ENG325 Grammar Theory
What are conjunctive adverbs?
adverbs that do the work of conjunctions by following a semicolon that joins two complete sentences (ex. however, accordingly, instead, meanwhile, nevertheless, etc.)
Subordinating Conjunctions (name 5)
after, although, though, as, because, before, even though, if, once, since, so that, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whereas, whether or not, while
Forms of "be"
am, is, are, was, were, has been, will be, been, being, be
What is a Phrasal Verb?
an action verb followed by what appears to be a preposition
What is an Objective Complement?
an adjective or noun that renames or modifies the direct object
Subjective Complement
an element that completes the subject by modifying or renaming it
What is the expletive that goes on a dotted line pedestal?
as
Test for the Direct Object
ask "what got verbed"
What is a Qualifier ("hook")?
attached to the adjective or adverb it modifies on a hook (ex. *very* gifted)
Future tense verbs require a(n)...
auxiliary
Use a comma when an adverb clause...
begins a sentence or when the subordinating conjunction shows contrast
When one number follows another, what should you do?
combine words and numerals ("My wife teaches 26 third-grade students.")
Imperative Mood
command, with "you" serving as the understood subject
Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses need to be marked with...
commas.
Use the possessive form before a....
gerund.
What are correlative conjunctions?
happen in pairs (neither/nor, both/and, either/or, not only/but also, whether/or)
Examples of possessive pronouns/pronouns
his, John's, her, theirs, etc.
Prescriptive Grammar (usage)
how educated speakers of English pattern their sentences "correctly"
Descriptive Grammar
how the elements of English work together to make meaning
Expletives
if, that, whether, whether or not
Types of Clauses
independent and dependent
Moods of English Verbs
indicative, imperative, conditional, subjunctive
Verbals used as adverbs can be...
infinitives
Verbals used as nouns can be...
infinitives or gerunds
Verbals used as adjectives can be...
infinitives or participles
If possible, avoid splitting _____
infinitives.
Test for an Objective Complement
insert "to be" between the direct object the the potential objective complement - if it makes sense, then it really is the objective complement
A noun clause is introduced by...
interrogatives or expletives
What are subordinating conjunctions?
join an adverb clause to the main clause of a sentence (ex. after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, once, since, so that, when, whenever, where, wherever, etc.)
Test for the Indirect Object
know that the indirect object receives the direct object
Modal auxiliaries influence the...
meaning of the verb
Avoid beginning a sentence with ___ unless it's a ___
numerals, year
Complex sentences consist of...
one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
A pronoun must agree with its _______ and its _______
person (first, second, or third), number (singular or plural)
What are determiners?
possessive nouns, pronouns, numbers, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, interrogative pronouns, articles--> they always come before a noun
When an infinitive is used as an adverb, it is diagrammed on a...
prepositional phrase structure beneath the verb or adjective it modifies
Only when the noun clause is used as an appositive does it need...
punctuation
Test for a Hook
put it in front of the noun that is modified by adjectives/adverbs to see if it makes sense --> if it doesn't make sense, then it needs to be on a hook
Restrictive Clauses do not require commas because...
the information is necessary to the meaning of the sentence.
What are transitive verbs?
the thing that verbs the direct object within sentence patterns 7-10
Examples of Demonstrative Pronouns
this, that, these, those
Infinitive Verb Form
to + verb
Compound-complex sentences consist of...
two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses
For the expletive "there", the verb agrees with the subject, and the subject follows the...
verb
Subject OR Subject =
verb agrees with closer subject
Examples of interrogative pronouns
what, which, who, whom, whose
When do we use comparative form?
when comparing two entities
When do you need a pedestal?
when the prepositional phrase is the predicate adjective (ex. the king is *in a good mood* where that prepositional phrase would go on the pedestal)
When do we use superlative form?
when we compare more than two entities
Interrogatives
who, whoever, whom, whomever, what, whatever, which, whose, when, where, why, how
In restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses, do not use "that". Instead use...
who, whom, or which
Relative Pronouns (name all)
whose, who, whom, which, that
Is "might have been" a be verb?
yes; any verb string ending in a "be" verb
Form of Passive Verb
"be" + past participle (see table on pg. 214)
Present Progressive Verb Form
"be" + present participle (see table on pg. 214)
What numbers should you express numerically in fields that frequently use numbers?
10 to infinity
Which sentence patterns can have pedestals?
2, 4, 9
What sentence patterns can have an objective complement?
9 and 10
What are the exceptions to the Humanities numbers rule?
Dates, Addresses, Dollar Amounts, Time
What are the ways to fix a run-on sentence?
-comma and coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) -semicolon -separate the sentences -restructure the sentence *Example of a comma splice: Air pollution poses risks to all humans, however, it can be deadly for people with asthma.
Which sentence patterns always contain a be verb?
1, 2, 3
What numbers should you spell out in fields that frequently use numbers?
1-9
Tests for Phrasal Verbs
1. Preposition can move (turned off the light/turned the light off) 2. Can be replaced with one verb (turned off the light --> extinguished the light)
What is an expletive?
A word or phrase used to fill out a sentence
Where should the comma(s) go when writing locations?
After the city and after the state if the sentence continues, also between the city and country and the country and the next word if the sentence continues
Prepositional phrases can be one of two things
Adverbial or Adjectival
Where should commas go in dates?
Between the day and year and between the year and the next word if the sentence continues (no day means no comma between the month and the year)
What are the coordinating conjuctions?
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
Coordinating Conjunctions
For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Indefinite pronouns
General pronouns that do not have a definite antecedent Ex: anyone, someone, all, anybody, somebody, each Note: any-, every-, some-, or no- are singular
Main Forms of English Verbs
Infinitive; Third Person Singular, Present tense; Past; Past Participle; Present Participle
Aspects of English Verbs
Perfect (a form of "have" followed by the past participle verb form), Progressive (a form of "be" followed by the present participle verb form)
Subject + Subject =
Plural Verb
What are the two types of Subjective Complements?
Predicate Adjectives and Predicate Nouns/Nominatives
Form of Participial Verb
Present: ends in -ing Past: ends in -ed, -en, -n, -t, or in whatever form an irregular verb changes to when preceded by the auxiliary "have"
Functions of Nouns
Subject, object, complement, appositive
For individuals in the humanities, how should numbers be expressed?
Spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words-- and use numerals for all the rest
Sentence Pattern 1
Subject - be verb - Adverb of Time/Place
Sentence Pattern 2
Subject - be verb - predicate adjective (subjective complement)
Sentence Pattern 3
Subject - be verb - predicate noun (subjective complement)
Sentence Pattern 6
Subject - intransitive verb
Sentence Pattern 4
Subject - linking verb - predicate adjective (subjective complement)
Sentence Pattern 5
Subject - linking verb - predicate noun (subjective complement)
Sentence Pattern 7
Subject - transitive verb - direct object
Sentence Pattern 9
Subject - transitive verb - direct object - adjective (objective complement)
Sentence Pattern 10
Subject - transitive verb - direct object - noun (objective complement)
Sentence Pattern 8
Subject - transitive verb - indirect object - direct object
What are intransitive verbs?
Verbs with no direct object (occurs only in sentence pattern 6)
Noun Clause
a dependent clause that takes the place of a noun in a sentence
Relative Clause
a dependent clause that takes the place of an adjective in a sentence
Adverb Clause
a dependent clause that takes the place of an adverb in a sentence
What is an Adverbial Objective?
a noun that functions as an adverb (ex. I am going to the zoo *Friday* or I worked three *hours*)
What is pattern 2's subjective complement?
a predicate adjective
What is pattern 3's subjective complement?
a predicate noun
What is a linking verb?
a verb that can be replaced by a be verb (ex. the king *looks* unhappy --> the king *is* unhappy)
Examples of articles
a, an, the
Conjunctive Adverb (name 5)
accordingly, additionally, also, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however, in addition, in conclusion, in contrast, indeed, in fact, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, still, then, therefore, thus
Voices of English Verbs
active and passive
Objective case pronouns are used as...
direct objects, indirect objects, objects of prepositions, and objective complements
Insert a form of "_____" when you need to insert an auxiliary to form a question, to make a negative statement, or to indicate emphasis
do
Rule of one -s
either the verb has the -s ending or the subject has the -s ending
Comparative Form
ending in -er or using "more"
Superlative Form
ending in -est or using "most"
Gerund Verb Form
ends in -ing
Subjunctive Mood
expressing a condition contrary to fact or making a demand in a noun clause beginning with the expletive "that"
Nominative case pronouns are used as...
subjects and subjective complements
In relative clauses, the verb agrees with the...
relative pronoun; the relative pronoun can be singular or plural, depending on the noun it follows, except when "only" is involved
Test to see if verbals are used as nouns
replace the infinitive or gerund phrase with "something" or "it"; identify its noun function (subject, object, complement, appositive) to determine that it is a noun
Modal Auxiliaries (name 5)
shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, have to, had to, ought to
Conditional Mood
signaled by modals "could", "may", "might", "would", and "should"
For collective nouns, use the ______ if members of the collective noun are acting in unison
singular
Indicative Mood
statement
Passive Verb
subject does not perform the action of the verb but is instead acted upon
Active Verb
subject performs the action of the verb