ASQ: Ch 13 Problem-Solving Tools (P 314 - 352)

Axiomatic Design

Customer, functional, physical and process domains are considered DFSS component elements of Axiomatic Design.

Current State Mapping

Process developed to facilitate process analysis. Tips on drawing a current state map: •Start with quick orientation of process routes •Personally follow material and information flows •Map process with a backyard flow, from shipping dock to the beginning •Collect the data personally, do not trust the engineering standard times •Map the whole stream •Create a pencil drawing of value stream

process

set of interrelated resources and activities that transform inputs into outputs with the objective of adding value. The activities relative to any process of importance, should be documented and controlled.

Six Sigma Defect Levels

1 sigma: 690,000 ppm 2 sigma: 308, 537 ppm 3 sigma: 66,807 ppm 4 sigma: 6210 ppm 5 sigma: 233 ppm 6 sigma: 3.4 ppm

Supplier-input-process-output-customer (SIPOC)

A visual tool for documenting a business process from beginning to end. High-level as doesn't contain a lot of data

Activity Network Diagram Definitions

Event, node - junction point of an activity Job, activity - the activity or task Dummy node - a node inserted to combine the timing of parallel operations Critical path - the path with the longest time Slack time (SL) - different between the latest time and the earliest finish time

zero correlation

If there is no relationship between the two variables such that the value of one variable changes and the other variable remains constant

Cp

Index indicates how the width of the process (or part tolerance for example), compares to the width of the specification range

QC tools used for Process Management

The Control Chart. The other 2 tools, the Pareto Chart & Histogram can also be utilized to control and manage an existing process.

Quality Control Problems solved by the 7 QC TOOLs

can be categorized as doing 1 of 3 tasks: Problem Identification, Process Improvement & Process Management

lateral thinking

process that includes recognizing patterns or becoming unencumbered with old ideas while creating new ideas.

Critical Thinking Techniques (Provost)

1.Focus/define the problem 2.Challenge the assumptions 3.Concept fan (generate ideas) 4.Concept extraction (define the concept behind the idea) 5.Escape provocation (a what-if negative statement) 6.Stepping-stone provocation (a what-if distorted statement) 7.Random input (a random number/word association) 8.Stratal (observations on focus) 9.Filament technique (break out the requirements in more detail)

Process definitions (continued)

Andon Board - visual control device in a production area. It is typically a lighted overhead display, given the current status of the production system and alerting employees to emerging problems. Continuous Flow Manufacturing (CFM) - material moves one-piece at a time, at a rate determined by the needs of the customer, in a smooth and uninterrupted sequence, and without WIP. Cycle Time - time required to complete one cycle of an operation Inventory Turns - number of times inventory is consumed in a given period Just-in-time (JIT) - a system for producing a delivering the right items at the right time in the right amounts. Just-in-time is approximated when upstream activities occur minutes or seconds before downstream activities, so single-piece flow is possible. Level Loading - smoothing or balancing of the work load in all steps of a process Muda - a Japanese term meaning any activity that consumes resources but creates no value Non-Value added - any activity that does not add value to the product or service Perfection - the complete elimination of muda so that all activities along a value stream create value Point of Use Inventory - inventory is delivered ot the location where it will be consumed Poka-Yoke - a mistake-proofing device or procedure to prevent or detect an error which adversely affects the product and results in the waste of correction. Process Flow Chart - identifies the flow or sequence of events in a process. Pull - a system of cascading production and delivery instructions from downstream to upstream activities in which nothing is produced by the upstream supplier until the downstream customer signals a need. This is the opposite of push. Queue Time - the time a product spends awaiting the next processing step. Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) - series of techniques of rapid changeovers of product machinery. The long-term objective is zero setup time so that changeovers do not interfere with continuous flow. Ten minutes is a common initial objective (also called set-up reduction - SUR) Single-Piece-Flow - one complete product proceeds through various operations like design, order-taking, and production, without interruptions, back flows, or scrap. Contrasts with batch-and-que arrangements. Skills Matrix - work cell visual control depicting all work activities. It provides assistance in the cross training of team members. Small Lot Principles - effectively reducing lot size until the optimum of one piece flow is realized. Standard Work - precise description of each work activity, specifying cycle time, takt time, work sequence of specific tasks, and the minimum inventory of parts needed to conduct the activity. Takt Time - available production time divided by the rate of customer demand Value Stream - specific activities required to design, and provide a specific product from concept to launch, from order to delivery Visual Control - placement in plain view of all the tools, parts, production activities, and indicators of production system performance, such that the status of the system can be understood easily and quickly. Waste - overproduction ahead of demand, waiting for the next procession step, unnecessary transport of materials, excessive inventories, unnecessary employee movements, and production of defective parts. Work Cell - layout of machines or business processes of different types, performing different operations in a tight sequence (typically U or L shape) to permit single-piece flow and flexible deployment of human effort.

Activities stimulating creativity

Brain writing- same as Crawford slip method Imaginary brainstorming - beaks traditional thinking patterns Knowledge mapping - visual thinking, similar to mind mapping Morphological box - developing the anatomy of a solution Picture association - using pictures to generate new perspectives Purpose hierarchy - identifies all potential purposes of an improvement intervention TILMAG - stimulates ideal solutions using associations and analogies Who, what, where, when, why and how questions Is - is not a question

Linking Six Sigma Projects to Organizational Goals (Pande)

Embarking on a Six Sigma initiative begins with a management readiness assessment including below to determine if the timing is right for this initiative. a)Assess the outlook and future path of the business b)Evaluate the current organizational performance c)Review the capacity for systems change and improvement

matrix diagram advantages

Enable data on ideas based on extensive experience Clarifies relationships among different elements Makes overall structure of problem immediately obvious Combined from 2 to 4 types of diagrams, location of problem is clearer

Cost of quality

Method used by organizations to show the financial impact of quality activities. Why? Attaching a dollar amount to quality-related activities clarifies where there may be significant opportunity for quality improvement.

Brainstorming

Topic is agreed upon and written in clear terms in view of group Leader/facilitator asks for ideas from group Each idea is written down without discussion, analysis, or criticism Process is continued until the flow of ideas stops/time runs out Review list and eliminate some, final selection made. Can be more structured (round- robin approach), flip charts

Kanban

Most closely associated with control of material flow.

Flowchart Uses

-Often starting process for process improvement -Document as-is condition of a process -Reflect changes to be made to a process (duplication, redundancies, can this be done differently) -Design an entirely new process -Fulfill ISO 9001 standard requirement to id and document org process and sequence and interaction of these processes Flow charting of a process is done to help analyze the process and confirm that it follows written instructions. The result of this analysis may lead to the elimination of process steps or modification of the instructions.

Field Force Analysis (Eitington)

1.Understand the forces acting on the problem to be resolved 2.Determine the forces favoring the desired goal (driving forces) 3.Determine the opposing forces to the desired goal (restraining forces) 4.Add to the driving forces to overwhelm the restraining forces or 5.Remove or weaken the restraining forces, or 6.Do both (strengthen driving forces and weaken restraining forces)

scamper

7 questions used by a team to stimulate creativity Substitute Combine Adapt Modify Put to another use Eliminate Reverse

Six Sigma Black Belt Training

A 4 month training program (1 week of instruction per month), software to assist. Includes focus on team, project management, variation reduction and statistic approach. They will receive coaching from a Master Black Belt to guide them through a project at their company. Lesser amounts of training will qualify individuals for the Green Belt or Yellow Belt titles.

Positive correlation

A correlation in the same direction is called a positive correlation. If one variable increases the other also increases and when one variable decreases the other also decreases.

7 QC tools identifying problems

Almost all 7 (all but the control chart) of the QC tools can be utilized during problem identification. First the Cause and Effect Diagram/Fishbone will help you look at all the potential contributors to a problem. Then the Check Sheet is your first line of offense when collecting powerful, actionable data to support that Cause & Effect Diagram. After that you can utilize tools like the Pareto Chart to analyze your date and communicate the top contributors to problems while the Scatter Plot will reveal to you which of your variables which have the strongest correlations to the measured problem.

Optimum point on Cost/Good Unit of Product vs. Quality of Conformance (%)

Almost all of the costs would indicate that less than an optimum amount of money is being spent on prevention and appraisal as compared to failure costs. Therefore, these companies would be located to the left of the optimum total cost point.

Kaizen

An umbrella term for: productivity, total quality control, just-in-time production, total quality control, suggestion systems, zero defects. Kaizen benefit - accomplishes improvement at little or no expense, without the purchase of sophisticated equipment. Kaizen strategy involves the following considerations: •Management maintains and improves operating standards •Progress improvement is the key to success •PDCA Improvement cycles are used •Quality is of the highest priority •Problems are solved with hard data •Next process is provided with good parts or information

Priorities matrix

Assists in choosing between several options that many useful benefits, benefits, but where not all of them are of equal value. Can add objectivity to what might otherwise be an emotional decision.

New Product Development (NPD) process

Concept study - needed to uncover unknowns about the market, the technology, or manufacturing process. Feasibility investigations - need to determine the limitations of the concept. Find out if the unknowns are resolvable, or if new research improves the project. Development of new product - start of the NPD process. This includes the specifications, needs of the customer, target markets, establishment of teams, and determination of key stage gates. Maintenance - post delivery activities associated with product development Continuous learning - project status reports and evaluations are needed to permit learning

Taguchi's Robust Design Sequence

Concept, Parameter, and Tolerance

Cr

Corporate Responsibility index challenges and supports large organizations to integrate responsible business practices

Negative correlation

Correlation in the opposite direction is called a negative correlation. Here if one variable increases the other decreases and vice versa. For example, the volume of gas will decrease as the pressure increases, or the demand for a particular commodity increases as the price of such commodity decreases.

Capability Indices

Cp/Pp describe the variability of a process relative to the specification limits A capability ratio describes the ratio of process distribution spread to specification limits spread. Values of less than 1 is unacceptable Values greater than 1.33 (1.25 for one-sided specification limits) widely accepted as the minimum accepted value and values greater than 1.5 (1.45 for one-sided specification limits) for critical parameters. The higher the value, the more capable the process is of meeting specification. A value of 2 or higher is required to achieve Six Sigma capability. Indices calculated using short-term sigma estimates are called Cp indices (Cp, Cpl, Cpu, Cpk, Cpm) Indices using long-term sigma estimates are called Pp indices (Pp, Ppl, Ppu, Ppk, Ppm) If the Cp indices are much smaller than the Pp indices, it indicates that there are improvements you could make by eliminating shifts and drifts in the process mean.

Creativity vs Innovation

Creativity - providing a new idea Innovation - action step of making the new idea become a reality. Creativity (Provost) The widespread use of quality problem methodology may be stifling the creative process in many firms.

Quality Cost Improvement

Define company quality goals and objectives (desired long-term quality rep, relative position desired among competitors) •Translate the quality goals into quality requirements (e.g., outgoing quality levels required, specific types of controls required, special test required) •Estimate capabilities of current processes, machines, systems, etc. •Develop realistic programs and projects consistent with company goals •Determine the resource requirements for approved programs and projects •Set up quality cost categories of prevention, appraisal, and failure •Arrange for accounting to collect and present quality cost •Ensure accurate figures or reasonable estimates by category •Analyze the quality cost data for major improvement candidates •Utilize the Pareto principle to isolate specific vital areas for investigation Quality costs should be related to as many different volume bases as practical. Two or 3 comparisons are normal (bases selected vary depending upon product, company, etc.) Advantages of a Quality Cost System •Provides a manageable entity and single overview of quality •Aligns quality and company goals •Provides a problem prioritization system •Provides a means of measuring change •Provides a way to distribute controllable quality costs for maximum profit •Improves the effective use of resources •Provides emphasis for doing the job right every time •Helps to establish new product processes Limitations of a Quality Cost System •Quality cost measurement does not solve quality problems •Quality cost reports do not suggest specific actions •Quality costs are susceptible to short-term mismanagement •It is often difficult to match effort and accomplishments •Important costs may be omitted from quality cost reports •Inappropriate costs may be included in quality cost reports •Many quality costs are susceptible to measurement errors Other Quality Cost Pitfalls Perfectionism in the numbers - if it takes a short time and little money to prepare estimates that are 85% accurate such reporting may be adequate for most decision making. To raise the accuracy to 95% could take considerable expense and a long time. The delay may cost the company a considerable total savings. Other data pitfalls - presentation to managers should include the merits of improvement proposals and not on the validity of the data. Inclusion of non-quality costs - management group should decide on a definition of waste (will only pure quality waste be included?) Implication of reducing quality costs to zero - quality cost presentation should recognize that it may not be realistic or economically sound to reduce quality costs to zero. Reducing quality costs but increasing total company costs - may be necessary to assure that a reduction in quality costs will not increase total costs. Understanding of quality costs - may ways to understand the cost of quality. One of the most common is to deal with quality costs only I excess of some normal standard. In the prevention approach, the emphasis should be to challenge whether the standard level can be improved.

Appraisal

Definition - review of purchase orders for quality requirements. It is a pre-planning preventative activity that may avert many appraisal and failure costs later.

Procedures for Performing a Failure Mode, Effects & Criticality Analysis

FEMA or FMECA (some cases little difference) - is a detailed analysis of a system down to the component level. After all items are classified to 1) failure mode, 2) effect of failure, and 3) Probability failure will occur, they are rated as to their severity via an index called a Risk Priority Number (RPN). It is dimensionless, and all items will be assigned one (work from highest RPN value Down). Steps: 1. FMECA number (a log-controlled tracking number) 2. The part number, name, or other appropriate description 3. Design responsibility: which department or group is responsible? 4. The person responsible for FMECA preparation 5. The date the FMECA was prepared and any necessary revision level. 6. The subsystem or component part number getting detailed analysis 7. The component functions 8. The potential failure mode 9. The potential effect of failure 10. The potential cause of failure 11. What are the current controls to prevent the potential cause from occurring? Next step is to weigh risks associated with the current component, effect and cause, with the controls that are currently in place. 12. P - probability this failure will occur (from 1 - no chance to 10 certainty) 13. S - severity of the effect of failure on rest of system, if failure occurs (1=unlikely user will notice and 10 - safety of user is in jeopardy). 14. D - measure of effectiveness of the current controls to identify the potential weakness or failure prior to release to production (ranges from 1 - certainty it Would be caught to 10 - indicates the design weakness would most certainly make it to final production without detection. 15. RPN - risk priority number (RPN=P multiplied by S multiplied by D) 16. The actions then are based upon what items either have the highest RPN and/or where the major safety issues are. 17. There is a column for actions to be taken to reduce the risk, along with a column for this responsibility, and finally a column for the revised RPN once the corrective action is implemented FMECA provides a disciplined approach for the engineering team to evaluate designs to ensure that all the possible failure modes have been taken into consideration.

Process Definition

Harrington - any activity, or bounded group of interrelated work activities, that adds value to one or more inputs, and produces an output to an internal or external customer Shingo (includes statement on operations) - a process is what the product experiences; it consists a collection of operations. Since operations are what machines and workers perform. It can be easy to lose sight of the process amidst all the more visible operations. Rother (uses value stream to describe a process) - a value stream is all the actions (both value added and non-value added) currently required to bring a product through the main flows essential to every product (1) the production flow from raw material into the arms of the customer, and (2) the design flow from concept to flow. An operation is an activity on a product or service within a collection of operations. A number of operations comprise a process stream. The ai is to improve an entire process, not to sub-optimize by improving bits and pieces of operations. A complete process flow will be mapped along with process maps conducted by a value stream manager who collects and records the information and maps the value stream. Harrington suggests 3 types measurements for process goals: effectiveness, efficiency and adaptability. Effectiveness - producing the desired results Efficiency - use of the minimal amount of resources to achieve the desired results. Customers are not interested in paying for non-value added work. Adaptability - firm's flexibility and ability to respond to nonstandard or customized situations (special orders/non-standard/rush) Selection of Process to Monitor (Harrington) •Change impact: What is the customer impact? •Changeability index: Can the process be fixed? •Performance status: How bad is the performance? •Business impact: How important is it to the business? •Work impact: Are resources available to fix the process? Factors to help develop priorities (Melan & Siden) •Management judgement and preferences •Customer complaints •Employee complaints •Perceived impact •Effect on customer satisfaction •Random selection •Process size and cost Measurement of Process Goals (Harrington & Selden) 1.At process end points - though the outputs of a process (invoices, inventory counts, product completed) 2.With controlled experimentation - by tracking an order for origin to completion 3.By historical research - by review of company plans, announcements, and pre-collected data for comparisons between planned and actual results 4.From scientific analysis - by breaking a process down into its operational parts and then using more extensive engineering analysis to measure inputs, measure the transformation and measure outputs.

Savings with Black Belt Project

Harry reports the average Black Belt project will serve about $175,000. There should be about 5 to 6 projects per year per Black Belt. The ratio of one Black Belt per 100 employees can provide a 6% cost reduction per year. For larger companies, there is usually 1 master Black Belt for every 100 Black Belts.

Initiating a cost-of quality program

Initiating a Cost-of Quality Program - educate Sr Management on methods for and benefits of program. A rough estimate should be obtained. It will help determine which initiatives are worth pursuing and which may be deferred/not considered. Establishing & Tracking Measurements - determine what type of methodology. Important to: a) recognize that quality cost is a tool to justify improvement actions and measure their effectiveness, b) realize that including insignificant activities is not essential. Institutionalizing Cost of Quality -develop a formal reporting process. Should be a performance measure used for decisions making for continuous improvement and strategic planning.

Total Quality Curve

Juran's theoretic model. The minimum level of total quality costs occurs when the quality of conformance is 100%. The model illustrates that as prevention and appraisal costs increase, the failure costs will decrease until an optimum point is reached. Some say that every $1 spent on prevention will save approximately $7 in failure costs. Initially managers discover that prevention costs are too low and both internal and external failure costs are too high. Often, failure costs will exceed the appraisal costs. Even relationship between internal and external failure costs may point to needed changes in planning or product design. Hypothetical quality cost trending over time (Campanella) Prevention - 0 to 5%; Appraisal 10 to 50%; Internal failure 20 to 40%; external failure: 20 to 40% Implementation of preventative measures to control quality often take time. Appraisal methods are initially undertaken which cause internal failures to increase but external failures (and total failures) to decrease. However, a small increase in prevention methods will normally create a large decrease in total quality costs. Traditional costs of quality (little q) amount to 4 to 6% of sales. Total costs of quality (Big Q) can be as high as 15 to 25% of sales. Big Q includes many indirect cost items.

6 Sigma Processes

Management strategy to use statistical tools and project work to achieve breakthrough profitability and quantum gains in quality. Performance characteristics are world class. The average American company is at the 4 sigma level (6210 defects per million opportunities). 1. Committed and strong leadership is absolutely essential - often, a major cultural change 2. Initiatives, strategies, measures & practices must be integrated. Six sigma must be an integral part of how the organization conducts its business 3. Quantitative analysis and statistical thinking are key concepts - its data-based managing 4. Constant effort must be applied to learning anything possible about customers & marketplace - intelligence gathering and analysis is critical 5. Must produce a significant payoff in a reasonable time period (real, validated, dollar savings is required) 6. A hierarchy of highly trained individuals with verified successes (Master Black Belts) oversee the Black Belts and Green Belts 7. Performance tracking, measuring and reporting systems are needed to monitor progress, allow for course correction and link Six Sigma approach to organizational goals, objectives and plan. Can fail as existing measurement may not be useful. 8. Organization's reward & recognition systems must support continual reinforcement of the people at all levels. Compensation needs to be re-engineered 9. Celebrate internal successes frequently (success breeds success) 10. Publicize Six Sigma Accomplishments and share best practices with other orgs (when possible). Be a member of a world class group of orgs that have committed their efforts to achieving perfection.

Cpk

Measures whether the process is centered well enough to keep the tails of the process distribution (or part tolerance for example) from failing outside specifications

PDCA

Plan-do-check act (PDCA)/plan-do-study-act(PDSA) Cycle

Quality Cost Definitions (Campanella)

Prevention costs - costs of activities specifically designed to prevent poor quality in products or services. Appraisal costs - costs associated with measuring, evaluating, or auditing products or services to assure conformance to quality standards and performance requirements. Failure costs - costs resulting from products or services not conforming to requirements or customer/user needs. That is, the costs resulting from poor quality. Failure costs are divided into internal and external failure cost categories: Internal failure costs - failure costs which occur prior to delivery or shipment of the product, or the furnishing of a service, to the customer. External failure costs - failure costs which occur after delivery or shipment of the product, or during or after furnishing a service to the customer.

Types of Six Sigma Project

Project should be consistent with company strategies for survival and/or growth and specific. •Improved process capabilities •Customer complaints •Reduction of internal defects •Cost reduction opportunities •Supplier related improvements •Lean manufacturing principals •Improved work flows •Administrative/service improvements •Cycle time reductions •Market share growth

GANTT Chart

Provides a graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project. Scheduling and monitoring/communicating project status

Failure Mode Effects Analysis and Criticality Analysis (FMECA)

Provides design engineer with a systemic technique to analyze a system, subsystem, or item, for all potential or possible failure modes. This method then places a probability That the failure mode will actually occur and what effect this failure will have on the rest of the system. The criticality portion of this method allows one to place a value or rating on the criticality of the failure effect on the entire system. It is not uncommon to omit the criticality portion from the methodology leaving us with a FMEA.

Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)

Quality is Free by Phil Crosby asserts that quality does not cost money; rather, it is the absence of quality (nonconformance's and failures) that increases total costs. He popularized the terms "cost of poor quality" or the "cost of non-quality", emphasizing that to avoid these bad costs, money would have to be spent up front on preventing & appraisal.

TPM Big Six Negative Contributors to Equipment Effectiveness

Six big losses are: 1. Equipment failure 2. Set-up and adjustment 3. Idling and minor stoppages 4. Recused speeds 5. Process defects 6. Reduced yield

Process decision program chart (PDPC) uses

The emphasis of the PDPC is to identify the consequential impact of failure on activity plans, and create appropriate contingency plans to limit risks. •Used to plan various contingencies •Used for getting activities back on track •Steers events in required direction if unanticipated problems occur •Finds feasible counter measures to overcome problems •Problem is new, unique or complex in nature. It may involve sequence of very difficult and challenging steps. •The opportunity to create contingencies and to counter problems are available to the team. Sidesteps in the problem solving sequence are unknown, but anticipated. PDPC method Is dynamic. Used to develop contingency courses of actions for challenging complex tasks. It would be helpful in developing a chart to plot a course of action, with many of events or milestones unknown.

Lean Manufacturing Techniques

The minimization of non-value added activities (muda) Decreased cycle ties Single minute exchange of dies (SMED) Documentation and use of standard operating procedures Use of visual displays for workflow and communication Total productive maintenance Poka-yoke techniques to prevent or detect errors Principles of motion study and material handling Systems for workplace organization (5S approach) Just-in-time principles A large number of Kaizen methods Continuous flow manufacturing concepts Value stream mapping

Cm

Used to look at machine capability, leaving out other sources of variation such as tooling, materials, operators, etc. It is too limiting to compare total part tolerance to specifications

Parallel thinking

more constructive than traditional argument-type thinking. Use thinking hats to enable thinking. The six roles he calls "hats". (Dr. DeBono)

Lean Six Sigma Tools

○ 5S ○ Seven Wastes ○ Value Stream Mapping ○ Kaizen ○ Flow ○ Visual Workplace ○ Voice of the Customer

6 Basic Problem Solving Steps

1. Identify the problem 2. Define the problem (may need to break it into smaller ones) 3. Investigate the problem (collect data and facts) 4. Analyze the problem (possible causes and potential solutions) 5. Solve the problem 6. Confirm the results (was the problem fixed? Was the solution permanent? Steps 1 and 6 are extremely important. Can also use PDCA and DMAIC as well.

7 Steps for Root Cause Analysis Problem Solving

1. Identify the problem and the process. 2. List possible root causes 3. Search out the most likely root causes 4. Identify potential solutions 5. Select and implement a solution 6. Follow-up to evaluate the effect 7. Standardize the process

9 TRIZ action steps

1.Analysis of the problem 2.Analysis of the problem's model (use block diagram defining "operating zone") 3.Formulation of the ideal final result (IFR) - (providing a description of the final result, which will provide additional details) 4.Utilization of outside substances and field resources 5.Utilization of an informational data bank: Determining the physical or chemical constraints (standards) on the problem. 6.Change or reformulate the problem 7.Analysis of the method that removed the physical contradiction: is a quality solution provided? 8.Utilization of the found solution: seeking side effects of the solution on the system or other processes. 9.Analysis of the steps that led to the solution. An analysis may prove useful later.

Creativity thinking techniques:

1.Visualization - using a form of mental imaging to see, a preferable solution 2.Exploration - using analogies, metaphors, or symbols to make comparison to the problem 3.Combination - using different elements or substances in various combinations to form something new 4.Modification - taking a past project and modifying adapting or adjusting it to get something different

Total Quality Management (TQM)

8 principles of total quality management: 1. Customer-focused The customer ultimately determines the level of quality. No matter what an organization does to foster quality improvement—training employees, integrating quality into the design process, upgrading computers or software, or buying new measuring tools—the customer determines whether the efforts were worthwhile. 2. Total employee involvement All employees participate in working toward common goals. Total employee commitment can only be obtained after fear has been driven from the workplace, when empowerment has occurred, and management has provided the proper environment. High-performance work systems integrate continuous improvement efforts with normal business operations. Self-managed work teams are one form of empowerment. 3. Process-centered A fundamental part of TQM is a focus on process thinking. A process is a series of steps that take inputs from suppliers (internal or external) and transforms them into outputs that are delivered to customers (again, either internal or external). The steps required to carry out the process are defined, and performance measures are continuously monitored in order to detect unexpected variation. 4. Integrated system Although an organization may consist of many different functional specialties often organized into vertically structured departments, it is the horizontal processes interconnecting these functions that are the focus of TQM. • Micro-processes add up to larger processes, and all processes aggregate into the business processes required for defining and implementing strategy. Everyone must understand the vision, mission, and guiding principles as well as the quality policies, objectives, and critical processes of the organization. Business performance must be monitored and communicated continuously. • An integrated business system may be modeled after the Baldrige National Quality Program criteria and/or incorporate the ISO 9000 standards. Every organization has a unique work culture, and it is virtually impossible to achieve excellence in its products and services unless a good quality culture has been fostered. Thus, an integrated system connects business improvement elements in an attempt to continually improve and exceed the expectations of customers, employees, and other stakeholders. 5. Strategic and systematic approach A critical part of the management of quality is the strategic and systematic approach to achieving an organization's vision, mission, and goals. This process, called strategic planning or strategic management, includes the formulation of a strategic plan that integrates quality as a core component. 6. Continual improvement A major thrust of TQM is continual process improvement. Continual improvement drives an organization to be both analytical and creative in finding ways to become more competitive and more effective at meeting stakeholder expectations. 7. Fact-based decision making In order to know how well an organization is performing, data on performance measures are necessary. TQM requires that an organization continually collect and analyze data in order to improve decision making accuracy, achieve consensus, and allow prediction based on past history. 8. Communications During times of organizational change, as well as part of day-to-day operation, effective communications plays a large part in maintaining morale and in motivating employees at all levels. Communications involve strategies, method, and timeliness. These elements are considered so essential to TQM that many organizations define them, in some format, as a set of core values and principles on which the organization is to operate. The methods for implementing this approach come from the teachings of such quality leaders as Philip B. Crosby, W. Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum

Process decision program chart (PDPC)

A technique designed to help prepare contingency plans (producing the desired result from many possible outcome). Used for complex goal progress, charting event and any anticipated contingencies planned for. Similar to contingency planning.

Reasons Six Sigma Works (Snee)

•Bottom line results •Senior management is involved •A disciplined approach is used (DMAIC) •Short project completion times (3 to 6 months) •Clearly defined measures of success •Infrastructure of trained individuals (Black Belts, Green Belts) •Customers and processes are the focus •A sound statistical approach is used. Skilled manager must be willing to make significant commitments in order to implement and support a successful Six Sigma initiative. Early success must be exploited to propel the company forward.

Standardization of Corrective Actions

Act of identifying other systems or processes with similar non conformance problems (or potential for them) and applying the same corrective action, once it has been proven To be effective. A company must prevent similar problems from occurring. Extend the fix - what other things could benefit from this fix - can identify it before it becomes a problem ISO/TS 16949 requires that corrective action be extended to similar processes and products.

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)

Activity that promotes coordinated group activities for greater equipment effectiveness and requires operators to share responsibility for routine machine inspection, cleaning, maintenance, and minor repairs. The professional maintenance staff retains responsibility for major maintenance activities and act as coaches for routine and minor items. It combines preventive, predictive, maintainability improvement techniques, and life cycle costs of equipment to increase reliability and ease of maintenance. There are 6 big losses that contribute negatively to equipment effectiveness: •Equipment failure: form breakdowns •Setup and adjustment: from setup changes •Idling and minor stoppages - defective sensors, parts caught on conveyor etc. •Reduced speed: the loss between designed and actual operating speed •Process defects: scrap and quality defects •Reduced yields: loss of product from machine startups and shutdowns

Matrix diagram

Answers 2 questions: a) Are they data related, b) If yes, how strong is the relationship? Shows relationship between objectives and methods, results and causes, tasks and people. Objective is to determine the strength of relationships between a grid of rows and columns. The intersection of the grid will clarify the problem strength. Types of matrices: L, T, X, Y & C types. Allows for identification of the presence and strengths of relationships between two or more lists of items. It provides a compact way of representing many-to-many relationships of varying strengths; based solely on numerical data

Origin of Quality Cost Measurements (1950/1960)

As products became increasingly more complex; the customer expectations of product was becoming more sophisticated and they demanded service after the sale and expected remedy on field failures, both supplier and customer costs expanded due to labor, maintenance, spare parts, etc.; technical specialists were added to the quality department to make improvements; alternatives presented by the quality specialists needed to be presented to management in monetary terms. The result was a method of defining and measuring quality costs and reporting them on a regular basis. The quality cost reports became a vehicle to determine the status of cost control efforts, and identify additional opportunities for reducing the cost of quality by systematic improvements. Since costs of quality are high (some authorities say 15 - 25% of total costs), the opportunity for improvement should easily capture the attention of management.

tree diagram

Breaks down an objective into the more detailed steps that must be carried out in order (step by step) to achieve the objective. Begins with broad objectives and becomes a more specific at each level Similar to the work breakdown structure used in project management.

TRIZ

Large collection of knowledge-based tools and 40 principles (initially there were 27) A set of systematic thinking tools to help you improve systems in innovative ways. An attitude to problem solve that can change the way you deal with any kind of problem A way of accessing the collective creativity of humanity 3 groups of methods to solve technical problems 1.Various tricks (technique) 2.Methods based on utilizing physical effects an phenomena (changing the state of physical properties of substances). 3.Complex methods (combination of tricks and physics) ARIZ (Altshuller) - algorithm to solve an inventive problem

Continuous Flow Manufacturing

Large lot production has the following faults: •Longer lead times for customer orders and delivery •Additional resources in terms of labor, energy and space •Additional product transportation expenses •Increased product damage or deterioration costs Continuous flow or one-piece flow will: •Deliver a flow of products to the customer with less delay •Provide a mechanism to solve other production problems •Lower the risk of losses through damage, deterioration, or obsolescence •Requires less storage and transport Following techniques are important for continuous flow manufacturing: Poka-yoke: to prevent defects from proceeding to the next step Source inspection: to catch errors to correct the process Self-checks: operator checks to catch defects and to correct the process Successive checks: checks by the next process to catch errors TPM is used to help achieve high machine capability

Mind mapping

Created by listing primary objective/topic in center, then listing major issues around it (use symbols/photos)

Define-measure-analyze-improve-control (dmaic)

Define the customer's critical-to-quality issues and core business process. • Define customer requirements and expectations • Define project boundaries - the stop and start of the process • Define the process to be improved by mapping the process flow Measure the performance of the core business process involved. • Develop a data collection plan for the product or process • Collect data from many sources to determine the current status • Collect customer survey results to determine shortfalls. Analyze the data and determine root causes or improvement opportunities • Identify gaps between current performance and goal performance • Identify improvement opportunities or excessive sources of variation • Identify objective statistical procedures and confidence limits Improve the target process with creative solutions to fix and prevent problems • Create innovative solutions using technology and discipline • Develop and deploy improvement implementation plans Control the improvements to keep the process on the new course. • Develop a monitoring plan to prevent return to the "old way" • Institutionalize the improvements through system modifications

Axiomatic Design

Design methodology to reduce the complexity of the design process and make them more creative. It aims to reduce the random search process, minimize the iterative trial-and-error process, and determine the best design among those proposed. It provides the designer/engineer a framework of principles The axioms appear simple but the applications are complicated. The axiomatic design process consists of 3 basic steps: •Establish design objectives to meet customer needs •Generate ideas to create solutions •Analyze the possible solutions for the best fit to the design objectives •Implement the selected design It is implied that the design process is unstructured and subject to the creativity of the designer. A designer may make more choices from the start to finish of a project, with substantial time and money spent on unnecessary detours or dead ends. This design is a systematic, scientific approach which breaks the design requirements into 4 different parts or domains: Customer domain - needs of customers are identified Functional domain - these are the functional requirements (FRs) the customer wants. An FR can be defined as the minimum set of independent requirements that describe the design objectives. Process domain - manufacturing variables to produce the product An axiom is a formal statement of what is known or used routinely. If evidence is available to show otherwise, an axiom is disproved. Several axioms were first proposed but reduced to 2 design axioms. Axiom 1 - independent axiom - functional requirements (FRs) should be independent of each other. Axiom 2 - information axiom - best design has the minimal amount of information content Axioms are fundamental truths that are always observed to be valid without exceptions. Suh developed 2 axioms, 8 corollaries and 16 theorems that form the framework of axiomatic design.

Activity network diagram

Diagram of project activities that shows the sequential relationships of activities using arrows and nodes. Used extensively in project management and is necessary for the identification of a project's critical path (which is used to determine the expected completion time of the project). Activity network diagram describes a methodology that includes program evaluation and review techniques (PERT), critical path method (CPM), node/activity on node diagrams (AON), precendence diagrams (PDM), and other network diagrams. The activity network diagram incorporates a lot of PERT and CPM techniques in its usage. The activities, milestones, and critical times must be developed and then drawn onto a chart. The chart will then provide a tool to help monitor, schedule, modify, and review the project.

affinity diagram advantages

Facilitates breakthrough thinking and stimulate fresh ideas Permits the problem to be pinned down accurately Ensures everyone clearly recognizes the problem Incorporates opinions of entire group Fosters team spirit Raises everyone's level of awareness Spurs the group into action

Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) advantages

Facilitates forecasting Uses past to anticipate contingencies Enables problems to pinpointed Illustrates how events will be directed to successful conclusion Enables those involved to understand decision-makers intentions Fosters cooperation and communication in group Easily modified and easily understood

Design for manufacturing ability (DFMA)

Focuses on preventing design changes during production. Emphasizes decreasing # of parts and specification of new but similar parts. Standardizes and simplifies setting design tolerances based on previous process capability instead of engineering frequent emphasis on close tolerance for every part. -Create the most simplest design

Creative Thinking

Generate - create a list of as many ideas as possible (even if crazy ones) Percolate - allow time to think them over (take a break for few days) Illuminate - return to list and discuss what has been discovered since last meeting (add/delete/combine/modify items on list) Substantiate - Test out and verify some ideas that appear more feasible

Control Chart

Graphs used to track how a process changes over time 2 Vital Purposes as data-gathering tool: Shows when the process is being influenced by special causes, creating an out-of-control condition, and It indicates how a process behaves over time Should examine control charts for nonrandom patterns of data points (can indicate what source of variation is - i.e., which cause in the C-E diagram is most likely influencing the process so it can be investigated.) Charts for variables are most valuable (and expense), may have upper control and lower control limits. Advantages: •Provide a visual display of process performance •Are statistically sound •Can plot both attributes and variables •Can detect special and assignable behavior causes (trends or cycles) •Indicate time that things are going either good or bad •Variable charts can provide an on-going measure of process capability •Can be used to determine if process improvements are effective Disadvantages: •Require mathematical calculations in most cases •Can provide misleading information for a variety of reasons •Sample frequency can be inappropriate •Maybe an inappropriate chart selection •Control limits can be miscalculated •Can have differing standard interpretations (attribute data) •Assumed population distribution can be wrong (variable data) •Very small but sustained sifts can be missed (a need for Cusum charts) •Statistical support may be necessary)

Pareto Chart

Helps you to know where to focus first 80% of the variation in the process is caused by roughly 20% of the variables; he labeled these variables (vital few) and rest (trivial/many) that have much less overall effect

Benefits of Kaizen Continuous Improvement Approach

Improvements are based on many small changes rather than the radical changes that might arise from Research and Development As the ideas come from the workers themselves, they are less likely to be radically different, and therefore easier to implement Small improvements are less likely to require major capital investment than major process changes The ideas come from the talents of the existing workforce, as opposed to using research, consultants or equipment - any of which could be very expensive All employees should continually be seeking ways to improve their own performance It helps encourage workers to take ownership for their work, and can help reinforce team working, thereby improving worker motivation.

quality costs categorization

Internal failure costs occur before product is delivered to customer (e.g., rework/repair, internal miscommunication etc.) External failure costs occur after delivery of a product or while furnishing a service to the customer (e.g., complaints, recalls etc.) Appraisal costs associated with measuring, evaluating, or auditing products or services to ensure conformance to quality standard/performance requirements (cost of inspection, calibration etc.) Prevention costs in minimizing failure and appraisal costs throughout organization's processes (e.g., design reviews etc.) Total cost of quality = sum of all failure costs + appraisal costs + prevention costs)

DMAIC Steps (Hahn)

•Define: Select appropriate responses to be improved •Measure: Data must be gathered to measure the response variable •Analyze: Identify the root causes of defects, defectives, or deviations •Improve: Reduce variability or eliminate the cause •Control: Monitor the process to sustain the improvements

Black Belt Duties at their Company

•Mentor: support a network of Six Sigma individuals in the company •Teacher: train local personnel •Coach: assist personnel on local projects •Identifier: discover opportunities for improvement •Influencer: be an advocate of Six Sigma tools and strategy

QC tools used for Process Improvement

Only 1 of the 7 QC tools can be used for "process improvement" (e.g., defect reduction, process variation reduction etc.): The flow chart is a phenomenal tool for communicating the current process and also engineering the future process. In this way, you can plan and communicate your process improvements effectively.

Affinity Diagram

Organizes and makes visible various ideas about a project Gathers large amounts of language data (ideas, opinions, issues) and organizes them into groupings based on their natural relationships. Often used to group ideas generated by Brainstorming. Technique is beneficial for new or complex problems. It is like a mind mapping technique as it generates ideas that link up to other ideas to form patterns of thoughts. It uses a more organized technique to gather facts and ideas to form developed patterns of thought. It can be widely used in the planning stages of a problem to organize ideas and information.

affinity diagram uses

Pinpointing the problem in a chaotic situation and generating solution strategies (gathers large amounts of intertwined verbal data, organizes it into groups based on natural relationship, makes it feasible for further analysis and find the solution). Technique is beneficial for new or complex problems. It is like a mind mapping technique as it generates ideas that link up to other ideas to form patterns of thoughts. It uses a more organized technique to gather facts and ideas to form developed patterns of thought. It can be widely used in the planning stages of a problem to organize ideas and information.

Continuous Improvement Approaches

Plan Do Check Act (PDCA) 6 Sigma Lean 6 Sigma Total Quality Management DMAIC

Histogram

Provides a graphical picture of frequency distribution of the data Most commonly used graph for showing frequency distributions, or how often each different value in a set of data occurs. Histograms are frequency column graphs that display a static picture of process behavior. Histograms usually require a minimum of 50 - 100 data points in order to adequately capture the measurement or process in question. It is characterized by the number of data points that fall within a given bar or interval (frequency). A stable process is predictable. Detects distributions that do not demonstrate a typical bell-shaped curve and shows how the process spread and central tendency (mean/median/mode) relate to process specifications. In normal bell-shaped distribution, most frequently appeared value (mode) is centered, data appears equally on either side. Values beyond that are beyond the specification/tolerance limits. Histogram Comments •An unstable normal distribution process is often characterized by a histogram that does not exhibit a bell-shaped curve. •For a normal distribution, variation inside the bell cure is chance or natural variation. Other variation is due to special or assignable causes. •There are many distributions that do not follow the normal curve. Examples include the Poisson, binomial, exponential, lognormal, rectangular, U-shaped and triangular distributions. Characteristics of a Normally Distributed Process •Most of the data are near the centerline, or average •The centerline divides the curve into two symmetrical halves •Some of the points approach the minimum and maximum values •The normal histograms exhibit a bell-shaped distribution •Very few points are outside the bell-shaped curve.

Interrelationship diagraph

Resolves tangled issues by unraveling the logical connection; allows for "multi-directional thinking" rather than linear. Shows various issues and how they can impact the results of a team-based continual improvement effort and how they are interconnected. Technique for more complex problems or issues management may face (if very complex, exact relationships may be difficult to determine or may be intertwined.). The idea is to have a process of creative problem solving that will eventually indicate key causes. In the final "solution" to the problem, it will be determined with the team has analyzed the graph for final causes. Can use other tools as material for this technique: affinity diagrams, tree diagrams, or cause-and-effect diagrams.

When to use continuous improvement

Sacrificing quality can rarely be justified by the ability to do something faster or cheaper. To maintain quality standards while cutting time and cost, companies turn to Lean ways of working, including continuous improvement. By observing continuous improvement best practices, companies can figure out ways to continue business as usual while analyzing improvement opportunities along the way. For companies whose teams are unable to practice continuous improvement throughout their day-to-day work, the next best way to leverage the concept is to hold continuous improvement events, otherwise known as Rapid Improvement events or Value Stream Mapping. Continuous Improvement events can take anywhere between one to five days to complete, depending on the depth and breadth of the topic to be covered, and team members usually come away with "to-do" items that help the new processes take hold within the organization and may require a small amount of time to execute. Many companies have adopted Lean improvement techniques as a standard by which all projects and work is done, while others choose to keep it at arm's length. While continuous improvement helps save money for companies by helping to identify inefficiencies (project teams with many layers of management or manufacturing teams whose motions equate to money), other companies may perceive continuous improvement differently. After years of continuous improvement being touted as the most beneficial way to save on production cost, some companies say the philosophy has placed unexpected constraints on innovation and creativity. While companies seek ways to reduce waste, the less formal, sometimes messy creative process and ideation may hold more value in the long run than saving a few dollars on a particular process. It is impossible to put a price on innovation, therefore a company's decision as to how much time to devote to continuous improvement can be complex. Whether or not a company chooses to make continuous improvement a part of its everyday culture depends on the particular needs of the company and the potential cost savings that may come as a result

7 Classic Quality Tools

Scientific tools for analyzing, communicating and improving process performance. They add efficiency & accuracy to data & decisions. 1. Flowchart 2. Control Charts 3. Histograms 4. Scatter Diagrams 5. Check Sheets 6. Pareto Diagram 7. Cause & Effect Diagram

Scatter diagram

Shows whether or not there is a correlation between 2 variables. If it appears that values for one of the variables can be predicted based on the value of another variable, then there is correlation.

Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) - Bowles

Start with potential problems and look for resulting bad effects. Four types of FMEA (Design, Process, System & Functional) Design FMEA - performed on product/service (system) at the design level to minimize failure effects on the system. FMEAs are used before products are released to the Manufacturing operation. All anticipated design deficiencies will have been detected and corrected by end of this process. Process FMEA - performed on manufacturing processes. They are conducted through the quality planning phase as an aid during production. The possible Failure modes in the manufacturing process, limitations in equipment, tooling, gauges, operator training, or potential sources of error are highlighted, and corrective Action is taken. System FMEA - comprise all part level FMEAs that will tie together to form the system. As part level FMEAs go into the system, more detail will be added and more Failure modes will be considered. A system FMEA needs only go down to the appropriate level of detail as needed. Functional FMEAs - focuses on performance of the intended part of device (rather than specific characteristics of the individual parts. Known as "Black Box" FMEAs. Failure - cessation of the ability of a system, or assembly to meet any of the specified performance requirements. Failure recurrence control is a closed-loop failure reporting, Analysis, and corrective action system to: a) eliminate critical failure modes, b) perform a detailed analysis of each failure, c) implement corrective action to prevent failure, d) categorize failures to detect trends A FEMA examines ways in which a product or system failure may occur.

Tools to Determine Root Cause Analysis

Subjective (Qualitative) Tools: The 5 Whys Brainstorming Process Flow Analysis Plan-Do-Check-Act Systematic Problem Solving Nominal Group Techniques Operator Observations Fishbone Diagrams Consensus Exercises Six-Thinking Hats Use of Teams FMEA/Fault Tree Analysis Analytical Tools: Data Collection and Analysis Pareto Analysis Scatter Diagrams (Regression Analysis) Check Sheets Data Matrix Analysis Process Capability Analysis Partitioning of Variation Subgrouping of Data Simple Testing Statistical Design of Experiments Analytical Tests Control Charting

Pugh 10 step process

Suggests a cross-functional team activity to assist in the development of improved concepts. The process tarts with a set of alternative designs. These come in response to the initial project charter. A matrix-based process is used to refine the concepts. 1.Choose criteria - comes from technical requirements 2.Form the matrix - a matrix criteria vs concepts is generated 3.Clarify the concepts - new concepts may require a sketch for visualization 4.Choose the datum concept 5.Run the matrix - comparisons made on every concept using a simple rating scale. A plus can be used for a better concept. A minus for a worse design. 6.Evaluate the ratings - add scores, see what positives will contribute to design insight 7.Attack the negatives and enhance positives - actively discuss the most promising concepts. Kill or modify the negative ones. 8.Select a new datum and rerun the matrix - a new hybrid can be entered into the matrix for consideration 9.Plan further work - at end of first working session, team may gather more information, perform experiments, seek technical help etc. 10.Iterate to arrive at a new winning concept - return the team to work on new concepts. Re-run the matrix for further analysis, as needed.

Hoshin Kanri (Policy Deployment)

a strategic planning method that ensures everyone in an organization is driving toward the same goals. It is also a tool for balancing the need to achieve long-term goals and address daily improvement opportunities at the same time. Here are some signs to tell you if your organization would benefit from Hoshin Kanri. Unlike other approaches to planning, Hoshin Kanri is not done from the top-down. People at every level of the organization are involved in setting the priorities and laying out the plan for success. Here are some advantages of using the Hoshin Kanri approach: 1.A focus on action, not just on goals. It forces you to ask "where do I want to go, and what needs to happen to get there?" 2.Improved organizational alignment, from the front lines to the executive suite 3.Increased engagement in improvement by promoting a sense of ownership and accountability for improvement

Activity Based Costing (ABC)

To improve organization's effectiveness through the identification of quality cost associated with specific activities, analysis of those costs, and implementation of means to lower total cost. Under this, cost of resources used are allocated in proportion to the use of the resource for given activities. It contrasts with traditional accounting whereby costs were allocate arbitrary percent of labor (direct labor becomes a smaller portion of the costs of producing a specific product or services). Has helped companies D/C unprofitable products.

Failure mode & effects analysis (FMEA)

Used in auto industry; used for analyzing design failure and reduce it. 2 types in general use: FMEA (DFMEA) - analyzing potential design failures FMEA (PFMEA) - analyzing potential process failures

6 "hats" of parallel thinking

Used in group meetings by separating the thinking process into these different areas. Encourages people to assume different roles in the thinking process. Individuals who are negative in a meeting can be asked to switch their thinking (change hat) etc. so that a better decision can be made. Provided the 6 hats to simplify the thinking process. Blue Hat - Process White Hat - Facts Red Hat - Feelings Green Hat - Creativity Yellow Hat - Benefits Black Hat - Cautions

check sheet

Used to gather data on frequency of occurrence Structured for collecting and analyzing data; generic tool for a wide variety of uses; clusters indicate the biggest problem areas become visually quickly apparent. Some examples are A) Recording Charts (tick sheets), B) Checklists (e.g., inspecting products), C) Measles Sheet (e.g., showing defects or injury location using a schematic of a product or human). Data from several check sheets can be organized into a Pareto chart for final analysis

Visual Management Tools (IMAI)

Used to make problems visible, to help all workers stay in direct contact with gemba (the workplace), to clarify targets for improvement. Production boards and schedule boards are a visual factory.

interrelationship diagram advantages

Useful at planning stage for obtaining perspective on overall situation Facilitates consensus among team Assists to develop and change people's thinking Enables priorities to be identified accurately Makes the problem recognizable by clarifying the relationships among causes

Robust Design Approach

Uses the concept of parameter control to place the design in a position where random "noise" does not cause failure. A number of factors control the process to produce the desired response. Signal factor - the signal used for intended response. That is the actions taken (signal) to start the lawn mower (response) or the dial setting (signal) to obtain a furnace temperature (response). The success of obtaining the response is dependent on control factors and noise factors. Control factors - parameters that are controllable by the designer. These factors are the item in the product/process that operate to produce a response when triggered by a signal. Control factors are sometimes separated into those which add no cost to product or processes that do add cost. Since factors that add cost are frequently associated with selection of the tolerance of the components, these are called tolerance factors. Factors that do not add costs are simply control factors. Noise factors - parameters or events that are not controllable by the designer. These are generally random. That is, only the mean and variance can be predicted. Noise factors in a furnace design might be: line voltage variations, outside temperature, parallax errors in dial settings. These noise factors have the ability to produce an error in the desired response. The function of the designer is to select control factors so that the impact of the noise factors on the response is minimized while maximizing the result to signal factors. The adjustment of these factors is best done by using statistical design of experiments or SDE. Key principles of robust design: Concept design - selection of the process or product architecture based on technology, cost, customer desires, or other important considerations. This step depends heavily on the abilities and creativity of the designer. Parameter Design -design is established using the lowest cost components and manufacturing techniques. The response is then optimized for control and minimized for noise. If the design meets the requirement, the designer has achieved an acceptable design at the lowest cost. Tolerance Design - if the design does not meet requirements, the designer must consider the use of more expensive components or processes that reduce the tolerances. The tolerances are reduced until the design requirements are met. With robust design approaches, the designer has the ability to produce a design with either the lowest cost, the highest reliability, or an optimized combination of cost and reliability.

Nominal group techniques (NGT)

Way of processing brainstormed ideas by following the steps to a list of ideas from which a small number is to be selected. 1. Discuss the ideas and simplify/combine those where it makes sense in order to make the list complete, clear but not repetitive. 2. Ask each participant to rank the items in numerical order (e.g. best to worst) 3. Record the ranks of all participants beside each item. 4. Total the rankings for each item. Those with the lowest scores are the preferred groups.

FMEA uses

When a process, product or service is being designed or redesigned, after quality function deployment. When an existing process, product or service is being applied in a new way. Before developing control plans for a new or modified process. When improvement goals are planned for an existing process, product or service. When analyzing failures of an existing process, product or service. Periodically throughout the life of the process, product or service

interrelationship diagram uses

When trying to understand links between ideas or cause-and-effect relationships, such as when trying to identify an area of greatest impact for improvement. When a complex issue is being analyzed for causes. When a complex solution is being implemented. After generating an affinity diagram, cause-and-effect diagram or tree diagram, to more completely explore the relations of ideas.

Integration of 7 new Quality Tools work and the 7 Classical Quality Tools to increase Total Quality Management

a) Enhanced Capabilities (organize verbal data, generate ideas, improve planning, eliminate errors and omissions, explain problems intelligibly, secure full cooperation, persuade powerfully) B) Enhanced keys to organizational reform (assess situations from various angles; clarify desired situation, prioritize tasks effectively, proceed systematically, anticipate future events, change proactively, get things right the first time)

Total Quality Management (TQM)

a management system for a customer-focused organization that involves all employees in continual improvement. It uses strategy, data, and effective communications to integrate the quality discipline into the culture and activities of the organization.

Six Sigma Continuous Improvement Approach

a method that provides organizations tools to improve the capability of their business processes. This increase in performance and decrease in process variation lead to defect reduction and improvement in profits, employee morale, and quality of products or services. Six Sigma quality is a term generally used to indicate a process is well controlled (within process limits ±3s from the center line in a control chart, and requirements/tolerance limits ±6s from the center line).

Benefit of 6 Sigma/Lean 6 Sigma/Total Quality Management over PDCA (Continuous Improvement Approach)

others emphasize employee involvement and teamwork; measuring and systematizing processes; and reducing variation, defects and cycle times PDCA is faster/simpler.

Benefits of Continuous Improvement

a) Streamline Workflows Working to constantly improve is the number one way in which many businesses reduce operating overhead. Continuous improvement (sometimes known as 'Rapid improvement') is a Lean improvement technique that helps to streamline workflows. The Lean way of working enables efficient workflows that save time and money, allowing you to reduce wasted time and effort. For example, projects that involve shifting deadlines, changing priorities and other complexities are usually filled with opportunities to improve. It's just that no one has taken action on that opportunity. b) Reduce Project Costs and Prevent Overages It's important for a project manager to know the cost of completing a body of work. For this reason, most project management offices benefit from knowing the amount of time it takes to get certain types of work done. Project managers can reduce project cost and prevent overages using Forecasting Software. Forecasting (versus estimating) whether a project's constraints are likely to be broken is one way in which project management offices are able to increase their overall effectiveness for the company. c) Gain Flexibility While many companies practice a formal version of a Lean / Agile method, other companies enjoy the flexibility of continuous improvement as a theory while reserving the right to deviate from the practice whenever a less formal approach is needed. For example, teams that want to provide the space and time necessary for creativity or innovation may enforce the concept more loosely as they seek new ways to lead in the marketplace.

Design for Six Sigma (DFSS)

adds a statistical techniques to DFMA principles including analysis of tolerances, mapping of processes, development of a product scorecard, design to unit production costs (DTUPC) and design of experiments (DOE). - strategy that uses tools that are ant always new. Key to its effectiveness is the selection process used to determine the probability of commercial and technical success for the ultimate product. 70 -80% of all quality problems are design related therefore emphasis should be on the design.

PDCA cycle adv/disadv

adv: cheap disadv: oversimplifies, can be reactive, risk change fatigue

Cause & effect diagram

aka Ishikawa Diagram or Fishbone Diagram Identifies many possible causes for effect or problem and sorts ideas into useful categories Breaks problems down into bite-size pieces. Displays possible causes in a graphic manner, shows how various causes interact. It follows brainstorming rules when generating ideas. Participants identify problem statement and brainstorm categories then polling to prioritize the top 3 and then create an action plan. Where there could be a long list of potential causes that might contribute to a particular problem. Causes on one site, effects on the others 4 M's (Manpower, Machinery, Methods & Materials) are categories for manufacturers 4 P's (People, Policies, Procedures, and Plant)

Difference between lean and six sigma continuous improvement approach

both have the same general purpose of providing the customer with the best possible quality, cost, delivery, and a newer attribute, nimbleness. There is a great deal of overlap, and disciples of both disagree as to which techniques belong where. The two initiatives approach their common purpose from slightly different angles: • Lean focuses on waste reduction, whereas Six Sigma emphasizes variation reduction • Lean achieves its goals by using less technical tools such as kaizen, workplace organization, and visual controls, whereas Six Sigma tends to use statistical data analysis, design of experiments, and hypothesis tests

Total Quality Management (TQM)

describes a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. All members of an organization participate in improving processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work.

7 new QC tools

developed to organize verbal data diagrammatically. They are effective for data analysis, process control, and quality; organize concepts, ideas and words a. Affinity Diagram 2. Interrelationship Diagram 3. Tree Diagram 4. Prioritization Matrix 5. Matrix Diagram or Quality Table 6. Activity Network Diagram 7. Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)

Crawford slip brainstorming

each person to create their own list and pass them to someone who makes the anonymous list.

Six Sigma disadv

may create rigidity and bureaucracy that can create delays and stifle creativity. Overestimates, customer focus, where internal quality-control measures that make sense for a company are not taken because of the overlying goal of achieving the Six Sigma-stipulated level of consumer satisfaction. For example, an inexpensive measure that carries a risk of a slightly higher defect rate may be rejected in favor of a more expensive measure that helps to achieve Six Sigma, but adversely affects profitability.