Developmental Psychology Test Two

Attachment: What is it, John Bowlby

Attachment is an affectionate tie which one person forms to another that endures over time and space, most babies make one between 5-9 months, all babies make one even if the parent is abusive, John Bowlby is the founder of attachment

Smiling and Laughing

Babies begin to smile regularly when they are 2 months old when they learn facial recognition, they gradually learn to smile after pleasing events and their brain maturates When babies stat to laugh at the unexpected, babies show that they know what to expect, helps the baby release tension and fear of other items

State Children's Health Insurance Program

Helps states extend health care coverage to uninsured children in poor families

Paul Ekman: FACS experiment, 6 universal emotions

Paul Ekman developed the Facial Action Coding System where each muscle on a persons face was coded in order to study emotions Experiment: He showed people pictures of facial expression all across the world, some emotions were identified as universal (happiness, anger, disgust, fear, sad, and surprise) Shows that facial expressions can be universal and support darwin's theory where we have these facial expression for natural selection purposes

Temperament

Person's characteristics, based on their genes, on how the person would consistently react in certain situations and how they regulate their emotional, mental and behavioral functioning Emotions are constantly varying

Self Awareness

The cognitive understanding that people have an identity outside of other people and that they can feel emotions (happens around 15-24 months)

Personality

The unique blend of emotions, temperaments, thoughts and behaviors that each person possesses

Social Referencing (inclass): Dyadic vs triatic communication, Source et. al

0-12 months: Babies have dyadic interactions where babies interact with just the adult and no one else After 12 months, children begin to use adult expressions to see if they should do something with a particular object (social referencing), interaction is between three things hence why it is triatic Ex: Ashley at 7 months: She is not social referencing because she did not look to mother when she took the toy vs. Ashley at 12months: Ashley sees a bunny, she looks at her mom to see if she should pick it up and she makes a fearful emotion, ashley runs away from bunny Source: 12 month subjects were placed in front of a mock 20 cm cliff, they wanted to see if mom's emotional expressions influenced behavior and they found that when babies saw their mom make a fearful face none of them crossed over the cliff but when the baby saw a happy face they crossed over the cliff

3 components of an emotion

1. Emotion is a motivational disposition (they motivate you) (ex: our fear of failing a test makes us study) 2. Emotion is a feeling (ex: you feel fear, anger, etc.) 3. Emotion is a process to change relations between you and the environment (Ex: Matt got angry at the dog and this caused the dog to become fearful)

Adult-infant interaction (motherese): what are the 5 aspects of it

1. Exaggeration: Parents get excited and have bigger emotional reactions, 2. Slowing down (adults start to talk slowly), 3. Rhythm and Repetition (helps babies learn words), 4. Matching (baby imitates parents and parents imitate baby), 5. Turn taking Ex: Diane speaks to Ashley in an exaggerated way while playing peak a boo, she repeats what she is saying and she says it slowly

Fast Mapping, Grammar, Pragmatics ,social speech, and private speech

1. Fast mapping: Children learn the meaning of a word after it is said to them once or twice 2. Grammar: Children begin to use sentences when they are young yet they are not able to use correct tenses until they are older and do not know grammar exceptions (Evidence for Language Acquisition Device where we all have the genetic capability to learn language but the environment teaches us certain rules 3. Pragmatics: Properly using a term based on its meaning 4. Social Speech: Language that is used in order to be understood by a listener 5. Private speech: Talking aloud with one self with no intention to communicate with someone else Piaget thought it was egocentric but Vtgotsky's theory which seems to be more accurate is that children do it to help them solve problems but not all children do this

What are the four areas where there are gender differences?

1. Motor abilities: Men tend to be able to have better large muscle group activities while women can do fine motor skills better 2. Measures of sexuality: Men tend to participate in more casual sex and masturbate 3. Aggression: Men tend to be more physically aggressive where females tend to more verbally aggressive 4. Cognitive abilities: Men tend to do better on mental rotations and spatial memory while women are better at hiding things

Correlational Studies about the effects of maternal depression

1. Newborn indeterminate sleep: Babies with depressed mothers sleep less and get worse sleep (measured with EEG caps and compared non depressed mothers babies and depressed babies) 2. Norepinephrine levels: Babies with depressed mothers have low norepinephrine levels 3. Babies with mothers that were not depressed had more left frontal activation while more depressed babies had more right frontal activation (EEG) (Could show that mothers had given them the gene to develop depression or mothers actions could have been the epigenesis of the depression genes within the baby but there is no real answer)

What are the two variables of emotions? (4 and 3)

1. Observable: Actions, physiological reactions (sweating), self report, environmental events and contexts (you feel the same emotions as the people experience the event) 2. Nonobservable: Subjective emotional experience (everyone would break when they saw a deer), person-environment reactions (a baseball player is not fearful of catching a ball but a normal person would), appraisal processes (cognitive evaluation where people react differently depending on the situation (ex: A person gets a C and studied a ton so they are sad vs. a person gets a C and they didn't study a lot so they get excited)

Why do attachments form? 3 perspectives

1. Psychoanalytic: Freudians, they believe children attach to their mom for oral gratification via breastfeeding and attachment is secondary 2. Leanring: Skinner, attaching to mom is secondary through classical conditioning (they associate the mother with receiving food) 3. Ecological Attachment: Bowlby, we attach to our mothers as a primary response and we do this to increase our chances of survival

Sequalae of attachment style on children

1. Securely attached: These children are thriving, they are leaders and are more sensitive to the needs of others and academically achieve 2. Insecure-Avoidant: tend to be victimizers 3. Insecure-Resistant: Tend to be bullies, had anxiety disorders 4. Disorganized: Hostile, was rejected by peers, tell bad stories, psychopathological

5 Advances in Preoperational Stage of thought (focus especially on symbolic functioning, transduction, animism)

1. Symbolic Functioning: Ability to use mental representations, such as words numbers and images, to which the child has attached meaning Ex: children can say she wants ice-cream without having to look in the freezer for ice-cream We see this with pretend play where kids involve imaginary people and situations that represent real people 2. Understanding objects in space: They can read maps and realize that they are representations within the real world 3. Causality: Children understand that their actions have consequences although Piaget thought children participated in transduction (linking two unrelated phenomena together due to closeness in time) but in natural situations they can link two things together if they are equal and predictable relationships 4. Understanding of identities and categorization: Children know that things are basically the same even if they change shape (such as humans, identities), they can classify if something is the same or different (categorization), although piaget says animism is a hinderance(attributing realistic features to nonliving objects) many kids can say rocks are not living 5. Understanding of Numbers: Children will have basic concept of numbers by 4 1/2 months but cannot say anything about it due to language development not occurring, children can also count numbers to solve problems, it won't be until they are older where they can participate in more complex mental operations

Autonomy vs. shame and doubts

2nd stage in Erikson's psychosocial development, 18 months-3 years, kids develop a balance between self determination and control by others, they begin to substitute their own judgement about situations instead of parents judgement from earlier model (basic trust vs. mistrust) Ex: Toliet Training: Kids learn that they can achieve this on their own but parents need to set appropriate limits and shame and doubt child to help them recognize limits It is important for parents to learn that when kids asset their independence at age two with comments such as "no" to respond to the behavior as the children asserting self control and not stubbornness. This helps the child develop self control and avoid excessive conflict

Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt

3rd stage, children battle crisis where they want to try tons of new things (initiative) bur they realize some of these things are bad (guilt) so they have to find a balance

Gender Schemas and Ruble (1983), Bem Sex Role inventory

A cognitive structure that organizes the world in terms of male and female Ruble (1983) was a study conducted were men and women were asked to attribute certain adjectives to males and females, most commonly appearing adjectives were put in a table Men are highly endorsed for being independent and aggressive and women are high as being emotional and gentle across the globe, culture influences other gender schemas but the US seems to be more extreme On the BEM score, if your masculinity and felinity score is above 4.9 then you are androgynous Undifferentiated individuals have less than 4.9 scores on masculinity and femininity

Self Esteem: 5 to 7 shift

A judgement a person makes about their self worth, depends on cognitive growth and is not fully there until they are 8 years old, children begin to form self worth based on what their parents tell them and it is based on past successes (failing a lot as a kid names then feel helpless) Parents need to give focused feedback not criticism

Attachment and Mary Ainsworth findings with it (3 types of attachment), 4th that was found later

A reciprocal lifelong between two people (mainly baby and parent) where each person contributes to the relationship Ainsworth: Studied with Bowlby who said that there were detriments to development if the baby was separated from the mother, she created a strange situation, where the baby was left alone or would be left with a stranger and the mother would either come back after or before the stranger), Ainsworth found three attachment styles: 1. Secure: The baby would cry or protest when the mom leaves and the baby would greet her happily when she came back, not very angry children 2. Avoidant: Rarely cry when the mother leaves but avoids her on her return, they are very angry, they dislike being held but they hate being put down even more 3. Resistant/Ambivalent: Baby becomes very upset before the mother leaves and then is extremely upset when the mother leaves, very anxious, when the mother comes back they seek her out but then they squirm when comforted, they do not explore their surroundings and are hard to comfort 4. (Mary Main found this, get a secondary classification such as avoidant disorganized or resistant disorganized) Disorganized-disoriented attachment: Lack an organized structure to deal with the stranger situation where they reach out to the stranger once the mother leaves, when the mother comes back they are confused on how to react, most likely that these mothers are intrusive, abusive and insensitive its not related to the child's temperament, these children are at risk for aggressive conduct disorders

Long Term effects of maltreatment: 4 types, failure to thrive and shaken baby syndrome

Abusive behaviors towards another human being Can be: Physical abuse (injury to the body through punching, kicking etc.), Neglect (failure to meet a child's basic needs such as food and clothing), Sexual abuse (any sexual activity involving a child and an older person), and emotional maltreatment (Failure to provide emotional support, love and affection) Children across the globe are maltreated, most common is neglect, specifically poverty, mothers usually do this, parents tend to physically abuse each other if they abuse child, parents with substance abuse problems tend to neglect their children, societal violence and physical punishment (All of these are from Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory) Failure to thrive: an apparently healthy baby's inability to grow due to emotional neglect Shaken Baby Syndrome: When a parent shakes their baby when they get angry by their crying and the child suffers brain damage or dies, head trauma is very prevalent with this

Hormones with sexual differentiation: Androgenization

Androgenization: hormone produced by the fetus, androgen, that influences the genitalia and brain development of the fetus, happens at 3-6 months within the fetus If there is no androgen present then the fetus would phenotypically be female

Theory of Mind: Knowledge about thinking and mental states, social cognition, individual development

Aware of your own mental processes and others differ Piaget found that children lacked a theory of mind when asked certain questions, such as where do dreams come from At the same time, many people criticize his findings saying that if the questions are abstract children have a hard time answering them with theory of mind but they can tell the difference between a boy thinking about a cookie or a boy having a cookie By the time children are 3-5 years old, they come to the understanding that thinking goes on in the mind but children believe they can stop mental activity when really the mind is always thinking even if they are not conscious of it Children who are 5 think that their thoughts and emotions can affect their dreams but by the time they are 11 they realize that they cannot control dreams Children eventually develop social cognition, which is the idea that others have mental states, they develop more empathy and are less egocentric Individual development: learning how to interact with one another (social competence) and brain maturation and language development vary for each child and help use develop theories of mind Ex: Bilingual children realize that there are several ways to say the same thing therefore they tend to grasp the theory of mind concept quicker

Gender identity and Gender differences vs. gender similarities hypothesis

Awareness of one's femaleness or maleness depending on the society in which they thrive Gender differences: there are physiological and behavioral differences between males and females EX: Girls have better verbal fluency, better math computation skills and are better at locating objects vs. males who are better at spatial reasoning, sexual inclinations and better motor performance, and math word problems At the same time, just because a child is born a particular gender does not mean they are going to succeed in one task over the other gender (gender similarities, usually a very small difference or not effect size between genders)

Development of Gender Awareness (Kohlberg): Gender labeling and Gender constancy

BY ages 2-3, children realize their gender (gender labeling), by 4-7 years old children realize that their male and femaleness does not change even in certain situations (gender constancy) (Ex: A male wears a skirt is still a boy) Ex: Ashley at 35 months: She knows she is a girl (gender labeling) but she shows some signs of gender confusion Ashley at 3 years 4 months: She knows gender differences to a point but it is not always consistent (she tends to use genitalia as a differentiator)

When do Emotions Appear?

Babies show basic emotions of contentment, interest and distress but other complex emotions develop more as a babies brain maturates

Emergence of emotions

Babies start to cry and they are unhappy when they want certain things but as they develop they realize that they can learn to show more feelings based on how a person responds, they feel like they have more control over the world and regulate emotions and states of arousal Ex: A baby smiles when the baby wants to talk or baby cries when it wants something

Evolutionary Approach for Gender differences: Theory of sexual selection, critiques, and Buss

Behaviors of gender are bio based and are there to help each gender achieve a goal, purpose is sexual selection (gender role determines the response they are expecting to have when finding a sexual partner) (men are supposed to be more aggressive and have many partners whereas women are supposed to be more nurturing and have minimal partners) Buss posits that natural selection aids with this where men and female with certain genes are able to reproduce more and live longer than others on average (men that are better at spatial perceptions for hunting and women for finding things and differentiating between colors Critics: Theory seems to be sound with sexual selection (There are certain qualities that on average men and women seek in one another) but with other aspects, such as caregiving, there is not really a difference

How is attachment established

Bowlby and Ainsworth claim that children's attachment style is a working model meaning it can changed based on how the mother treats them Erikson: Secure attachment makes it so the baby is trusting of the environment whereas babies with avoidant, ambivalent and disorganized-disoriented attachment tend to mistrust parents

Attachment Behavior System: Ashley and Harlow's monkeys

Bowlby says we are born with this, function of this is that children find stress relieve by being close to parents (proximity) HEre is the order of how it works: The child feels threatened (a scary object comes up), the child feels immense anxiety, to relieve this anxiety the child runs to a comforting figure Ex: Ashley starts to cry when her mother leaves but then when her mother comes back in and gives her a hug she calms down Ex2: If the monkey is raised without a mother and are scared by something, the monkey retreats into solitude and rocks back and forth, can't form normal attachments,

Empathy and altruistic Helping

By two years old children participate in altruistic acts, where they do things without expecting anything in return, when empathy develops (ability to imagine how another person would feel in a situation), seems to arise in the second year of life and develops over time

Limitation of Preoperational thought: Egocentrism, centration, decenter, tests used to measure this, Criticism with egocentric claim

Centration: the tendency for pre operational children to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others Decenter: To think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation Egocentrism: Inability for children to consider another person's view point, a form of cent ration Ex: A child thinks their bad behavior caused his mom to get sick Mountain Task: Had a child look at a landscape mountain on a table and had a clown stuffed animal across from the table, Piaget found that kids could not tell the experimenters what the clown would see until they were out of pre operational thought At the same time, there was an experiment done with children in pre operational thought where they were asked to hide a doll from two police officer dolls and they were able to due it.. it seems that children only have egocentric thoughts during abstract tasks but not during familiar situations

Gender differences between boys and girls and things that do not differ

Certain elements of maturation are the same for both sexes, such as walking, teething, etc. 6 month year olds: Respond differently to male and female voices 9-12 months: Infants can tell the difference between males and females 1-2 years old: girls and boys tend to play with different toys and boys begin to play more aggressively than girls 25 months: Boys and girls begin to imitate more behaviors associated with their gender 2-3: Boys and girls tend to use more words associated with their gender (tractor vs. necklace)

Bodily Growth

Children are growing at a quick pace and become more slender and less round, have better respiratory systems, good to promote healthy eating and promote physical activity

Limitation 3 of Concrete operational stage: Distinguishing between fantasy and reality, Animism

Children can tell the difference between real and imagined things and something they are trying to do or imagining doing, but sometimes it is unsure to see if children are giving you real answers or if they are following pretenses (they preferred touching the box with the imaginary bunny over the monster even though they said after the experiment that it didn't matter since the bunny was made up), some children will think a person dress in a costume is actually real when it isn't even when they are 4-6 years old Magical thinking is used by kids to explain how situations unfold that don't have a straight answer, but unlike adults they are more willing to think this fantasy world is true Animism: Attributing realistic factors to inanimate objects, that everything in their presence is real even when it is fantasy Ex: The sky is angry hence why it is storming

Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding (Vygotsky's Theory of development with interactive learning)

Children learn by internalizing the lessons that are taught by their parents Scaffolding: Aid from our parents towards children to help them do a task until they learn how to do it Zone of proximal development: The gap of what a child already knows and what they are not yet able to to accomplish on their own Children that receive scaffolding before they reach kindergarten are able to better learn certain things on their own

Social Learning Approach with Gender Differences: Social Cognitive theory (pros and cons)

Children learn gender typing by watching other models (socialization where children analyze other people's actions throughout society) and then they perform actions that are suitable to them because they were rewarded or punished, posited by Bandura Negative: Does not explain how girls and boys differentiate between gender typed behaviors (How do girls know to do girl behaviors and what they are) and why children are motivated to attain this knowledge

False Belief Task

Children were given a box of crayons and were asked what was inside of it and they said crayons but when they opened they found candles, These children in the pre operational stage were asked what snoopy would find in the crayon box.. children within pre operational thought answered candles because children were unable to see that snoopy did not have the same mental processes as them (they lacked a theory of mind)

Origins of Conscience: Conscience, Committed and Situational Compliance with Kochanska's experiment, Receptive cooperations

Conscience: Emotional discomfort about doing something wrong and the ability to refrain from doing the bad behavior Depends on the willingness to do the right behavior because the child believes its right (internalized standard morals) not because of self regulation (where you do a certain behavior because your parents or society want you to do it) Study with toys to test this: They had a room filled with toys and the mothers were told to tell their children that they could not touch any of these toys on the shelf Children who did not touch the toys and cleaned the room with no reminders showed committed compliance, mothers tended to parent children with gentle guidance Children showed situational compliance needed prompting from parents to do a certain behavior, usually were parented with negative control, such as threats Receptive Cooperation: Child is eager to cooperate with parents and do certain activities, such as chores (tend to be high if children are securely attached to mothers (mothers were responsive to the childs behavior) compared to ambivalent and avoidant attachment children (low cooperation and responsiveness due to parental unresponsiveness)

Limitation two of pre operational thought: Inability to conserve, irreversibility

Conservation: two things remain the same even if they are altered in appearance Tested this with the conservation of liquid task, kids were shown two containers that had the same amount of liquid and were in the same sized glass, one glass's water poured into another cup that was taller so it appeared visually that the cup had more water, when the children were asked which cup had more water they said the one that looked taller (they could not consider both height and width, they could only focus on one aspect of the cup (centration error)) They failed at this too because irreversibility which is the failure to see that actions can go two or more ways, they focus on successive states of presentation, like slides on a powerpoint Ex: Children focus on how the water stands in the cup rather than on the water being poured from one glass to another

Self Regulation

Control over one's behaviors in order to give into a caregivers demands, even if they are not present The key is making sure socialization occurs where they participate in certain behaviors that make them productive members of society by seeing what their parents due and making those behaviors into their own (internalization) To control their behaviors they need to develop attentional regulation to develop will power and cope with stress, self consciousness and evaluative emotions (empathy, shame and guilt) in order to delay feelings of gratification and resist temptation Does not happen until the child is 3 years old

Emergent Literacy

Development that occurs where children acquire knowledge and skills that help them read and write, they learn oral skills, such as vocabulary, and phonological skills, such as linking a sound to a word It is good to read to your children because it helps them pick up on vocabulary and makes them excited to read or exposing them to educational tv can help them read

Adult-infant interaction: Still Face Paradigm

Ed Teonidc: Used 2-5 month year old babies and the facilitators would make a normal face, a still face than a normal face He wanted to see if babies could recover after the mother made a still face When the baby sees his mother make a still face instead of a happy one like he expects, his body becomes dysfunctional (he begins to sweat) and he looks away These are the types of interactions depressed mothers have with their babies

Understanding and Regulating Emotions, 5 to 7 shift with regulating emotions and understanding them

Emotional regulation: someone who understands their emotions well and can control them tends to get along better in social situations 5: Children, even if they broke the rules, feel better when they still keep the item they took 7: Children feel better when they follow the rules even if it means giving up what they took Children have a hard time regulation emotions because they think people can only experience one emotion at a time Children understanding emotions: 5: Children do not feel self evaluative emotions, such as pride or guilt, but they say they are happy or worried 6: Children would tell others how their parents thought of the actions 7: Children would feel this way only if the parents saw them adult: Children would feel a certain way even if their parents didn't see (internalization)

Self Evaluative emotions

Emotions that are expressed after a person can analyze their own thoughts (self awareness) and what society expects from them behaviorally, happens after 3 months

Self Conscious Emotions

Emotions that depend on self awareness, such as embarrassment, empathy and envy

Basic Trust vs. basic mistrust

Erikson's first stage of development in psychosocial development, he said that babies develop a sense of reliability from the objects around them up to 18 months, if trust predominates, in other words if the parents are there to help them, they have hope that their needs will be fulfilled vs. mistrusting a baby causes the baby to develop unpredictable relationships Feeding situation is one way to create trust with a baby

The father's role with development

Father's role changes depending on cultural norms, in America dads take the role as being caregivers if the mom works a lot, it is good for fathers to have positive and frequent interactions with their children in order to help the child develop cognitively, socially and physically, college educated dads seem to reach out more to their sons

Brain Growth and Emotional Development

First three months: Cerebral cortex matures therefore cognitive perceptions happen, reflexive behaviors occur such as neonatal smile 9-10 months: Frontal lobe begins to interact with limbic system and hypothalamus so babies can experiences and interpret emotions simultaneously 2 years: Self awareness, self conscious emotions and a greater capacity to controlling emotions and activities is due to mylenation of frontal lobe Three years: Evaluative emotions happen when hormonal changes occur in the autonomic nervous system, no more dominance with sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) within autonomic system

Artistic Development: Kelley's study

Found that children's art relates to their cognitive development, 2 year olds scribble patterns, 3 year olds draw shapes, 4-5 year olds begin to draw pictures, eventually they get more complex showing their representational ability Teaching kids how to draw can be good for their creativity development although Kellogg believes it is harmful (depends on cultural construct since east asian children tend to be very creative and they had teaching)

Gender differences hypothesis vs. Gender similarities hypothesis (look at evidence from Hyde's meta analysis and effect size)

Gender differences hypothesis: Posits that males and females are psychologically vastly different (think men are from mars and women are from venus book) Gender similarities: Most gender differences have a very small effect size or an effect size of 0 (although males and females have some things different, males and females typically are more similar with their psychology Hyde's Metaanalysis: Hyde took 46 studies about male and female differences and averaged their results (by doing this she was able to find consistent findings in all her studies) She found that the effect size for male and female differences for most studies were small or zero which means that females and males on average tend to resemble each other Effect size: Degree to which two groups vary from one another Two Factors: Mean differences and variation around the means (if the means are close together, the effect size is small, if there is a lot of variation then there is a large effect size) the higher the effect size the less graphs resemble each other

Gender Roles vs. Gender typing vs. Gender Stereotypes

Gender roles: Behaviors that are deemed appropriate by the society from society for a particular gender to participate in EX: female housewife and male breadwinner Gendertyping: Where a child is socialized to learn an appropriate gender role and to perform those behaviors in society Gender stereotypes: Children's preconcieved notions about male and female behavior

Generic memory, script, episodic memory, autobiographical memory

Generic Memory: A script (outline of a repeated action) is stored in order for a child to know what to expect for certain events Ex: A generic memory of restraints consists of a script of going to a table and ordering food from a waitress Episodic memory: A long term memory of a particular event, due to limited memory they only remember certain things temporarily unless they are reminded Ex: Episodic memories can be influenced if a person shows them a doctored photo where their face has been inserted and asked them to describe a memory Autobiographical Memory: A long term memory that is stored based on personal significance, doesn't happen till the child is 3 years old, these memories have special and personal meaning to children, can't develop until they are three because they do not have a self concept and can't talk about it (relies on language development

Motherese Studies by Fernald

Had babies and mothers come into the lab He found that babies are very responsive to their mothers and this is evolutionarily based Babies touch an item that they aren't supposed to because the mother is using a warm tone (9 months), 18 months: Baby gets confused on whether to touch the item or not because the parent is talking to them with a warm tone It is important that mothers are giving their child clear instructions on what is good and bad

The mother's role within child development and attachment (Henry Harlow's experiment): Ecological attachment and contact comfort

Harlow separated monkeys at birth from mothers for 165 days, half were assigned to live on a mesh wire monkey and half were given cloth, Hypothesis: If the psychoanalytic or learning approach is true, monkey will spend more time on mother that feeds them Harlow's experiment with maternal warmth with rhesus monkeys found that monkeys spend more time on their terry cloth mother than mesh wire monkey (ecological attachment) even if that monkey provided them food, this goes against what BF skinner and Freud posited about babies wanting to be close to mother since she was a food source, it is important that the mother is responsive to the babies needs for normal development of social, cognitive, emotions and provide them with contact comfort (emotional bond is enhanced by comforting monkey's fur()

Information Processing Model with basic memory processes, such as encoding, storage, retrieval, sensory memory, working memory, executive functioning, long term memory

How quickly children can interpret information and use it in future tasks, as the brain maturates children develop a stronger attention span at the same time children tend to focus on small details and not the big picture How information is processed 1. Encoding: Process in which information is stored within the brain 2. Storage: When information is put into certain compartments 3. Retrieval: The process by which information is accessed (certain kids can do this more quickly than others, especially if the information is extremely important to them) Types of memory 1. Sensory Memory: Temporarily holds incoming information but the information is not encoded and the memory fades, 2. Working Memory: Information that is being encoded or that has been retrieved goes here when we need that information to help complete a task, at the same time the capacity of how much information in there can vary (two year olds cannot hold as many numbers in this memory as they could when they are 11) Growth of working memory helps with executive functioning, which is conscious control of thoughts to help us achieve a goal (develops a ton between the ages of 2-5) Central executive: Elements of working memory that controls the processing of information and what information gets stored into long term memory, can pull memories out of long term memory into working memory to change details with the memory 3. Long term memory: Memories that are stored in unlimited space and is remembered for long periods of time

What are the 4 types of crying?

Hunger cry: rhythmic that is not always associated with hunger, Angry cry: a variation of rhythmic cry in which excess air is forced through the vocal cords, pain cry: A sudden onset of crying without any preliminary moaning sometimes followed by holding their breath and frustration cry: two or three drawn out cries with no prolonged breath holding

Influence with measured intelligence

IQ is not a measure of the inborn quantity of intelligence but it measures how well a child can do certain tasks at a certain time compared to others that are the same age They have found that IQ may be influenced by nurture at first but children tend to resemble parents more when they get older (MZ correlation higher than DZ) When SES is low, IQ tends to be low unless there is a supportive home environment

Psychoanalytical Approach to Gender Differences: Oedipus complex, Electra Complex, identification

Identification: children adopt characteristics of the parent of the same sex, which explains Oedipus complex and Electra Complex Oedipus complex: A son wants to marry his mother and to do this he wants to kill his father, he realizes he cannot get rid of his father therefore he begins to act like him so he can attract someone like his mother Electra Complex: Daughter wants fathers penis so she wants to kill her mom, she realizes she can't do that so she begins to act like her mother so she can attract men with penises

Impact of Child Care

If the mother is working it is very important hat the child receives good child care since children that have mothers working more than 30 hours a week tend to cognitively develop slower between 15 months-3 years old, especially if the family is poorer Child care facilities need to: accommodate to shy (temperament) and insecurely attached children since they deal with more stress than outgoing securely attached children, accommodate to boys since they deal with more stress Quality of care depends on how the staff is trained, and small child to staff ratio, and process characteristics such as the warmth, sensitivity and responsiveness of caregivers in situations Need stimulating interactions with responsive adults to help foster early cognitive, linguistic and psychosocial development and constant caregivers to develop trust and secure attachments

Preschool Goals and types, Project Head Start

In the United States we use a child centered philosophy when teaching children where emotional and social growth is in line with development needs is beneficial just as much as academic and advanced motor skills East Asia only focuses on academic preparation Project Head Start: Enhances cognitive skills for kids along with providing physical health improvements, social skills and where there is an increase in vocal, letter recognition, social skills, but a decrease in math and aggression

Emotions

Individual reactions to experiences that involve physiological or behavioral changes

Sleep problems with young children

It is normal for a child to sleep talk and walk if the motor cortex accidentally turns on but it is not normal if the child is doing these frequently when they are older Night terrors: Deep sleep where the child sits up and is freaking out in bed but they don't remember the episode in the morning, can be normal in children 3-13 years Don't interrupt sleep talking or terrors because it may confuse the child just lead them back to bed Enuresis: Repeated involuntary urination at night by children old enough to have bladder control, abnormal in children older than 8 years old, children should not be punished for this

Cognitive Approach to Gender Differences: Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory (gender constancy, gender typing, gender stability, gender consistency) and Bem's gender schema theory (schema, gender stereotypes)

Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory: "I am a boy therefore I act like a boy", Gender constancy: children realize their gender will always be the same, precedes gender typing (which toys they will play with), children realize their gender (gender identity) and that their gender stays the same as they age (gender stability) and gender stays the same even if the person resembles the other gender (gender consistency) Current day explanation: Gender constancy (children realize their gender) does not have to precede gender typing (what types of behaviors people of a certain gender engages in) however, gender constancy does effect gender development Gender Schema Theory: Founded by Sandra Bem, children develop schemas (complex understanding of a topic based on their observations) about what it means to be a male or female, once they establish these roles they match their behaviors based on what their gender is supposed to be like (promotes gender stereotypes) At the same time, children's ideas of gender tend to be influenced by misinformation effect where they forget information that goes against their construction of gender and this theory does not explain why some children are more gender typed (participate in more behaviors associated with their gender) than other children

Brain Lateralization with gender differences

Left brain deals more with language and speech whereas the right brain deals more with quantitative and spatial reasoning Males are more lateralized than females, which means their right and left brains are more independent of one another

New York Longitudinal Study

Longitudinal study with temperament where they studied 133 infants into adulthood, they looked at how active the children were, how regular were their sleep eating patterns etc., how readily they accepted people into their lives and how sensitive they were to sensory stimuli, and mood They found three categories of children 1. Easy children: Children that are generally happy, rhythmic in biological functioning and accepting of new experiences (40%) 2. Difficult children: irritable, irregular biological rhythms, intense emotional expressions (10%) 3. Slow to warm up children: Mild but slow to adapt to new stimuli (15%) At the same time many of the children (35%) varied and did not neatly fit into any category and this is normal

Homelessness and exposure to toxins and children

Many children that have single mothers live in unstable environments, this causes depression, anxiety, bad academics and behavioral problems Children are more likely to get infections from smoking than adults such as bronchitis and children are more suspectible to air pollutants

Factors Influencing Attachment

Maternal behaviors: strong evidence these predict how a child will attach later (they need to be responsive to child's behaviors(secure), no not holding baby, ultimately unresponsive (avoidant), Parents inconsistently respond to baby (resistant), fighting behavior toward baby (disorganized) Characteristics of the child: temperament (some children are born with an overreactive amaglyda making them more stressed and scared), Cultural evidence (how a baby is reared depends on the parents)

Kindergarten schooling

Most kids go when they are 5 even if it is not required Kids who go to full day kindergarten tend to have better reading and math skills at first but by third grade they don't anymore Kids from high SES families tend to have superior math and reading skills Found that if children have problems with behaviors in kindergarten it did not show that they would have a lot later in life

Effects of maternal depression: Experimental evidence (2)

Mothers with post partum depression either act: Normal, intrusive (pinch the baby, get in their face), or withdrawn (most prominent, no repetition, exaggeration, etc.) with babies Still Face Paradigm: Babies who have depressed mothers don't get upset when the mothers give them a still face Cohn and Tronick: 3 month year old babies resembled moms if they had depression

Mutual Regulation Model

Mutual regulation is when the babies and mothers communicate emotional states with one another to dictate an appropriate response Infants will send certain signals to parents, such as a smile, to influence how a caregiver reacts to them, appropriate reactions by parents towards kids actions are the healthiest, this helps the babies learn to read other people's behaviors and to develop certain expectations If babies are not given a particular response, such as a frown when the baby wants to play, the baby becomes distressed and tries to fix the situation... This happens a lot with mothers with post partum depression

Is it good to pick up a baby when they are crying?

One study shows that picking up a baby too much when crying is bad because they learn not to deal with certain things but at the same time if you don't pick up the baby their emotional development is stunted, it is good if parents pick up the baby before they shriek with rage

Family, Peer, and cultural influences on gender differences

Parents may respond to children differently which creates stronger gender differences, for example fathers tend to socialize their son with gender typed behaviors more so than girls, boys are more encouraged to explore their environments too, maternal employment makes children more androgens Siblings influence gender development where founder siblings of the same sex tend to imitate the older one Peers at school tend to be more accepted if they play with individuals of the same sex and tend to engage in more gender typed behavior Cultural influences: Tv watching and books help teach kids certain gender typed behaviors (Social cognitive learning theory promotes this) Don't know if it is all nurture or nature with gender typed behaviors

How parents shape gender development in children and gender typing behaviors

Parents think of baby boys and girls in a different way therefore they treat them differently, kids learn how to behave via gender typing behaviors, which is the socialization process by which children learn what behaviors are appropriate for their gender, it appears that fathers treat girls and boys more differently than mothers (fathers talk to their sons more frequently and mothers talk to daughters more once they are two), fathers are more aggressive with boys and more sensitive to women in the United States whereas in other cultures fathers tend to play less aggressively with small children

Motor Skill Growth in young children

Physical skills that require large muscle groups, they can run and jump higher due to development of lung capacity, bones and muscles Fine motor skills develop gradually and slowly, such as buttoning a shirt, therefore they need parental guidance until that system of action is more controlled Handedness: Preference for using one hand over the other happens at age 3, say there is a gene for right handedness but if the child does not inherit it they have a 50-50 chance of being left-handed (we see this where MZ correlation is higher than DZ twins and two right handed parents have a left handed child)

False beliefs and deceptions with children in pre operational thinking

Piaget believed that children in the pre operational stage could understand that their beliefs are false and this may stem from egocentric thinking, it is not until the child is 6 that they realize that people who experience the same things may interpret them differently Piaget said that all children regard falsehoods as lies but in reality they can see if some things are mistakes, such as eating contaminated food as a mistake and not a lie

Poverty Effects on Children

Poverty usually leads to parents maltreatment towards their children, this form of neglect is usually due to low SES and large family size but at the same time most poor people do not neglect children Most children that are neglected tend to be put in the foster care system to escape the danger, at the same time these children are not adopted usually and are living in unstable households Can have traumatic brain damage, specifically with misreading faces, poor physical, mental and emotional health, cognitive and language development delayed, poor academic achievement, delinquency Often times the abused children later neglect their children At the same time, some people do not develop these problems due to their genes (powerful resilience, creativity, self esteem, intelligence, humor) but an experiment with monkeys showed decreased serotonin release in the brain if there was no maternal warmth Other chapter: poor verbal and spacial skills, reading skills, malnourished children who received supplements from hospitals tended tp have higher IQs than other children, some may die from this (lower SES higher risk of death)

Conclusions about the strange situation

Predictive validity of attachment: The attachment that a child makes first affects their future attachments (mainly environmental influence), Baby is born with Activation behavioral system therefore the baby will bond with any caregiver even if they are abusive, avoidant or resistant disorganized behavioral patterns are common with children that have abusive parents, all four attachments are organized ways of dealing with strange situation (stress)

Brain Development in young children

Prefrontal cortex develops and hearing pathways mylenate by the time the child is 4 years old, brains may differ in size but does not effect development, corpus collusum, which connects communication between the right and left brain do not fully develop until the child is 15 and this improves coordination of senses, memory processes, attention and arousal and speech and hearing Effects growth in motor skills

Recognition and Recall

Recognition: Ability to identify something they encountered in the past Recall: Ability to reproduce knowledge from memory (the more familiar a kid is with knowledge, the easier time they have telling the person the information from the past Kids do better with recognition tasks because they lack awareness of how to properly store information so they can quickly recall it in the future

Preoperational Stage in Piaget Cognitive Development and 4 limitations

Second Stage, happens between 18 months to 6 years old, mental representations replace overt behaviors however they are incapable of mental operations, which are powerful strategies of thinking Egocentrism Inability to conserve Appearance is reality (Animism) Lack of hierarchical classification

Social Referencing

Seeking emotional information from parents in an ambiguous situation to guide the child's behaviors Ex: A baby will run away from a toy if they see their parents shriek These interactions help babies develop self consciousness emotions, such as pride and guilt, socialization (how to react in certain situations) and internalization (how they feel about certain situations) Most children develop social referencing when they are 12 months old (retain knowledge about what to do during experiences even if they happened hours beforehand) (saw this with 14 month year olds who knew how to react to an object when they saw an adult react to it positively or negatively hours before) but 11 month year old children could not retain information gained from an experience that happened hours before but they could respond to certain emotional cues only if they were presented right about 3 minutes after the exposure (see this with the dropping toy experiment)

Self Concept and Self Awareness

Self concept is our understanding of one's abilities and traits The kind of care that an infant received and how the infant responded within sensorimotor experiences (such as sucking) play an important role in developing a self concept 4-10 months: Children develop personal agency which is when they realize they can control the environment around them and self coherence which is when we realize we are separate from the world (learn this through peek a boo games) 15-18 months: Conceptual self awareness develops where children realize they are their own distinct creature (ex: toddlers were in a study where they had to recognize their own image, babies younger than 15 months did not notice their own self image when they had red paint on their noses, 18-24 month year olds could distinguish that they did not normally have red noses but the image they saw was still them)) 20-24 months: Children use first person pronouns and use personal vocabulary to describe self, happens after the vocabulary explosion at 18 months

Self Definition with the 5-7 shift: Single representations vs. representational mapping vs. representational systems Cultural influence

Self definition: The ways in which we describe our self, at age five we use single representations (one word or description) to describe ourselves that are more about our ideal self then real self (I like pizza. I am strong), at age 6 we use representational mappings which is when children connect one aspect of themselves to another (I am strong. I can jump really high.) but they describe things in all or nothing terms (I am good at this or I am bad at this), at 7-older we use representational systems where all or nothing thinking decline and kids incorporate specific features of self in a more balanced way (I am good at hockey but bad at arithmetic) Children define themselves in America based on independent aspects, such as self esteem (a judgement a person makes about their self worth) and positives and chinese children describe interdependent aspects (conduct, etc) and what they could improve

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study: Isolating Child Care Effects

Separates the effects of child care development on individuals from parental care, etc. (Bronfenbreener's child bioecological system discusses this) Lomgitudinal study with 1,364 children with different SES, race, and education Showed that amount and quality of child care and the stability of care influenced child development Ex: The more time children are at child care the higher levels of aggression they posses, long days at day care increase child's stress levels (usually associated with parental care, income, home environment, etc. on how much time children spent at day care) Positive interactions with children happened in low staffed, well trained staff that were sensitive and response, small group sizes had language stimulation and higher test scores of language and children played with one another better

Mary Ainsworth Strange Situation

She studied under Bowlby, she took 26 infants between 1-12 months, longitudinal study where she went and recorded interactions with mother and babies, She studied the activation behavioral situation later with the Strange Situation Strange Situation (12-18 month year old kids): 8 episodes that they experienced in 20 mins 1. Experimenter introduces the mother and child into a room 2. Parent sits while baby plays 3. Stranger enters and talks to parent (baby feels stranger anxiety) 4. Parent leaves and stranger comforts baby (Separation anxiety (when babies get upset when parents leave) (ainsworth measured this reaction) 5. Parent returns and Ainsworth measured arrival reaction 6. Parent leaves again 7. Stranger enters first (separation anxiety) 8. Parent returns to greet child Measured two returns and separations of mother

Bem (1989) and results with percentages

Showed pictures of boys and girls with typical gender differences to children between the ages of 3-5, also they were shown pictures of boys looking like girls and girls looking like boys to test gender constancy (boys and girls are still the same even if they don't look like their gender) They found that 40% of children realized gender constancy at 3,4,5,

Factors in successful socialization

Socialization, or in other words adopting society's standards as your own, relies on security of attachment, observational learning from parents behavior, mutual responsiveness of parents, SES and cultural factors Securely attached children that have warm mutually responsive parents tend to have committed compliance and conscience development, they developed traits such as moral emotions (guilt and empathy), moral conduct (didn't break the rules despite huge temptations) and moral cognition (responses to moral dilemmas) Study shows this: Mothers who compromised or bargained with children (clear instructions) were better able to resist temptation than children who had mothers that threatened, teased, instead or gave in to child's behaviors

Socialization and Internalization

Socialization: The process where kids learn certain behaviors and skills that make them responsible productive members within society Ex: Compliance to parents rules is the first step toward compliance with societal standards Internalization: Children accept societal standards of conduct as their own and no longer follow the rules only to get rewarded or punished

Biological Approach to explain gender differences (gender roles and stereotypes), hemaphrodites, Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Some aspects of gender roles are ingrained within our genes (males tend to have higher levels of testosterone therefore they are more aggressive), males typically are raised in a higher androgen fetus (women raised in these tend to act more like tom boys (congenital adrenal hyperplasia)) Hemaphrodites: When a doctor assigns a gender to a new baby who has both male and female parts and try to socialize the child with that role, often times they revert to the other gender (showing that nature may attribute to gender identity) (think of the story in class)

Delayed Language Development

Some children do not speak as soon as other children and this could be genetic, many kids are not able to fast map (learn the meaning of a word after hearing it once or twice), boys are more likely to not talk as soon as girls Eventually these kids catch up to other children Speech and language therapy may be beneficial for children to learn but the experiments done for this are generally small and findings vary

Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence

Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale: Measures ability for children to solve some abstract problem (fluid reasoning), knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory and nonverbal methods of teaching Measures verbal and nonverbal IQ plus the five cognitive methods mentioned above Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence: 30-60 minute test that has two separate levels (2 1/2-4 and 4-7) that yields verbal, performance and verbal and performance scores, measures verbal and nonverbal fluid reasoning, receptive versus expressive vocabulary, and processing speed This test is used more with children with intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, language disorders and autistic disorders

Negative aspects of Ainsworth Strange Situation experiment

The strange situation was done in a lab therefore it was artifical To test in a natural setting: The Waters and Deane Attachment Q sets has mothers or other caregivers provide adjectives about the child's behavior Can use MRI to measure how the mom has attached with the child to see if areas in the brain were activated when she saw her baby smile or cry, etc.

Influences on memory retention and social interaction model (Vygotsky's) (high elaborative vs. low elaborative style and which one is better)

The uniqueness of events and the emotional impact are remembered more easily, kids remember things that they did more easily than events that they saw Social interaction model: Vygotsky's theory where children develop autobiographical memory (memory stored in long term memory based on personal significance) by talking about them with parents It is good for parents to use high elaborative style when talking to children about certain memories so children can say more information about a particular event (such as did we travel by boat or plane) instead of using a low elaborative style (How did we get there? We went by______) Verbal labels help strengthen memories where they help learn how certain things made them feel Culture helps with how elaborative people are about memories (western mothers tend to elaborate more than non western mothers (what did you do when you went swimming? vs. What did you do when you went swimming? You did a handstand right?)

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)

This interview asks adults to recall and interpret feelings and experiences related to childhood attachments, they have found that the answers on this test show how the parent will interact with their future relationships and attachment to children They found that a mother and baby who are securely attached, when the baby has children of her own she is more securely attached to them, babies that were avoidant or ambivalent attached to their mothers tend to be angry and intrusive with children and the mothers may interpret the child's temperament inaccurately When finding these avoidant and ambivalent attachments, home visits can be made to enhance parents sensitivity to children and they tend to help a lot, children with high reactivity temperaments tended to benefit most if the mother was sensitive to their needs

Hay Et Al: Longitudinal study with depressed mothers

Took 122 families, interviewed the mother during pregnancy, at 3 months, 1 year, 4 years and 11 years old They measured maternal depression, childhood fights and child weapon usage They found that if the mom was depressed when the child was 3 months and in later development, kids are most likely to fight and use a weapon We also see from this study that if you were depressed at any point, you are more likely to develop it again

Gender

What it means to be male or female

4th con of Preoperational thinking: Lack of hierarchical classification (study)

experimenters had 10 beads (7 white, 3 black) on a chain, they asked the children to say if there were more white or black beads which they could do correctly but they could not answer the questions whether there were more black beads or beads, they do not understand that the category "beads" has more objects in it than a specific category "black beads" Con: Kids can understand hierarchical categorization earlier in some cases