chapter 5-6
What is psychological control?
a disciplinary technique in which parents threaten the withdrawal of their love and support
What is intrinsic motivation?
a drive that comes from inside a person
What is bullying aggression?
a kind of aggression that is unprovoked and involves repeated physical or verbal attacks
Many researchers have traced the effects of parenting on child development, but the researcher whose findings continue to be most influential is:
Diana Baumrind.
Actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as stopping a car before it hits a pedestrian or installing traffic lights at dangerous intersections.
secondary prevention:
A person's understanding of who he or she is, incorporating self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various personal traits, such as gender and size.
self-concept:
Child-centered programs stress children's development and growth through:
self-discovery.
One argument against teaching children more than one language is that they may become _______, meaning they are at risk for delay, incomplete, and possibly impaired language.
semilingual
The term for the time when language learning is most easily and readily accomplished is the:
sensitive period.
The biological differences between males and females are referred to as _____ differences.
sex
Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape.
sex differences:
Donny, age 6, suddenly makes an angry face at Alan and kicks him hard for no apparent reason. Donny is displaying:
antisocial behavior.
Focus on _____ is a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child ignores all attributes that are not apparent.
appearance
According to research, children who are exposed to more than one language in early childhood:
are able to learn and separate the two languages.
Longitudinal research has found that children who were physically punished:
are more likely to become bullies and delinquents.
In the Debby Laible study (2008) referred to in the text, it was found that securely attached children had _____ conflicts with their parents as insecurely attached children.
as many
The kind of play that involves children interacting and sharing, but without their play being mutual or reciprocal, is _____.
associative
The kind of play that involves children interacting and sharing without their play being mutual or reciprocal is:
associative.
When are children at their slimmest?
at ages 5 and 6
In which of Diana Baumrind's parenting styles are parents more likely to use physical punishment?
authoritarian
The _____ parenting style is more likely to use physical punishment than any other of Diana Baumrind's parenting styles.
authoritarian
An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication.
authoritarian parenting:
According to Diana Baumrind, _____ parents set limits for their children, but they are flexible.
authoritative
Research has found that young children in a school setting are most likely to learn from teachers who use which one of Diana Baumrind's discipline styles?
authoritative
An approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.
authoritative parenting:
According to Diana Baumrind, _____ parents set loving limits for their children, while _____ parents can be harsh and rigid.
authoritative; authoritarian
Keira is 6. She is 3'7" tall and weighs 44 lbs. Keira is:
average in weight.
Jarell is 6. He is 3'7" tall. Jarell's height is:
average.
A person who is fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other.
balanced bilingual:
A "language shift" refers to:
becoming more fluent in the language spoken at school than in the language spoken at home.
One critique of Diana Baumrind's research on parenting styles is that she focused more on parental attitudes than on_____.
behavior
The term "balanced _____" refers to a person who is fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other.
bilingual
Displaying deliberate prosocial or antisocial behavior requires that a child have _____ maturation and a theory of mind.
brain
Both reactive aggression and _____ aggression directly reflect poor emotional regulation
bullying
Which kind of aggression is unprovoked and involves repeated physical or verbal attacks?
bullying
Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves.
bullying aggression:
According to Piaget, one of the characteristics that limit a preoperational child's thinking is:
centration.
As water is poured from a tall, thin container into a short, fat one, the preoperational child is likely to say that there is now less water: the child is focusing only on how high the water is in the container. This tendency to focus only on one aspect of a situation is what Piaget referred to as:
centration.
Four-year-old Jalonny grasps that Jerome is her father but cannot grasp that Jerome is also her grandmother's son. In this way, she is demonstrating:
centration.
A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others.
centration:
Which structure is NOT part of the limbic system?
cerebellum
Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being.
child abuse:
Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.
child maltreatment:
Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs.
child neglect:
A preschool that stresses each child's development and growth is most likely a(n) _____ program.
child-centered
Which is an example of parallel play?
children play with similar toys, but not together
Teaching children to recognize letters and to know the sounds each makes is called:
code-focused teaching.
One of the long-term benefits for participants in the intensive, early intervention programs described in the text is that these children were more likely to attend _____.
college
In the Debbie Laible study (2008) referred to in the text, it was found that securely attached children had as many _____ with their parents as insecurely attached children.
conflicts
The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same despite changes in its appearance is called:
conservation.
The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes.
conservation:
The idea that appropriate controls can minimize the harm from accidents is behind the term "injury _____."
control
Physical punishment is the same thing as _____ punishment.
corporal
corpus callosum: A long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.
corpus callosum:
Across cultures, children of parents who were _____ were less able to regulate their emotions.
depressed
At what age would children be best described as "language sponges"?
early childhood
An undeveloped prefrontal cortex can be responsible for _____ in young children.
impulsiveness
Perseveration is the opposite of:
impulsiveness.
Because axons are becoming coated with a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses, brain weight is significantly _____ in early childhood.
increased
Between ages 2 and 6, instrumental aggression _____ in frequency. Over this period, reactive aggression _____.
increases; decreases
Physical punishment _____ the possibility of aggression and temporarily _____ obedience
increases; increases
Montessori schools emphasize _____ pride and accomplishment.
individual
What is the main emphasis of the Reggio Emilia early childhood approach?
individual differences, neither using any large-group testing
Montessori schools emphasize:
individual pride and achievement.
"It's not nice to take your friends' toys without asking. You would feel angry if Lenny took your games without telling you," Tammy tells her son. Tammy is using a discipline technique called:
induction
Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, in which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.
initiative versus guilt:
Another term for lateralization is:
sidedness.
Heather and Dylan, both 4 years old, pretend to be Cinderella and Snow White and act out a story. They are engaging in ______ play.
sociodramatic
Together, rough-and-tumble play and ______ play comprise active play.
sociodramatic
Ginnie and Vern are pretending to be jungle animals. They have created an elaborate plot about how they have escaped from the zoo. They are engaging in:
sociodramatic play.
Pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create.
sociodramatic play:
Of Mildred Parten's five types of play, which did she believe is the LEAST advanced?
solitary
Which type of play appears first in Mildred Parten's progression of social play?
solitary
What is receptive language?
spoken or written language
The development of empathy is apparent in a child's:
spontaneous efforts to help others who are hurt, crying, or in need of help.
Which characteristic of preoperational thought involves a child assuming that the world is unchanging, always in the state in which the child currently experiences it?
static reasoning
A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be.
static reasoning:
Physical activity helps children to develop muscle _____ and control.
strength
The sociodramatic play of boys often revolves around:
themes of good versus evil.
According to your text, one reason that 3-year-olds often tell wildly implausible lies is that they lack a(n) _______.
theory of mind
An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.
permissive parenting:
The tendency to stick to one thought or action is known as:
perseveration.
The tendency to persevere in, or stick to, one thought or action for a long time.
perseveration:
Erik Erikson's initiative-versus-guilt crisis takes place during Sigmund Freud's _____ stage.
phallic
Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure.
phallic stage:
Child abuse is defined as any deliberate action that is harmful to a child's _____, emotional, or sexual well-being.
physical
The prefrontal cortex is involved in:
planning, prioritizing, and reflection.
Mildred Parten identified five different types of _____, including solitary and parallel.
play
Emotional regulation is made possible when emotional functions are linked to the _____ cortex in the brain.
prefrontal
Caroline is 15. After a head injury she is no longer able to plan ahead and prioritize properly. Most likely her _____ was injured.
prefrontal cortex
The _____ cortex is a crucial part of the brain, involved in planning, prioritizing, and reflection.
prefrontal cortex
The _____ is the "executive" of the brain.
prefrontal cortex
The area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control.
prefrontal cortex:
According to Piaget, centration is one of the characteristics that limit thinking in the _____ stage.
preoperational
Piaget's second of four stages of cognition is _____ intelligence.
preoperational
Piaget's term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6 is _____ intelligence.
preoperational
Your textbook suggests that preschoolers' tendency to make language shifts stems in part from the fact that they are at Piaget's _____ stage of cognitive development.
preoperational
What is Piaget's term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6?
preoperational intelligence
Piaget's second of four stages of cognition is
preoperational intelligence.
Piaget's term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6; it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible.
preoperational intelligence:
Laws limiting the number of baby aspirins per container are an example of _____ prevention.
primary
Passing laws to decrease the financial instability of families in high-risk situations would be an example of _____ prevention of child maltreatment.
primary
Taking steps to reduce teenage pregnancy rates is an example of _____ prevention of child maltreatment.
primary
Actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance, such as injury, disease, or abuse.
primary prevention:
Five-year-old Edward approaches a new student in his school and invites him to join in a game he is playing with other children. Edward is displaying:
prosocial behavior.
Actions that are helpful and kind but that are of no obvious benefit to the person doing them.
prosocial behavior:
Salvatore can ride a bike only if his mom is providing some physical support and coaching. Vygotsky would say that riding a bike is within Salvatore's zone of ________.
proximal development
A discipline technique that may damage a child's creativity, social acceptance, and math achievement is ______ control.
psychological
Gail says to her son, "After all the cooking and cleaning I've done for you, you are not considerate enough to pick up your toys! Mommy is not going to love you if you don't pick up your toys." This discipline technique is:
psychological control.
A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents.
psychological control:
An illness or disorder of the mind.
psychopathology:
An impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical.
reactive aggression:
Leo punches Alan after Alan accidentally tripped Leo on the playground. Leo's aggression would be described as:
reactive.
Both _____ aggression and _____ aggression directly reflect poor emotional regulation.
reactive; bullying
The terms "injury control" and "harm _____" refer to practices that are aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities.
reduction
Children who have mastered emotional _____ have learned when and how to express emotions.
regulation
Psychological control may reduce academic achievement and increase _____ aggression.
relational
Nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people.
relational aggression:
Foster care in which a maltreated child is placed in the care of a _____ is known as kinship care.
relative
Two-year-old Derek's neighbors notice that the boy is often dirty, wearing improper clothing for the weather, and left unattended on the family's porch. They call family services to report that they suspect the boy is being abused or neglected. At this point, before an investigation has taken place, Derek's condition is known as _____ maltreatment.
reported
Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities.
reported maltreatment:
Wrestling is a type of _____ play.
rough-and-tumble
Play that mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting, but in which there is no intent to harm.
rough-and-tumble play:
Play that mimics aggression, but with no intent to harm, is called:
rough-and-tumble.
scaffolding: Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process.
scaffolding:
Onlooker play appears _____ in the order of Mildred Parten's progression of social play.
second
The amygdala is part of the _____ system in the brain.
limbic
5.4.2 The Vocabulary Explosion The average child knows about 500 words at age 2 and more than _____ at age 6.
10,000
When was Head Start established in the United States?
1965
In the United States in 2010, what percentage of children spoke a language other than English at home?
21
Approximately what percentage of young children in the United States is of Hispanic heritage?
25 percent
Many Asian parents tend to expect their children to engage in cooperative social play by age:
3
At what age does the typical child develop the ability to catch a beach ball?
4
The typical child is able to catch a ball by age _____.
4
At what age is the typical child able to skip and gallop in rhythm?
5
By the age of _____ children are able to tell lies that are logical and plausible.
5
By the age of _____ year(s), children are less likely to throw temper tantrums than they were at an earlier age.
5
The body mass index (BMI) is lower at age _____ than at any other age in the first years of life.
5
The typical child is able to skip and gallop in rhythm by age _____.
5
Keira is 6. She is 3'7" tall. If her weight is average, Keira's weight is probably _____ pounds at most.
50
Janie is 2 years old. She most likely knows about _____ words.
500
The average child knows about _____ words at age 2 and more than _____ at age 6.
500; 10,000
By about age _____ young children's rigidity regarding their daily routines fades a bit.
6
By age _____, the average child in a developed nation weighs between 40 and 50 pounds and is at least 42 inches tall.
6
Frannie has begun to "slim down." She has lost the chubby toddler look and is now lean. She weighs 42 pounds and is 44 inches tall. Frannie must be around the age of:
6.
A 2-year-old's brain weighs _____ percent of what it will weigh in adulthood.
75
By age 6 the brain weighs _____ percent of what it will weigh in adulthood.
90
The High/Scope program, the _____ program, and Child-Parent Centers are early childhood intervention programs that consistently enrolled children full-time and were research-based.
Abecedarian
_____ is to emotion as hippocampus is to memory.
Amygdala
Which statement is consistent with the notion of injury control?
Appropriate controls can minimize harm.
Many researchers have traced the effects of parenting on child development, but the researcher whose findings continue to be most influential is _____.
Baumrind
Which child would be capable of being deliberately prosocial or antisocial?
Bettina, age 5
1. Children continue to gain weight and add height during early childhood. Many adults overfeed children, not realizing that young children are naturally quite thin. 2. Many young children consume too much sugar and too little calcium and other nutrients. One consequence is poor oral health. Children need to brush their teeth and visit the dentist years before their permanent teeth erupt. 3. Gross motor skills continue to develop; clumsy 2-year-olds become agile 6-year-olds who move their bodies well, guided by their culture. By playing with other children in safe places, they practice the skills needed for formal education. 4. Accidents cause more preventable deaths than diseases do. Young children are more likely to suffer a serious injury or premature death than are older children. Close supervision and public safeguards can protect young children from their own eager, impulsive curiosity. Pollutants hamper development, with lead proven to impair the brain and motor skills. 5. Injury control occurs on many levels, including long before and immediately after each harmful incident. Primary prevention protects everyone. Secondary and tertiary prevention also save lives.
Body Changes
What do circumcision and spanking have in common?
Both are customs that are considered child abuse in some cultures but not in others.
_____ maturation, scaffolding, myelination, and social interaction make early childhood ideal for language development.
Brain
6. The brain continues to grow in early childhood, reaching 75 percent of its adult weight at age 2 and 90 percent by age 5. Lateralization becomes evident. 7. Myelination is substantial during early childhood, speeding messages from one part of the brain to another. The corpus callosum becomes thicker and functions much better. Maturation of the prefrontal cortex, known as the executive of the brain, reduces both impulsivity and perseveration. 8. The expression and regulation of emotions are fostered by several brain areas collectively called the limbic system, including the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus.
Brain Development
As with motor skills, the brains of young children show impressive growth but are not nearly as developed as they will be later on. By age 2, most neurons are connected to other neurons and substantial pruning has occurred, as described in Chapter 3. The 2-year-old's brain is already 75 percent of adult weight; the 6-year-old's brain is 90 percent of adult weight. (The major structures of the brain are diagrammed in Figure 5.4.)
Brain Development
_____ aggression is unprovoked and involves repeated physical or verbal attacks.
Bullying
6. Three classic styles of parenting have been identified: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. Generally, children are more successful and happy when their parents express warmth and set guidelines. 7. A fourth style of parenting, neglectful/uninvolved, is always harmful. The particulars of parenting reflect the culture as well as the temperament of the child. 8. Children are prime consumers of many kinds of media. The problems that arise from media exposure include increased aggression and less creative play. 9. Even 2-year-olds correctly use sex-specific labels. Young children become aware of gender differences in clothes, toys, playmates, and future careers. 10. Freud emphasized that children are attracted to the opposite-sex parent and eventually seek to identify, or align themselves, with the same-sex parent. Behaviorists hold that gender-related behaviors are learned through reinforcement and punishment (especially for males) and social modeling. 11. Cognitive theorists note that simplistic preoperational thinking leads to gender schemas and therefore stereotypes. Humanists stress the powerful need of all humans to belong to their group. Evolutionary theory contends that sex and gender differences are crucial for the survival and reproduction of the species. 12. All five theories of sex-role development are plausible, which poses a challenge for caregivers.
Challenges for Caregivers
16. Child maltreatment includes ongoing abuse and neglect, usually by a child's own parents. Physical abuse is the most obvious form of maltreatment, but neglect is more common and may be more harmful. 17. Health, learning, and social skills are all impeded by abuse and neglect, not only during childhood but also decades later. 18. Tertiary prevention may include placement of a child in foster care, including kinship care. Permanency planning is needed.
Child Maltreatment
Which is NOT a benefit of sociodramatic play?
Children can strengthen their muscles.
One part of the brain that grows and myelinates rapidly during early childhood is the corpus callosum, a long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right sides of the brain. Growth of the corpus callosum makes communication between hemispheres more efficient, allowing children to coordinate the two sides of the brain or body. Failure of the corpus callosum to mature results in serious disorders: This is one of several possible causes of autism (Frazier & Hardan, 2009),
Connecting Hemispheres
What was a limitation of Diana Baumrind's research on parenting styles?
Diana Baumrind did not realize that some permissive parents provide extensive verbal guidance.
15. Organized educational programs during early childhood advance cognitive and social skills. Many child-centered programs are inspired by Piaget and Vygotsky. Behaviorist principles led to many specific practices of teacher-directed programs. 16. Many types of preschool programs are successful. It is the quality of early education—whether at home or at school—that matters.
Early-Childhood Education
The unconscious desire of girls to replace their mothers and win their fathers' exclusive love.
Electra complex:
1. Learning to regulate and control emotions is crucial during early childhood. Emotional regulation is made possible by maturation of the brain, particularly of the prefrontal cortex, as well as by experiences with parents and peers. 2. In Erikson's psychosocial theory, the crisis of initiative versus guilt occurs during early childhood. Children normally feel pride, sometimes mixed with feelings of guilt. Shame is also evident, particularly in some cultures. 3. Both externalizing and internalizing problems indicate impaired self-control. Some emotional problems that indicate psychopathology are first evident during these years, with boys more often manifesting externalizing behaviors and girls exhibiting internalizing behaviors.
Emotional Development
_____ believed that at about 3 or 4 years of age children enter the phallic stage of psychosexual development.
Freud
_____ differences involve the roles of males and females prescribed by the culture.
Gender
Comparing a toddling, unsteady 1-year-old with a cartwheeling 6-year-old makes some differences obvious. During early childhood, children slim down as the legs and arms lengthen and fat turns to muscle. The average body mass index (BMI, the ratio of weight to height) is lower at ages 5 and 6 than at any other time of life. Gone are the toddler's protruding belly, round face, short limbs, and large head. Size and Balance These cousins are only four years apart, but note the doubling in leg length and marked improvement in balance. The 2-year-old needs to plant both legs on the sand, while the 6-year-old cavorts on one foot. KATRINAWITTKAMP/GETTY IMAGES The center of gravity moves from the breast to the belly, enabling cartwheels, somersaults, and many other motor skills. The joys of dancing, gymnastics, and pumping a swing become possible. Toddlers often tumble, unbalanced—fortunately, they are close to the floor and thus don't have too far to fall. Kindergartners race and rarely slip. Increases in weight and height accompany this growth (see Appendix A). Over each year of early childhood, well-nourished children gain about 4½ pounds (2 kilograms) and grow almost 3 inches (about 7 centimeters). By age 6, the average child in a developed nation: Weighs between 40 and 50 pounds (18 to 22 kilograms) Is at least 3½ feet tall (more than 100 centimeters) Has adultlike body proportions (legs constitute about half the total height)
Growth Patterns
The most widespread early-childhood-education program in the United States, begun in 1965 and funded by the federal government.
Head Start:
The _____ program, the Abecedarian program, and Child-Parent Centers are early childhood intervention programs that consistently enrolled children full-time and were research-based.
High/Scope
the internal dialogue that occurs when people talk to themselves
How did Vygotsky define private speech?
As the body gains strength, children develop motor skills, both gross motor skills (such as skipping) and fine motor skills (such as drawing). Mastery depends on maturation and practice; some 6-year-olds can ice-skate or print legibly—but most cannot (see Infographic 5, page 171).
Improved Motor Skills
Feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person.
antipathy:
Which statement about Head Start is false?
Its long-lasting beneficial effects are well documented.
13. Language develops rapidly during early childhood, a sensitive period but not a critical one for language learning. Vocabulary increases dramatically, with thousands of words added between ages 2 and 6. In addition, basic grammar is mastered. 14. Many children learn to speak more than one language, gaining cognitive as well as social advantages. Ideally, children become balanced bilinguals, equally proficient in two languages, by age 6.
Language Learning
_____ is a type of education that emphasizes individual pride and achievement using many literacy-related tasks.
Montesorri
The results of a 2006 study of 5 year olds in inner-city Milwaukee revealed that, compared to other children, those exposed to a _____ program were better at prereading and early math tasks.
Montessori
Which early childhood approach emphasizes individual pride and achievement?
Montessori
Schools that offer early-childhood education based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori (an Italian educator more than a century ago); it emphasizes careful work and tasks that each young child can do.
Montessori schools:
13. The sense of self and the social awareness of young children become the foundation for morality, influenced by both nature and nurture. 14. Prosocial emotions lead to caring for others; antisocial behavior includes instrumental, reactive, relational, and bullying aggression. 15. Parental punishment can have long-term consequences, with both corporal punishment and psychological control teaching lessons that few parents want their children to learn.
Moral Development
_____ is the process by which axons become coated with a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.
Myelination
Although they rarely starve, 2- to 6-year-olds may be at greater nutritional risk than children of any other age because they eat too much of the wrong foods. Over the centuries, families encouraged eating, protecting children against famine. Even today in the poorest nations, infant and early-childhood malnutrition contributes to one-third of all child deaths (UNICEF, 2012) and slows later growth, including growth of the brain.
Nutrition
Sigmund Freud postulated that young boys have an unconscious desire to replace their fathers and win their mother's exclusive love. He called this the _____ complex.
Oedipus
The unconscious desire of young boys to replace their fathers and win their mothers' exclusive love.
Oedipus complex:
_____ occurs when children apply the rules of grammar when they should not.
Overregularization
What is involved in induction?
Parents talk with their child to help the child to understand why his or her behavior is wrong.
_____ identified five different types of play, including solitary and parallel.
Parten
According to _____, centration is one of the characteristics that limit a preoperational child's thinking.
Piaget
4. All young children enjoy playing—preferably with other children of the same sex, who teach them lessons in social interaction that their parents do not. 5. Active play takes many forms, with rough-and-tumble play fostering social skills and sociodramatic play developing emotional regulation.
Play
Which statement about play is true around the world?
Play reflects the values and activities of the culture.
The _____ system is crucial for the expression and regulation of emotions.
limbic
A famous program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy; it encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting.
Reggio Emilia:
_____ play allows children to explore and rehearse social roles.
Sociodramatic
_____ play allows for children to act out various roles and themes in stories they create.
Sociodramatic
Most of the increases in brain weight after infancy are the result of myelination. Myelin (sometimes called the white matter of the brain) is a fatty coating on the axons that speeds signals between neurons (see Figure 5.5). Although myelination continues for years, the effects are especially apparent in early childhood (Silk & Wood, 2011).
Speed of Thought
Since most of the brain is already present and functioning by age 2, what remains to develop? The most important parts! Although the 2-year-olds of other primates are more developed than human children in some ways (they climb trees better, walk sooner, etc.), and although many animals have abilities that people lack (e.g., dogs' sense of smell), young humans have intellectual capacities far beyond those of any other animal. Human brains continue to develop at least until early adulthood (Konner, 2010).
The Maturing Cortex
Which statement about discipline is true?
The types of discipline used depend upon the values of the family and culture.
The _____system includes the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus.
limbic
In the puppy in the box experiment described in the text, what was the reason for most 3 year olds thinking that Max the doll would look in the blue box upon his return?
They confused what they know with what they once thought and what they think someone else thinks.
9. Piaget stressed the egocentric and illogical aspects of thought during the play years; he called thinking at this stage preoperational because young children often cannot yet use logical operations. They sometimes focus on only one thing (centration) and see things only from their own viewpoint (egocentrism), remaining stuck on appearances and current reality. 10. Vygotsky stressed the social aspects of childhood cognition, noting that children learn by participating in various experiences, guided by more knowledgeable adults or peers who scaffold to aid learning. Such guidance assists learning within the zone of proximal development. 11. Children develop theories to explain human behavior. One theory about children's thinking is called theory-theory—the hypothesis that children develop theories because people innately seek explanations for everything they observe. 12. In early childhood, children develop a theory of mind—an understanding of what others may be thinking. Notable advances in theory of mind occur at around age 4. Theory of mind is partly the result of brain maturation, but culture and experiences also have an impact.
Thinking During Early Childhood
the belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive
What is animism?
Teacher-directed programs emphasize:
academics.
Together, rough-and-tumble play and sociodramatic play comprise ______ play.
active
One critique of Diana Baumrind's research on parenting styles is that she did not realize that some authoritarian parents are very _____.
affectionate
The _____ is the brain structure and part of the limbic system that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.
amygdala
A tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.
amygdala:
What is self-concept?
an Understanding of one's self
Empathy refers to:
an Understanding of the feelings and concerns of another person.
What is identification?
an attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else
In Puerto Rico, parents especially try to teach children to control their_____.
anger
A young child's belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive is known as _____.
animism
The feeling of dislike or even hatred for another person is _____.
antipathy
One of the long-term benefits for participants in the intensive, early intervention programs described in the text is that these children were less likely to need special _____.
education
Which Piagetian term literally means "self-centeredness"?
egocentrism
egocentrism: Piaget's term for young children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective.
egocentrism:
Amygdala is to emotion as _____ is to memory.
emotion
Amygdala is to hippocampus as _____ is to _____.
emotion; memory
Children who master _____ have learned when and how to express emotions.
emotional regulation
Shawn is 5 years old. When he is angry, he can express this appropriately without becoming explosive. When he is sad, he can express this and can be consoled. Shawn seems to have mastered:
emotional regulation.
The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed.
emotional regulation:
Which term refers to an Understanding of the feelings and concerns of another person?
empathy
empathy: The ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one's own.
empathy:
People in the United States who are not proficient in English have a high risk of diminished self-_____.
esteem
Kindergarteners play "boys chase the girls" on the playground. The teacher has observed that over the course of the year, the girls have begun to act more "girly" and almost flirtatious with the boys, and the boys have gradually acted more "macho" as they play this game. This apparent natural desire for the children to be desirable to each other and the subsequent development of sex roles would be best explained by _____ theory.
evolutionary
Which theory of gender differences focuses primarily on our biological need to reproduce to explain gender differences and behaviors?
evolutionary
The prefrontal cortex is the _____ of the brain.
executive
According to Diana Baumrind, _____ is the dimension in which parents expect from their children certain levels of responsibility and self-control.
expectations for maturity
Billy and Tish do not believe that it is right to expect their children to exhibit self-control or to take responsibility for most of their behaviors. This aspect of Billy and Tish's parenting would fall into which of Diana Baumrind's dimensions of parenting?
expectations for maturity
Sean and Maria are very cold toward and critical of their children. They rarely hug and kiss them or tell them that they love them. This aspect of Sean and Maria's parenting would fall into which of Diana Baumrind's dimensions of parenting?
expressions of warmth
The ability to speak or write is called _____ language.
expressive
Gabe took his BB gun and shot his neighbors' windows after getting into a fight with his father. Gabe is most likely_____ his anger.
extenilizing
A young child who states that "butter is made by butterflies" and "birds grow birdseed" is trying to use logical _____.
extension
externalizing problems: Difficulty with emotional regulation that involves expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled physical or verbal outbursts, as by lashing out at other people or breaking things.
externalizing problems:
According to the text, gender differences may make boys more vulnerable to _____ problems and girls more vulnerable to _____ problems.
externalizing; internalizing
A student who works hard to achieve good grades for the sole purpose of pleasing his parents would be said to have:
extrinsic motivation.
A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the need to have one's achievements rewarded from outside, perhaps by receiving material possessions or another person's esteem.
extrinsic motivation:
Kandi's husband works on car engines as a hobby. When she thinks about his hobby, Jessica often fails to figure out exactly what a particular part is, but she has the general idea of what it does and places it in an appropriate mental category. This is an example of _____.
fast-mapping
The process by which children develop an interconnected set of categories for words is called _____.
fast-mapping
The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning.
fast-mapping:
In the United States, parents especially try to teach children to control their _____.
fear
Cooperative play appears _____ in the order of Mildred Parten's progression of social play.
fifth
Skills that involve small body movements, such as writing and cutting food, are called _____ motor skills.
fine
Solitary play appears _____ in the order of Mildred Parten's progression of social play.
first
According to the text, children in China would be the most likely to engage in which type of play?
flying kites
A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent.
focus on appearance:
In a confidential survey cited in the text (Jon Hussey et al., 2006), one in _____ young adults reported having been slapped, hit, or kicked by an adult caregiver before sixth grade.
four
Associative play appears _____ in the order of Mildred Parten's progression of social play.
fourth
The children in the United States LEAST likely to attend preschool are:
from Spanish-speaking homes.
Suzy is 4 years old. She likes to play with dolls, wear dresses, and pretend she is a princess. These preferences are reflective of her:
gender
Differences in the roles and behaviors that are prescribed by a culture for males and females.
gender differences:
A child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences, which is based on his or her observations and experiences.
gender schema:
Culture dictates _____ differences, while biology determines _____ differences.
gender; sex
Overregularization demonstrates a child's Understanding of _____.
grammar
Overregularization demonstrates a child's Understanding of:
grammar.
After noticing that her 4-year-old brother was having difficulty putting a jigsaw puzzle together, 10-year-old Rose helped him with the task by putting together a few pieces herself, showing him how they fit and praising his successes, helping him to understand progress. From Vygotsky's perspective, this as an example of:
guided participation.
In a confidential survey cited in the text (Jon Hussey et al., 2006), one in four young adults reported:
having been slapped, hit, or kicked by an adult caregiver before sixth grade.
From infancy on, a person's _____ is more acute than vocalization.
hearing
The _____ is the brain structure that would be used by a small child to remember whether visiting the farm was a good time or a frightening time.
hippocampus
Which brain structure is the central processor of memory for locations?
hippocampus
A brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations.
hippocampus:
Which is an example of secondary prevention of child maltreatment?
home visits by a social worker
When children ask "why" questions, what should adults try to include in their answers?
how the information affects the child
According to the text, children in Cameroon would be the most likely to engage in which type of play?
hunting mice
The _____ is the brain structure that produces hormones, such as cortisol, that activate other parts of the brain and body, ideally in moderation.
hypothalamus
A brain area that responds to the amygdala and the hippocampus to produce hormones that activate other parts of the brain and body.
hypothalamus:
An attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else.
identification:
Make-believe friends who exist only in a child's increasingly common from ages 3 through 7, they combat loneliness and aid emotional regulation.
imaginary friends:
Practices that are aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities; these practices reflect the beliefs that accidents are not random and that injuries can be made less harmful if proper controls are in place.
injury control/harm reduction:
In the Debbie Laible study (2008) referred to in the text, it was found that securely attached children had as many conflicts with their parents as _____ attached children.
insecurely
Three-year-old Tim knocks Dan to the ground to get a toy away from him. Tim is probably demonstrating:
instrumental aggression.
Hurtful behavior that is intended to get something that another person has and to keep it.
instrumental aggression:
An example of a(n) _____ problem is a feeling of worthlessness.
internalizing
Difficulty with emotional regulation that involves turning one's emotional distress inward, as by feeling excessively guilty, ashamed, or worthless.
internalizing problems:
A drive that comes from inside a person is called _____ motivation.
intrinsic
A musician who plays for the delight of making music, even if no one else hears it, has:
intrinsic motivation.
The existence of imaginary friends, which are common in 3- to 7-year-olds, reflects:
intrinsic motivation.
A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the need to feel smart or competent.
intrinsic motivation:
A characteristic of preoperational thought that involves a child thinking that nothing can be undone is called _____.
irreversibility
Which characteristic of preoperational thought involves a child thinking that nothing can be undone?
irreversibility
Four-year-old Kanaan's mother makes him a ham and cheese sandwich for lunch. However, Kanaan refuses to eat the sandwich, stating that he does not like cheese. When Kanaan's mother removes the cheese from the sandwich, he still refuses to eat it and again states that he does not like cheese. This is an example of:
irreversibility.
A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred.
irreversibility:
The body mass index (BMI), or the ratio of weight to height:
is lower at ages 5 and 6 than at any other age in the first five years.
Erik has just turned 3. At night, Erik becomes upset if his Mom doesn't set out his favorite superhero pajamas, if his teddy-bear isn't placed between the pillows, and if his Mom has made the bed with the "wrong" sheets. Erik is illustrating the _____ phenomenon.
just right
The tendency of children to insist on having things done in a particular way. This can include clothes, food, bedtime routines, and so on.
just right:
A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child becomes his or her foster parent is called _____ care.
kinship
Foster care in which a maltreated child is placed in the care of a relative is known as _____ care.
kinship
A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child, usually a grandparent, becomes the approved caregiver.
kinship care:
Children could be referred to as _____ sponges in early childhood.
language
When adults build vocabulary and grammar in children within the child's zone of proximal development, it is called:
language enhancement.
Tuan and Min moved to the United States from Vietnam a year ago with their 7-year-old daughter, Qui. Over the past year, Qui has stopped speaking to her parents in Vietnamese and will only answer them in English. Qui is most likely demonstrating a(n) _____.
language shift
The tendency for each side of the brain to specialize in certain functions is called:
lateralization.
Literally, "sidedness," referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.
lateralization:
Developmentalists advise against switching a child's handedness, not only because it causes conflict but also because:
left-handedness may indicate an advantage in creativity.
What is a long-term benefit for participants in the intensive, early intervention programs described in the text?
less likely to need special education
The major brain region crucial to the development of emotional expression and regulation; its three main areas are the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus, although recent research has found that many other areas of the brain are involved with emotions.
limbic system:
The best evidence for the effectiveness of preschool education comes from studies that followed children from infancy through first grade; that is, from _____ studies.
longitudinal
People in the United States who are not proficient in English are at high risk for _____ school achievement.
low
The body mass index (BMI) is _____ at age 5 than at any other age in the first years of life.
lower
An experimenter who begins with two equal balls of clay and then changes the shape of one is testing for conservation of _____.
matter
All electronic _____ can be harmful to children.
media
According to Sigmund Freud, the Electra complex is when little girls have the unconscious desire to replace their _____ and win their father's exclusive romantic love.
mothers
The process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.
myelination:
Based on your textbook's discussion, it is reasonable to predict that children's scores on language development measures are _____ correlated with the number of hours they spend watching television each week.
negatively
An approach to child rearing in which the parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives.
neglectful/uninvolved parenting:
Mira is uninvolved in the lives of her children. She does not seem to know or care what they are doing. Her parenting style might be best described as:
neglectful/uninvolved.
An experimenter who lines up seven pairs of checkers in two equal rows and asks a child if the rows have the same number of checkers is testing for conservation of:
number.
Sight is to sound as the _____ lobe is to the _____ lobe.
occipital; temporal
Too much sugar and too little fiber cause tooth decay which affects _____ of young children in the U.S.
one-third
A kind of play identified by Mildred Parten is:
onlooker.
The tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned; common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.
overimitation:
The tendency of a young child to apply the rules of grammar to situations when he or she should not is:
overregularization.
The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more "regular" than it actually is.
overregularization:
Researcher Diana Baumrind identified three _____ styles.
parenting
Researcher Diana Baumrind traced the effects of _____ on child development, and her findings continue to be very influential.
parenting
The American researcher who identified five types of play, including solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative is _____.
parten
According to the text, the best playmates for young children are _____.
peers
The best way for children to learn motor skills is from their _____ who demonstrate the skills they are learning.
peers
An effort by child-welfare authorities to find a long-term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child. A goal is to avoid repeated changes of caregiver or school, which can be particularly harmful to the child.
permanency planning:
According to Diana Baumrind, _____ parents tend to have high nurturance and low expectations of maturity.
permissive
According to the text, it is difficult to get accurate statistics on child maltreatment because not all cases are noticed, not all noticed cases are reported, and not all reported cases are _____.
substantiated
A family is investigated for child maltreatment after a report by a neighbor. They are found to have been abusive and neglectful of their two children. The children are subsequently removed from the home and placed in foster care. This is a case of:
substantiated maltreatment.
Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified.
substantiated maltreatment:
In psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents.
superego:
The concept that an object or word can stand for something else, including something pretend or something not seen. Once symbolic thought is possible, language becomes much more useful.
symbolic thought:
The _____ approach to early childhood education emphasizes academics through large-group instruction.
teacher-directed
Which early childhood approach emphasizes academics through large-group instruction?
teacher-directed
After a stroke, Mrs. Tippett has difficulty recognizing speech sounds. Mrs. Tippett's ______ lobe may be damaged.
temporal
A call to poison control is an example of _____ prevention.
tertiary
Removing an abused child from his or her home would be an example of _____ prevention of child maltreatment.
tertiary
Angela's little girl found a bottle of her perfume and drank half the bottle. Angela immediately calls poison control and takes the steps that they advise. This is an example of:
tertiary prevention.
Actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, that are taken after an adverse event (such as illness, injury, or abuse) occurs and that are aimed at reducing the harm or preventing disability.
tertiary prevention:
Reggie can ride a bike only if his mom is providing some physical support and coaching. Vygotsky would say:
that riding a bike is within Reggie's zone of proximal development.
Dauntay is 3-year-old child. At night, he becomes upset if his Mom doesn't set out his favorite pajamas, his teddy-bear isn't placed between the pillows, and if the bed has been made with the "wrong" sheets. Dauntay is illustrating:
the "just right" phenomenon.
The term "gender differences" refers to:
the culturally prescribed differences in the roles and behaviors of males and females.
Which part of the brain is crucial for the expression and regulation of emotions?
the limbic system
What is fast-mapping?
the process by which children develop an interconnected set of categories for words
To what does the developmental term "perseveration" refer?
the tendency to stick to one thought or action
A person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization is seldom achieved before age 4.
theory of mind:
The tendency for children to want explanations of various things, especially things that involve them, reflects:
theory-theory.
The idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear.
theory-theory:
Guilt is the negative consequence of which developmental stage of Erik Erikson's theory?
third
Parallel play appears _____ in the order of Mildred Parten's progression of social play.
third
A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.
time-out:
Too much sugar and too little fiber cause _____ decay which affects one-third of young children in the U.S.
tooth
Angela's parents take her to the dentist when she is six and are shocked to discover she has three cavities that need to be filled. This is not surprising because:
tooth decay affects one-third of young children in the U.S.
Piaget has been criticized for _____ conceptual ability during early childhood.
underestimating
Typical 2- to 5-year-olds tend to view themselves:
unrealistically.
Most people:
use both sides of their brains for almost every skill.
People recognize today that child abuse or maltreatment is:
usually perpetrated by the child's parents.
The term substantiated maltreatment refers to cases that are reported and _____.
verified
An experimenter who begins with two equal glasses of water and then pours one of the glasses into a container of a different size and shape is testing for conservation of:
volume.
The results of a 2006 study of 5 year olds in inner-city Milwaukee revealed that, compared to other children, those exposed to a Montessori program:
were better at prereading and early math tasks.
In an experiment by Mark Lepper and colleagues (1973), children who received an expected award for drawing:
were less likely to draw.
What did Diana Baumrind describe as the permissive parenting style?
when parents have low expectations for maturity and rarely discipline their children
Research has found that before young children imitate adults, they usually want to know:
why the adults acted the way they did.
Physical punishment such as slapping and spanking is used more with _____ than on children of any other age group.
young children
Vygotsky's term for the skills—cognitive as well as physical—that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.
zone of proximal development (ZPD):
