured, tried, and executed by the Iraqi government for the murder of Iraqis when he was in power. The fall of Hussein threatened to lead the country into civil war as the two main Muslim groups competed for power. However, American support for the occupation of Iraq declined as the years passed. Frustration mounted as U.S. fatalities continued to rise. The public criticized the government for invading without clear evidence of an Iraq connection to 9/11 or proof of WMDs. Some also said there was not a clear plan for ending the occupation. President Barack Obama ordered remaining troops home at the end of 2011. U.S. government personnel and representatives of some American businesses remain in Iraq to continue diplomacy, human rights, and rebuilding efforts. Work in Afghanistan also continues over 10 years later. The country's geography and people upset by the U.S. invasion created difficult challenges. U.S. forces found and killed Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011. In 2012, President Obama announced plans for a gradual withdrawal of U.S. forces in Afghanistan. The Afghani people have made strides toward democratization. The world continues to watch the progress made in the Middle East.

Is There Hope?

Fighting terrorism and advancing human rights are difficult goals, especially when the perpetrators work in complete secrecy. The United States, though, continues its commitment to preventing attacks and protecting human rights. It is a member of several international organizations working toward these goals, such as the United Nations and NATO. While such diplomatic efforts begun after World War II have not prevented war, they have managed to bring peace to conflicts around the world. In the United States, the START project through the Department of Homeland Security trains military and law enforcement at the local and state level in terrorism and prevention. As mentioned, this department and the U.S. PATRIOT Act have increased security overall, and many foreign plots have been thwarted since their inception. Communities have evaluated their own security risks and created emergency plans. Ultimately, the best defense against terrorism is found in salvation through faith in Jesus Christ and a determination to live the golden rule to love our neighbor as ourself. Satan has been able to use terrorism and its associated fear, violence, and intimidation to scare, weaken, and discourage freedoms. II Corinthians 3:12 says, "Since we have such a hope, we are very bold." A Christian's boldness comes from the fact that through Christ, Christians are alive in life and in death. Paul said in Philippians 1:20-24, "that with fullcourage now as always Christwill be honored in my body,whether by life or by death. For to meto live is Christ, and to die is gain. If I am to live in the flesh, that means fruitful labor for me. Yet which I shall choose I cannot tell. I am hard pressed between the two. My desire is to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better. But to remain in the flesh is more necessary on your account." How people live their everyday lives can also have a powerful influence on others. Many American cities have neighborhood watch programs to prevent crime and violence. People can show understanding of those who are different rather than jumping to stereotypical conclusions. They can confront bullies and prevent themselves from resorting to bully behavior. Those who donate to a charity should always investigate the group and its use of funds. Above all, people who witness suspicious behavior are encouraged to report it to authorities. While one person can cause a lot of damage, just one person can also make a positive difference.

Did you know?

In 1988, Osama bin Laden formed Al-Qaeda with Arabs who had fought the Soviet invasion and occupation of Afghanistan that began in 1979. The group's goal is an Islamic government that unites Muslim people across parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. To achieve this goal, the group encourages violence against Americans and American allies, including an end to Israel. Al-Qaeda is an Islamic extremist group, interpreting Muslim ideas in a violent way. For example, the Muslim word jihad refers to the duty of Muslims to advance Islam and rid their society of evil. Al-Qaeda and its associated groups say that it is the religious duty, or jihad, of Muslims to kill American civilians and military as part of this effort. The USS Cole attack and other evidence led some media to speculate on possible links between Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, and Saddam Hussein of Iraq.

What Attacks Affected the United States?

New York City, New York: A truck bomb was detonated in the parking structure below the North Tower of the World Trade Center on February 26, 1993. The explosion killed six people and injured more than 1,000 others. Six Islamic fundamentalists were convicted of the bombing. The goal of the attack was to cause the North Tower to fall into the South Tower, destroying both. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: On April 19, 1995, Timothy McVeigh parked a truck loaded with explosives next to a federal building in Oklahoma City. The explosion collapsed half the Alfred P. Murrah building and took the lives of nearly 3,000 people inside, 19 of whom were children under age six. After he was caught, McVeigh expressed regret, but not for the deaths of children. He described them as "collateral damage." Rather, he was disappointed he did not destroy the whole building. His act was a protest against the federal government. Terry Nichols helped him plan the bombing, but McVeigh carried out the act itself. McVeigh was convicted and executed in 2001. Nichols is serving life in prison. Littleton, Colorado: On April 20, 1999, the deadliest high school shooting in U.S. history happened at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado. Dylan Klebold and Eric Harris, both seniors, planned an attack for more than a year, hoping to outdo the Oklahoma City bombing. Their shooting spree killed 13 students and a teacher before they committed suicide. About two dozen others suffered injuries either directly or indirectly from the attack. Klebold and Harris had also attempted to build and plant bombs at the school, which did not detonate or result in injuries. Media coverage of the attacks presented a variety of motivations for the shootings, ranging from bullying and a supposed "trench coat mafia" to violent video games. Eventually evidence showed Klebold and Harris to be highly intelligent students who both suffered from mental issues. Contrary to myth, they did not target any particular group of people. Journals revealed that Klebold was a very depressed individual and Harris had contempt for everyone and everything. The key factor in the shooting however, whatever their motivation, was access to guns. Those who had provided the teens access were prosecuted, and debates were renewed over gun control and school safety and security. The event led to the "zero tolerance policies," automatic punishment for people on school campuses possessing drugs or weapons. Aden, Yemen: The U.S. Naval ship USS Cole arrived in port at Aden, Yemen, to refuel in October 2000. While docked, a small boat pulled up alongside the ship and exploded, tearing a large hole in the USS Cole. People associated with Al-Qaeda were responsible for the attack that killed 17 people and injured 39 others. New York City: On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda members hijacked four commercial airplanes and intentionally crashed two into New York City's World Trade Center towers. Another crashed into the Pentagon in Virginia. The fourth crashed in a Pennsylvania field, seemingly the result of passengers fighting back. Speculation is that the fourth plane may have targeted the White House or Capitol Hill. It was the deadliest terrorist attack on U.S. soil, taking the lives of nearly 3,000 people. The number of fatalities included not just those on the planes, but also office workers in the buildings and hundreds of rescue workers. The victims were diverse, representing 91 countries. The World Trade Center is a complex of commercial buildings housing the offices of many large corporations. The Twin Towers were the centerpiece of the complex and the tallest buildings in New York City. Damage from the crashes and fires caused the towers to collapse. The Pentagon building in Arlington, Virginia is the headquarters for the U.S. military. It sustained serious damage but was later rebuilt. The United States suffered comparable losses in the Pearl Harbor attack of 1941. Yet several features of 9/11 distinguish this attack as one of terrorism. First, it was not state-sponsored, where Pearl Harbor was clearly Japan's attack. Japan's goal was to destroy U.S. military capability. Al-Qaeda's goal was to destroy symbols of American prosperity and military strength, spreading fear and hurting the U.S.'s position in the world. Third, the enemy was unclear. After Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war on Japan, entering World War II. After 9/11, the United States declared a "War on Terror," a broad initiative that would not always be able to clearly define the enemy. Princeton, NJ: Not long after the 9/11 attacks, a new threat emerged. Letters laced with the bacteria causing the disease anthrax began to appear in the U.S. mail, infecting 22 people, five of whom died. The person or people responsible mailed the letters from Princeton, New Jersey to media companies and two senators. All contained a similar handwritten threat, warning the reader to take antibiotics and proclaiming "Death to America, Death to Israel." The FBI launched an intense investigation spanning eight years. As it prepared to press charges against a Fort Detrick, Maryland biologist, the man took his own life. The FBI blamed Dr. Bruce Ivens as the sole perpetrator of the attacks. However, some are not satisfied with that explanation, as the evidence was circumstantial.

Did You Know?

Part of the fear that Hussein would try to use WMDs against Americans originated in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Led by Hussein, Iraq invaded Kuwait in an attempt to gain access to the Persian Gulf and rich oil sources. Hussein was also angry about overproduction of oil in Kuwait, which had dropped prices. In January 1991, the United States with support from Saudi Arabia and other allies intervened to maintain Kuwaiti independence and prevent further Iraqi imperialism. "Operation Desert Storm" was short and swift though retreating Iraqis set fires to Kuwaiti oil wells that burned for months. While Saddam Hussein remained in power after the war, he had specific mandates from the international community regarding weapons. Concerns arose in the later 1990s that he was not complying with those mandates and had planned a new invasion. The UN, which had called for economic sanctions against Iraq following the first invasion of Kuwait, encouraged member nations to continue to economically isolate Iraq. Strong condemnation from President Clinton and around the world eventually caused Hussein to back down. The U.S. continued sanctions against Iraq into the early-2000s and also maintained a significant military force in the region.

How Has Terrorism Defined the Modern Era?

Planes headed for New York City are hijacked by extremist Muslims in September, taking passengers hostage. Is it 2001? No. This statement is in reference to the 1970 hijackings of five jet airplanes by a member group of the Palestinian Liberation Organization, or PLO. Until 1991, the United States considered the PLO a terrorist organization. It includes many smaller groups sympathetic to Palestinian independence and committed to violent acts to achieve their ends. Hijackers took control of four separate planes on September 6, 1970. One of the hijackers claimed the purpose was to obtain the release of "political prisoners" in Israel, a tactic that had worked in a few hijackings in the previous few years. Israel refused to release prisoners, but other countries did negotiate a few releases of their own. The Dawson's Field crisis centered American attention on activity that would soon come to be called terrorism. The ongoing conflict between Israelis and Palestinians was now affecting American civilians. Security at airports and on airplanes was increased. The attention and regulation did not end terrorism, yet high-profile deadly attacks such as September 11, 2001 would dramatically reshape U.S. foreign policy. It altered Americans' perception of their own security at home and around the world.

How Do You Define Terrorism?

Since September 11, 2001, many Americans and Europeans share a stereotype of what constitutes a terrorist act. They imagine a violent act on innocents by a young Muslim extremist. However, while groups of Muslim extremists have been responsible for attacks against the United States and allies, many more are not. A simple definition for terrorism might be "violence or the threat of violence carried out for political reasons." Yet this definition is too broad. Defined this way, almost any violent act whether war or common crime could fall under the definition of terrorism. It would undermine a purpose for the term.

How Does Terrorism Affect Human Rights?

Terrorism is an affront to the basic human rights and dignity of the immediate victims as well as society. It denies the worth of individual human life, even among some attackers. It destroys life even when the body is unharmed. Families separate and evacuate, never to reunite. Trauma leaves deep psychological wounds. Survivors of the 9/11 attacks for example lost friends and family, perhaps their job as offices ceased to exist. They have to live with the memories of what they witnessed. Those memories included plane crashes, building collapse, frantic phone calls and texts, heat, and smoke. Terrorist and state-sponsored activities have led to human rights violations around the world. The abuses include crises other than direct physical attack. Examples include forced migrations, political imprisonment, and compulsory military service for rebel groups. Preventing these attacks and aiding the victims is a focus of many international organizations such as the United Nations. The United States continues to work with South Korea to resist pressure from its Communist neighbor. In recent years, North Korea has been a focus of human rights concerns. The people suffer oppression and a very low standard of living. The United States in particular is concerned about the country's development of nuclear weapons, which could be used against South Korea or the west coast of the United States.

Methods

The FBI reports that between 1980 and 2005 nearly 250 terrorist attacks occurred on U.S. territory. Most injured a few people or none at all but may have caused some property damage. Notable exceptions include a New York City car bombing in 1993 that injured over 1,000 people and a 1995 truck bombing that killed 168 people and injured 754 others in Oklahoma City. Another bomb at the 1996 site of the Olympic Games in Atlanta injured over 100 people. The September 11, 2001 attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and injured about 12,000. Overall, the majority of attacks were bombings of various types or acts of arson that targeted buildings or other infrastructure. Some were shootings, vandalism, or theft. No matter how many were hurt or killed, every act broke laws and harmed people's well-being and sense of security. Not every act attains long-lasting news coverage, but for the victims and families the effects are real and devastating. The vast majority of terrorist acts in the United States in that 25-year span were domestic in origin. Usually the terrorists were individuals acting alone or members of fringe groups with extreme views. Most attacks targeted locations in major cities and were connected to religious views. In 1974, the first hijacking happened where the perpetrator died in the attack. It was the first known "suicide bombing" of an Arab against Americans. Terrorists who use this tactic seem to have no fear of the consequences of their actions. In fact, extremist Muslims may view themselves as heroes or martyrs for dying for their cause in fulfillment of jihad. This was a key idea of the Muslim extremists who commited the 9/11 attacks in New York City.

Rwanda

The country of Rwanda gained independence from Belgium in 1962. For years, two main groups of people in Rwanda competed for power. The Hutu and Tutsi peoples distrusted and feared each other. The Hutus took control of the new government and fought a bloody civil war with the Tutsis from 1990 to 1993. When a peace agreement was signed, people from other countries, including UN workers, were leaving Rwanda. Many in Rwanda did not support the peace treaty. In April 1994, the Hutu president died when his plane was shot down. The Hutus planned genocide against the Tutsis. Between 500,000 and one million Tutsis died in violent attacks in only 100 days. Hundreds of thousands fled the violence, many organized into refugee camps with horrific living conditions. Some UN peacekeepers were in Rwanda but were powerless to stop the violence. Information about the bloodshed was slow to reach world leaders. Even then, many were reluctant to act. President Bill Clinton is one who did not act and regrets the decision. Today, the UN assists the survivors and teaches people about Rwanda to prevent such horror in the future.

Origins of Terrorism

U.S. federal law defines terrorism as "the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives." That's quite a complex statement, so let's examine it in parts. Terrorism is an act that: -violates laws -uses force or violence to create fear -intends to force a group of people or a government to behave in a way that meets a political, social, economic, or religious goal The U.S. government further classifies terrorism as either "foreign" or "domestic" in origin. A U.S. citizen who attacks U.S. soil is a "domestic terrorist." The leaders and organizations behind 9/11 for example were "foreign terrorists" because their citizenship lay elsewhere. International terrorists typically cross several national boundaries in their planning, goals, and actions. For example, a group might meet and buy weapons in one country for an attack in another, and hope to gain a reaction from multiple countries. Foreign terrorists break laws in all their places of activity, in addition to international laws. The line between these terms can become blurry. One domestic terrorist may be a citizen elsewhere but has been living longest in the United States. Another may have no citizenship, running from country to country looking for safe harbor from justice, sometimes finding it from a legitimate government. Osama bin Laden, terrorist leader and supporter of 9/11, was one of these "stateless" people. He found refuge in countries like Afghanistan and Pakistan. Many countries work with the United States and each other to prevent terrorism. However, these relationships are complicated for many reasons. Some of these reasons are: -Suspected terrorists may be citizens of the countries the U.S. is working with. Therefore, leaders from these countries may be reluctant to hand over their own citizens. -The countries may not support the U.S. legal process. -The countries might agree with the terror group's basic views, despite not supporting the group's methods. -These countries may be supporting the terrorists, whether knowingly or unknowingly. This last point has been an issue within the United States. Americans wishing to help suffering people may have unknowingly donated money to corrupt groups. Some are actually a front, or false identity, for groups that fund and support terrorist activity. Some groups have even operated with U.S. addresses and paid taxes to the U.S. government. For this reason, all people are encouraged to research any organization before donating money or otherwise providing support.

How Did the United States Change in Response to Terrorism?

While the United States fought terror abroad, security inside the country increased as well. Less than a month after 9/11, Congress passed the USA PATRIOT Act. President Bush signed it into law. It expanded the powers of the federal government to prevent terror attacks from within as well as from outside the country. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was also created to oversee terror monitoring and prevention within the country. Terror suspects had limits to civil rights and procedures that differed from typical criminal processes. Congress has changed many parts of the USA PATRIOT Act and the DHS since its initial passage. Language in the new laws protected rights for Arab and Muslim Americans who bore no relation to terrorism. However, fear and prejudice increased. New debates over civil rights emerged as Muslim Americans claimed unlawful discrimination. Complaints were about everything from driver's license rules to airport security procedures. The law also declared the U.S. had the right to deny entry to any immigrant having ties to terrorism, whether directly as a group representative or indirectly by citizenship. Calls to secure the borders increased. Officials could collect information from colleges on non-citizen students. The DHS also created a color-coded warning system to let the public know about the threat of terrorism. The DHS replaced this system in 2011 with the National Terrorism Advisory System. Many of the changes would soon become points of public controversy. The greatest concern was citizen privacy. In 2011, President Obama signed an extension of certain parts of the USA PATRIOT Act that affected civil liberties. Changes placed limits on public monitoring and surveillance. The DHS reorganized and in 2012 was responsible not only for counterterrorism, but also for immigration, cyber security, and responses to natural disasters. Amid the debate and changes, Americans had more unity than in previous decades. Their sense of pride and purpose in the face of new threats brought them together.

jihad:

an Islamic term meaning struggle; refers to a religious duty; also a holy war to defend Muslim beliefs