Abnormal Psychology Exam 2

Describe how the opiods work. Describe three symptoms of use and three withdrawal symptoms

Narcotics are strongly addictive drugs that have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties. They product a rush, or intense feelings of pleasure. They also dull awareness of one's personal problems. Their pleasurable effects derive from their ability to directly stimulate the brain's pleasure circuits. Three withdrawal effects are high blood pressure, tremors, and insomnia. Rarely results in death.

Describe three physical effects of nicotine and three withdrawal symptoms

Nicotine increases alertness but can also give rise to cold, clammy skin, nausea and vomiting, and dizziness and faintness. Nicotine quells the appetite and provides a psychological "kick," Nicotine also leads to the release of endorphins. Withdrawal symptoms include a wide range of features such as lack of energy, depressed mood, irritability, frustration, nervousness, impaired concentration, lightheadedness, and dizziness.

Describe SAD. Give three symptoms

Seasonal Affective Disorder is a mood disorder characterized by changing moods with the seasons in late fall. Three symptoms of SAD are fatigue, irritability, and weight gain.

All-or-Nothing Thinking

Seeing events as either all good or all bad, or as either black or white with no shades of gray. Example: one may view a test as a total failure because of one wrong answer

Explain the concept of set point, including the two mechanism involved

Set point is a control system in the brain what works to control people's weight to be within 10% of a mid point (It may or may not be what they want it to be) weight. The two mechanism employed by the control are appetite/hunger and metabolism. If people's weight falls over 10% below the mid point their hypothalamus makes the person feel hungry and want to eat and slows down the metabolism. If their weight gets over 10% above the mid point the hypothalamus will trigger the metabolism better metabolize food, and appetite will increase.

Describe three health risks associated with smoking

Smoking is recognized as the leading health risk in the United States and caused more premature deaths than any other cases, shaving about 10 years off the lifespan of the average smoker. Smoking claims the lives of nearly 450,000 Americans annually, mostly from lung cancer, heart disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Define substance use disorder

Substance use disorders are patterns of maladaptive use of psychoactive substances that lead to significant levels of impaired functioning or personal distress

Define substance withdrawal and tolerance. Give an example of three withdrawal symptoms from a specific drug

Substance withdrawal is a substance induced disorder involving a cluster of symptoms that occur when a person abruptly stops using a particular substance following a period of prolonged and heavy use of the substance. Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal include: sweating, tremors of the hand, insomnia. Tolerance is a state of physical habituation to a drug, resulting from frequent use, such that higher doses are needed to achieve the same effect.

Describe Interaction Theory's explanation of depression

The Interaction Theory states that depression is caused by problems in interpersonal relationships. Interaction Theory is based on concept of reciprocal interaction where our feelings for one another are based on the other's feelings of us. People who are depression prone require reassurance, support and this requirement angers people as well as elicits feelings of rejection which causes people to require more support.

What is the Cognitive-Specificity Hypothesis? Give examples of each cateogry

The cognitive-specificity hypothesis proposes that different disorders are characterized by different types of automatic thoughts. Common automatic thoughts associated with depression are "I'm worthless" and "I'm not worthy of other people's attention or affection." Common automatic thoughts associated with anxiety are "What if I get sick and become invalid?" and "I am going to injured."

Name four criteria of substance abuse or use disorder

The four criteria for substance abuse disorders are 1) using excessive amount of a substance beyond that the person intends, 2) developing tolerance or withdrawal syndrome associated with alcohol use, 3) having strong, persistent urges or cravings for alcohol, 4) interfering with job, schoolwork or parenting

Emotional Reasoning

Basing reasoning on emotions. Example: "If I feel guilty I must've said something really offensive."

Overgeneralization

Believing that if a negative event occurs, it is likely to occur again in similar situations in the future. Example: if one boyfriend breaks up with a girl, she believes she will never have a lasting relationship

Labeling and mislabeling:

Explaining behavior by attaching negative labels to oneself and others. Example: Runner labels himself as "weak" and "slow" because of one lackluster performance at a race

Explain the three ways that exposure and response prevention extinguishes OCD

Exposure and response prevention is a cognitive behavior treatment that exposes the person to fear gradually. First, the person learns to tolerate some anxiety. Then extinction through operant conditioning occurs; presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Then anxiety decreases after a while

Describe Bulimia Nervosa and four of its physical symptoms

Bulimia Nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of gorging on large quantities of food, binging is the consumption of thousands of calories in one sitting, followed by inappropriate ways of compensating for overeating to prevent weight gain, such as vomiting, laxatives, diuretics and enemas. People with Bulimia have feelings of lack of control over eating during binge eating episodes, excessive fear of gaining weight, excessive emphasis on body shape and body weight on self-image. Four physical symptoms include skin irritation around the mouth due to frequent vomiting, damage taste receptors, pancreatis, bloody diarrhea (with the use of laxatives), abdominal pain.

Describe the biological cause of anxiety disorders

People can be born with a genetic predisposition for anxiety disorders. People with a variation of a particular gene who are exposed to fearful stimuli show greater activation of the amygdala. An overactive amygdala induces excessive fear in mild situations or in response to environmental situations. Evolution favored animals with predispositions to a little anxiety as a way to save themselves. The fight versus flight (sympathetic nervous system) part of the brain ceases up causing people to be oversensitive. The amygdala begins over-firing putting the person into fight v. flight

If you were elected dictator what would you do to reduce America's obesity

To reduce American obesity I would levy a tax on unhealthy food industries. Driving up the price of the fatty options would make people less likely to eat them. In addition, I would subsidize the healthier options therefore reducing the price making healthy eating more affordable for many Americans. Furthermore, I would look into research making healthy options tastier giving it the allure of being better for someone.

Describe three symptoms of a panic attac

A panic attack is an intense anxiety reaction that is accompanied by physical symptoms such as pounding heart, difficulty breathing and heavy perspiration. A panic attack causes rapid increases in heart rate to the extent that the person experiencing the panic attack believes he is experiencing a heart attack. Difficulty breathing is caused by our minds racing in all directions causing our heart rate to increase and more breath being needed and tightening on the chest. Heavy perspiration is caused by our heart rate rapidly increasing, raising our body temperature

Define phobia, including three symptoms.

A phobia is an anxiety disorder; characterized by excessive irrational fear of an object, situation or an activity with avoidance. One symptoms is oversensitivity to threatening cues (danger in situations most consider safe); overestimation of danger (perceiving danger to be much more elevated than it warrants); self-defeating rituals and/or beliefs. For example, keeping oneself lock up instead of venturing out (agoraphobia) therefore withholding themselves from social interaction.

Use a specific example to explain how a phobia is caused, using the four classical conditioning terms, how it is maintained, using the operant conditioning term and how it can be cured, using classical conditioning terms

A specific phobia, arachnophobia, is casued by the conditioned stimulus of a spider with the unconditioned stimulus of a frightening situation, such as being attacked by the spider or a painful bite. Being attacked by the spider leaders to the fear of pain and injury (Unconditioned Response). This one instance means that the person formed an association of pain (UCS) and injruy with the spider (CS), so now the person has acquired the (conditioned response) fear of spiders. The phobia can be maintained through negative reinforcement. By killing the spider or having people remove the spider it helps remove one's discomfort. This reinforces the phobia becasue the person never faces his fair. The phobia is cured by introducing the person to a spider without being attacked. This is called extinction. It also helps to introduce him to the spider with a new unconditioned stimulus, a positive experience.

Define Substance induced disorders and substance intoxication

A substance induced disorder is a pattern of abnormal behavior due to using psychoactive substances. A substance intoxication is a substance induced disorder involving a pattern of repeated episodes of intoxication brought on by being high characterized by mental confusion, impaired judgment, slowed coordination and reaction caused by using a drug.

Describe Aaron Beck's theory of depression, including your own examples of the cognitive triad and each of the 10 cognitive distortions

Aaron Beck links the development of depression to the adoption early in life of a negatively biased or distorted way of thinking - the cognitive traid of depression. The cognitive triad includes negative beliefs about oneself ("I'm ugly"), the environment or the world at large ("Everyone in this country is selfish"), and the future ("I will never be successful in my career") All-or-nothing thinking, overgeneralization, mental filter, disqualifying the positive, jumping to conclusions, magnification and minimization, emotional reasoning, "should" statements, labeling and mislabeling, personalization

Define addiction

Addiction is a compulsive use of a drug accompanied by signs of a physical dependence. Addiction involves a loss of control over the use of a drug despite knowledge of the harmful consequences

"Should" Statements

Creating personal imperatives or self-commandments- "Should" and "musts" Example: "I should get an A on every test."

What is cyclothymic disorder? what is a hypomanic episode?

Cyclothymic disorder is a mood disorder characterized by mild cyclic mood swings from mild/moderate depression to hypomania that persist for years also it impairs daily functioning. It is not severe enough to be considered bipolar disorder. A hypomanic episode is similar to a manic episode however not as severe. It is a mid-high

Describe Dysthymia Give three examples

Dysthymia is a chronic, severe major depressive affective/mood disorder that last for at least two years. People with dysthymia might also have a chronic milder form of depression as well. Symptoms include: feeling "bad spirited," whiny, low self-esteem.

Mental Filter

Focusing only on negative details of events, thereby rejecting the positive features of one's experiences. Example: Goalie focuses on one goal he couldn't save rather than the seven he saved

Jumping to conclusions:

Forming a negative interpretation of events, despite a lack of evidence. Example: After a job interview, a woman assumes every new email is a rejection

Describe Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder. Give three symptoms

PMDD is a severe mood disorder, more severe form of PMS that is affected during a woman's premenstrual period. Three symptoms of PMDD are depressed mood or feelings of hopelessness, feelings of anxiety, and greater sensitivity to cues of rejection

Describe PPD. Give three symptoms

PPD is a mood disorder occuring within the first month of having a baby. Three symptoms are the inability to sleep. extreme worry or lacking interest, and saddness/extreme crying

Describe the three elements of the Cognitive Perspective on phobias

1) Oversensitivty to threatening cues: People with phobias tend to perceive danger in situations most people consider safe such as riding on elevators. Similarly, people with social anxiety tend to be overly sensitive to social cues of rejection or negative evaluation from others 2) Overprediction of danger: Phobic individuals tend to overpredict how much fear or anxiety they will experience in the fearful situation. Typically speaking, the actual fear or pain experienced in the fearful situation. Typically speaking, the actual fear or pain experienced during exposure to the phobic stimulus is a good deal less than what people expect. Yet the tendency to expect the worst encourages avoidance of feared situations, which in turn prevents the individual from learning to manage and overcome anxiety 3) Self-defeating thoughts and irrational beliefs: Self-defeating thoughts can heighten and perpetuate anxiety and phobic disorders. When faced with fear-evoking stimuli, the person may think, "I've got to get out of here." Thoughts like these intensify automatic arousal, disrupt planning, magnify the aversiveness of stimuli, prompt avoidance behavior, and decrease self-efficacy expectancies concerning a person's ability to control the situation. People with phobias also display more irrational beliefs of the type cataloged by Albert Ellis than do non fearful people. These irrational beliefs may involve exaggerated needs to be approved of by everyone they meet and to avoid any situation in which negative appraisal from others might arise.

Describe three effects and three withdrawal symptom of each of the following: amphetamines, ecstasy and cocaine

Amphetamines can cause of brain damage, producing deficits in learning and memory in addiction to other effects. Chronic use then an extreme crash is also associated with increased depression, aggressive behavior, and social isolation. Withdrawal symptoms include depression and fatigue, as well as by unpleasant, vivid dreams, insomnia, or hypersomnia Ecstasy can produce adverse psychological effects, including depression, anxiety, insomnia, and even paranoia and psychosis. The drug can casue brain damage that impairs cognitive performance on tasks involving attention, learning, and memory. Withdrawal symptoms include fatigue, a loss of appetite, trouble concentrating and depression Cocaine directly stimulates the brain's reward or pleasure circuits. It also produces a sudden rise in blood pleasure and an accelerated hear rate than can cause potentially dangerous, even fatal, irregular heart rhythms. Overdose can produce restlessness, insomnia, headaches, nausea, convulsions, tremors, hallucinations, delusions, and even sudden death due to respiratory or cardiovascular collapse. Increased irritability, increased appetite and agitation are withdrawal symptoms.

Describe Seligmen's Theory of the attributional style of people who are vulnerable to depression

An attributional style is a personal style of explanation. When disappointments or failures occur, we may explain them in various characteristics ways. We blame ourselves (an internal attribution), or we may blame the circumstances we face(an external attribution). We may see bad experiences as typical events (a stable attribution) or as isolated events (unstable attribution). We may see them as evidence of broader problems (a global attribution) or as evidence of precise and limited shortcomings (a specific attribution). the reformulated helplessness theory holds that people who explain the causes of negative events (such as failure in work, school, or romantic relationships) according to the following three types of attributions are most vulnerable to depression: 1) Internal factors, or beliefs that failure reflect their personal inadequacies, rather than external factors, or beliefs that failures are caused by environmental factors 2) Global factors, or beliefs that failures reflect sweeping flaws in personality rather than specific factors, or beliefs that failures reflect limited areas of functioning 3) Stable factors, or beliefs that failures reflect fixed personality factors rather than unstable factors, or beliefs that the factors leading to failures are unchangeable

Descibe Anorexia Nervosa, its subtypes, and four of its physical symptoms

Anorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by self-starvation, resulting in 1) abnormally low (15% or more below average) body weight for one's age, gender, height and physical health and developmental level. People with the disorder have 2. excessive fear of weight gain, 3. distorted body image characterizing onself as fat and failure to recognize the risk imposed, 4. Loss of 3 or more consecutive mentrual periods. One subtype of anorexia is a binge eating/purging type characterized by frequent episodes during the prior three month period of binge eating or purging. People with binge eating or purging tend to have problems with impulse control and alternate between binge-eating periods and rigid as well as they have a substance abuse problem. The other type is restrictive in which they do not have such episodes but control their diet and appearance obsessively. Four symptoms that can occur: cracking of the skin, downy hair, yellow discoloration of the skin, and weight loss of up to 35% of body fat

Describe the three categories of anxiety

Anxiety is a generalized state of apprehension or foreboding. Physical features that are affected by anxiety disorders is one of the categories of symptoms. Some symptoms included in the category are: jumpiness, trembling, heavy perspiration, light headedness, upset stomach or nausea. The next category of symptoms is behavioral factors, such as clinging or dependent and agitated behavior. The last category of symptoms is teh cognitive features which include: worry, nagging sense of dread or apprehension about the future, preoccupation with the body senses, fear or losing control, thinking things are getting out of hand

Personalization

Assuming that one is responsible for other people's problems. Example: A child blames himself for his parents' divorce

Summarize three points from the closer look

Binge drinking is quite prevalent on college campuses today. Binge drinking is classified as five or more drinks for men and four or more drinks for women. Binge drinking is associated with many problems including unexpected pregnancies/sexual activity, accidents, drug use, and lower grades. If a person is overdosed he needs medical attention and the signs of overdose are: nonresponsive when talked to or shouted at, nonresponsive to being pinched, shaken or poked, unable to stand up on his or her own, failure to wake up or gain consciousness, purplish color or clammy-feeling skin, rapid pulse rate or irregular heart rhythms, low blood pressure, or difficulty breathing

Describe Bipolar Disorder and a manic episode

Bipolar disorder is a mood siorder that is characterized by extreme sings of mood and changes from high mania to severe depression. Mood swings of someone bipolar are from high elation (mani) to severe depression. Manic episodes are periods of high elation that last normally from a few weeks to two months. The down phase of a manic episode is usually the moment when people attempt suicide. In a manic episode a person has heightened energy Bipolar Disorder 1 is characterized by at least one full manic episode. Bipolar II Disorder is characterized by at least one full blown depressive episode and a hypomanic episode (not quite a full one) Bipolar II people are able to work long hours with little sleep.

Define Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Give three symptoms

Body Dysmorphic disorder is an obsessive-compulsive disorder in which people are repoccupied with an imagine or exaggerated physical defect in their appearance, such as skin blemishes or wrinkling or swelling of the face. They may spend hours examining themselves in the mirror and go to extreme measures to correct the perceived defect, even unpleasant medical procedures. Some people with BBD removed all the mirrors from their homes so as not to be reminded of the "glaring flaw: of their appearance. People with BBD may believe that others view them as ugly or deformed and treat them negatively because of their physical flaws

Describe Depression. Name the four categories of symptoms and describe one category in each symptoms

Depression is an affective disorder characterized by low mood, motivation and troubles concentrating. The four categories of symptoms are: changes in emotional states, changes in motivation, changes in functioning and motor behavior and cognitive changse. One symptom of changes in emotional states is increased irritability, jumpiness, or loss of temper. A symptom in changes in motivation is reduced interest in sex. Partners no longer have the drive to have sex. Changes in appetite to the extremes, either making someone binge or extreme reduction in appetite, is an example of changes in functioning and motor behavior. Lastly, difficulty concentrating is an example of cognitive changes. People with depression find it hard to concentrate on things with the depressive thoughts looming in the back of their mind.

What is detoxification

Detoxification is the process of ridding the system of alcohol or other drugs under supervised conditions. Detoxification is often more safely carried out in a hospital setting. In the case of addiction to alcohol or barbiturates, hospitalization allows medical personnel to monitor and treat potentially dangerous withdrawal symptoms such as convulsions. Antianxiety drugs may help block severe withdrawal symptoms such as seizures and delirium tremens. Detoxification to alcohol takes about a week. Detoxification is an important step toward staying clean, but it is only a start. Approximately half o fall drug abusers relapse within a year of detoxification. Continuing support and structured therapy, such as behavioral counseling, plus possible use of therapeutic drugs, increase the chances of long-term success. A number of therapeutic drugs are used in treating people with chemical dependencies, and more chemical compounds are in the testing stages

Describe Compulsive Gambling

Gambling disorder is an addictive disorder characterized by a pattern of habitual gambling and impaired control over the behavior. Compulsive gambling can take many forms, from excessive wagering on horse races or in card games and casinos, to extravagant betting on sporting events, to chancy stock picks. Many compulsive gamblers seek treatment only during a financial or emotional crisis, such as bankruptcy or divorce. Compulsive or pathological gamblers often report they had experienced a big win, or a series of winnigns, early in their gambling careers. Eventually, however, their losses begin to mount, and they driven to bet with increasing desperation to reverse their luck and recoup thier losses. Losses sometimes begin with the first bet, and compulsive gamblers often become trapped in a negative spiral of betting yet more frequently to recover losses even as their losses and their debts multiply. At some point, most compulsive gamblers hit rock bottom, at state of despair characterized by loss of control over gambling, financial ruin, suicide attempts, and shattered family relationships. They may attempt to reduce their mounting losses by gambling more frequently, hoping for the one "big score" that will put them "into the black," They may sometimes be bouncing with energy and overconfidence and at other times feel anxious and filled with despair. Many compulsive gamblers suffer from low self=esteem and were rejected or abused as children by their parents. gambling may become a means of boosting their self=esteem by proving that they are winners. Far too often, however, winnings are elusive and losses amount. Losing only strengthens their negative self=images which can lead to depression and even suicide.

Define Generalized Anxiety Disorder, including four symptoms

Generalized Anxiety Disorder is an anxiety disorder, characterized by excessive anxiety and worry that is not limited to any one object, situation, or anxiety. Physical symptoms include irritability, restlessness, jumpiness, and muscle tension.

Define hoarding disorder and give three symptoms

Hoarding disorder is an obsessive compulsive disorder by the accumulation of and need to retain stacks of unnecessary ad seemingly useless posessions, causing personal distress or making it difficult to maintain a safe, habitable living space. The disorder can have a range of harmful effects including difficulty using the living space and conflicts with needs of family members and others. The person may feel a sense of security accumulating and retaining otherwise useless or unneccesasry stuff. The person may fail to recognize that the hoarding behavior is a problem, despite the obvious evidence.

Describe insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, obstructive sleep and circadian rhythm sleep disorder. Give three physuical symptoms for each one

Insomnia disorder is a sleep-wake disorder characterized by chronic or persistent inability to sleep not caused by another psychological or physical disorder or by the effects of drugs or medications. A diagnosis of insomnia disorder requires that the problem has been present for at least three months and that it occurs at least three nights per week. People with insomnia disorder complain about the amount or quality of their sleep, or waking up very early in the morning and being unable to get back to sleep. They have persistent difficulty falling asleep, remaining asleep, achieving restorative sleep, or waking up very early in the morning and being unable to get back to sleep. The disorder is accompanied by significant personal distress or impaired functioning in metting daily responsibilities- complaints such as regularly feeling fatigued, feeling sleepy, or having low energy; having difficulty with memory or paying attention at school or work; and feeling down. Hypersomnia disorder, which is sometimes referred to as "sleep drunkenness," is a pattern of excessive sleepiness during daytime hours occurring at least three days a week for a period of at least three months, People with hypersomnia disorder may sleep nine or more hours a night but still not feel refreshed upon awakening. They may have repeated episodes during the day of feeling an irresistible need to sleep, or napping repeatedly or falling asleep when they need to remain awake, or inadvertently dozing off while watching TV. The daytime naps often last an hour or more, but the sleep does not leave the person feeling refreshed. Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by sudden, irresistible episodes of sleep. People with narcolepsy experience an irresitible need to sleep or sudden sleep attacks or naps occurring at least three times a week for the past three months. During a sleep attack, the person suddenly falsl asleep without warning and remains asleep for about 15 minutes. Narcolepsy is often associated with cataplexy, a medical condition in which a person experiences a loss of muscle tone ranging from mild weakness in the legs to complete loss of muscle control, causing the person to collapse. People with narcolepsy may also experience sleep paralysis, a temporary state following awakening in which they feel incapable of moving or talking. They may also report hypnagogic hallucinations, which are often frightening hallucinations occuring just before the onset of sleep or shortly upon awakening. Obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome is a subtype of breathing-related sleep disorders, more commonly called obstructive sleep apnea. It typically involves repeated episodes during sleep of snorting or gasping for breath, pauses of breath, or abnormally shallow breathing. it is generally accompanied by loud snoring. The disorder also leads to excessive daytime sleepiness, fatigue, or complaints of unrefreshing sleep despite the opportunity to obtain sufficient sleep. Circadian Rhythm sleep-wake disorders are sleep-wake disorders characterized by a mismatch the body's normal sleep-wake cycle and the demands of the environment. The disruption in normal sleep patterns can lead to insomnia or hypersomnia and result in daytime sleepiness. The disorder causes significant levels of distress or impairs the person's ability to function in social, occupational, or other roles.

Define OCD, including what obsessions and compulsions are. Give three examples.

OCD is an anxiety disorder in which people are troubled by recurrent obsessions or compulsions or both, that are time-consuming, such as lasting more than an hour a day, or causing significant distress or interference with a person's normal routines occupational or social functioning. An obsession is a recurrent, persistent, and unwanted thought, urge, or mental image that seems beyond the person's ability to control. Three examples are thinking that one's hands remain dirty despite repeated washing; repeatedly thinking that one has left the door unlock; repeatedly thinking that one has kept the gas jets on in the house. A compulsion is a repetitive behavior or mental act that the person feels compelled or driven to perform. Examples are hand washing, checking door locks, praying, repeating certain words, and counting

Describe two diseases that result from heavy drinking

One disease that results from heavy drinking is cirrhosis of the liver. A protein deficiency is the result of the liver disease and is often the result of being malnourished. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is the result of drinking alcohol while prengant. FAS puts the life of the fetus at risk of birth defects, death, central nervous system dysfunctions, and academic problems

Describe REM Sleep Behavior Disorder and Nightmare Disorder

RBD involves repeated episodes of acting out one's dreams during REM sleep in the form of vocalizing parts of the dream or thrashing about. Normally, muscle activity is blocked during REM sleep to a point that the body's muscles, except those needed for breathing and other vital bodily functions, are essentially paralyzed. This is fortunate, since the muscle paralysis prevents injuries that might occur if the dreamer suddenly acts out the dream. But in cases of REM sleep behavior disorder, muscle paralysis is absent or incomplete and the person may suddenly kick or flail the arms during REM sleep, potentially causing injuries to the self or to the bed partner People with nightmare disorder have recurrent episodes of very distrubing and well-rembered nightmares during REM sleep. These nightmares are lengthy store like dreams in which the dreamer attempts to avoid imminent threats or physical danger, such as in the case of being chased, attacked, or injured. The person usually recalls the nightmare vividly upon awakening. Although fear is the most common emotional effect, the disturbing dreams may occasion other negative reactions such as anger, sadness, frustration, guilt, disgust, or confusion. The dreamer may suddenly awaken during the nightmare, but have trouble getting back to sleep because of lingering feelings of fear resulting from the terrifying dream. These nightmarish dreams or the disruption of sleep they cause lead to significant personal distress or interfere with important areas of daily functioning

What are some reasons people commit suicide

Some people suffering from intractable pain or terminal illness may seek to escape further suffering by taking their own lives. These suicides are sometimes labeled "rational suicides" in the belief that they are based on rational decision that life is no longer worth living in light of continual suffering. Suicide attempts often occur in response to highly ressful life events, such as the death of a spouse, close friend, or relatvie; divorce or separation; a family member's leaving home, or the loss of a close friend. Unemployment is also linked to higher risks of suicide. People may also seek revenge or sympathy

Describe what you think are the two best treatments for insomnia

Stimulus control invovles changing the environment associated with sleeping. We normally assocaite the bed and bedroom with sleep, so that exposure to these stimuli induces feelings of sleepiness. But when people use thier beds for many other activities, the bed loses its assocaition with sleepiness. Moreover, the longer the person with insomnia lies in bed tossing and turning and worrying about not sleeping, the more the bed becomes a conditioned stimulus for anxiety and frustration. Stimulus control techniques strengthen the connection between the bed and sleep by restricting as much as possible the activities in bed to sleeping. The bed should be reserved for sleep to establish healthier sleep habits. Typically, the person is instructed not to s[end more than 109-20 minutes in bed trying to fall asleep. If sleep does not occur during this time, the person should leave the bed and go to another room to regain a relaxed frame of mind before returning to be- for example, by sitting quitely or reading, or practicing relaxation exercises. Cognitive behavioral therapist help clients program their bodies by establishing a consistent sleep-wake cycle. This involves going to bed and waking up at about the same time each day, including weekends and holidays. Relaxation techniques used before bedtime help reduce states of physiological arousal to a level conducive to sleep. Rational restructuring involves substituting rational alternatives for self-defeating, maladaptive thoughts or beliefs. The belief that failing to get a good night's sleep will lead to unfortunate, even disastrous, consequences the next day reduces the chances of falling asleep because it raises the level of anxiety. Most of us function reasonably well if we lose sleep or even miss a night of sleep. CBT has become the treatment of choice of insomnia. CBT yields substantial therapeutic benefits, as measured by reductions in the time it takes to get to sleep and by improved sleep quality. After all, taking a pill does not help prople with insomnia learn more adaptive sleep habits. Sleep medication may product faster resutls, but behavioral treatment tends to produce longer-lasting results.

Describe the effects of two hallucinogens

The effects of PCP are dose related. in addition to causing hallucinations, PCP accelerates the heart rate and blood pressure and causes sweating, flushing, and numbness. PCP is classified as a deliriant - a drug capable of producing states of delirium. It also has dissociating effects, causing users to feel as if there is some sort of invisible barrier between them and their environment. Dissociation can be experiences as pleasant, engrossing, or frightening, depending on the user's expectations, mood, setting, and so on. Overdoses can give rise to drowsiness and a blank stare, convulsions and now and then, coma; paranoia and aggressive behavior; and tragic accidents resulting from perceptual distortion or impaired judgment during states of intoxication. Some users have unpleasant experiences with the drug, or "bad trips." Feeling of intense panic or fear may occur. Users may fear losing control or sanity. Some experience terrifying fears of death. Fatal accidents have sometimes occured during LSD trips. Flashbacks, typically involving a reexperiencing off some of the perceptual distortions of the "trip," may occur days, weeks, or even years afterward. Flashbacks tend to occur suddenly and often without warning.

Describe Segliman's theory of learned helplessness. What causes it and what is the results

The learned helplessess model proposes that people may become depressed because they learn to view themselves as helpless to change their lives for the better. Seligman proposed that some forms of depression in humans might result from exposure to apparently uncontrollable situations. Such experiences can instill the expectation that future outcomes are beyond one's ability to control. A cruel vicious cycle may come into play in cases of depression. A few failure may produce feelings of helplessness and expectations of further failure. Segliman's theory of learned helplessness is caused by inescapable, unavoiadable, unpredictable punishment. Segliman's Theory results in apathy and depression.

Which theory of the cause of depression makes the most sense to you and why?

The learned helplessness model makes the most sense because it proposes that people may become depressed because they learn to view themselves as helpless to change their lives for the better. People learn to view themselves as helpless to change their lives for the better. People learn to perceive themselves as helpless because of their experiences. The learned helplessness model therefore straddles the behavioral and the cognitive: Situational factors foster attitudes that lead to depression.

Explain the five causes that Learning Theory gives for depression

The learning theory states that depression has five causes. The over-arching theme of learning theory is the lack of positive reinforcement for individuals. First, depression is caused by a traumatic event, such as the death of someone, loss of employment or retirement. Second, depression can be caused by disability or illness. Third, depression according to the learning theory is caused by not enough reinforcement to compensate for the effort placed. Fourth, depression is caused by secondary gain because people receive both positive and negative reinforcement. Finally, depression is caused by social withdrawal

Which treatment for substance abuse makes the most sense to you and why?

The psychodynamic approach makes the most sense to me. Psychoanalysts view alcohol and drug problems as symptoms of conflicts rooted in childhood experiences. The therapist attempts to resolve the underlying conflicts, assuming that abusive behavior will then subside as the client seeks more mature forms of gratification. Although there are many successful psychodynamic case studies of people with substance use problems, there is a dearth of controlled and replicable research studies. The effectiveness of psychodynamic methods for treating alcohol and drug[related problems thus remains unsubstantiated

Which theory of the causes of the substance abuse makes the most sense to you and why?

The sociocultural perspective makes the most sense. Drinking is determined, in part, by where we live, whom we worship with, and the social or cultural norms that regulate our behavior. Cultural attitudes can encourage or discourage problem drinking. Church attendance, for example, is generally connected with abstinence from alcohol. Perhaps people who are more willing to engage in culturally sanctioned prohibitions against excessive drinking. Peer pressure and exposure to a drug subculture are important influences in determining substance use among adolescents and young adults. Children who start drinking before age 15 stand a five-fold higher risk of developing alcohol dependence in adulthood as compared with those who began drinking at a later age.

Magnification and minimization

The tendency to make mountains out of molehills. Example: An author cries when she reads one negative review of her book

Disqualifying the positive

The tendency to snatch defeat from the jaws of victory by neutralizing or denying one's accomplishments. Example: A girl receives a good grade on a test but insist it was an easy test and that anyone could've gotten an A

Name two different kinds of antidepressant drugs and explain how they work

The tricyclics, which include Togramil, Elavil, Norpramin, and sinequan are so name becuase of their three-ringed molecular structure. They increase brain levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin by interfering with the process of reputake (reabsorption by the transmitting cell) of these chemical messengers. The MAO inhibitors, such as Nardil, increase the availability of neurotransmitters by inhibiting the action of monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that normally breaks down or degrades neurotransmitters in the synapse. MAO inhibitors are less widely used than other anitdepressant because of potentially serious interactions with certain foods and alcoholic beverages

Describe three effects of barbiturates and three withdrawal symptoms. What is the synergistic effect?

Three effects of barbiturate are slurred speech, motor impairment, irritability and poor judgment. Three withdrawal symptoms are states of delirium that may involve visual, tactile, or auditory hallucinations, 1) seizures 2) nausea and 3) Sweating and nervousness are withdrawal symptoms. The synergistic effect is the increased effect of mixing two or more substances (seditives). Their added impact is increased more than just the addition together.