EXAM 2 (ROMAN)

The Maison Caree from the Late Republic is one of the most well preserved Roman temples, from the Roman colony of Nimes in France. It is a textbook example of the Tuscan style roman temple. The temple has a cella (cult room), a deep porch, a frontal orientation, and a high base. The temple has Corinthian engaged columns, an architectural order from Ancient Greece, with acanthus leaves on the column captials. Although the deep porch and arrangement of the temple differentiate it from Greek temples. The temple originally had an inscription that dedicated the temple to Augustus' grandsons and heirs, but was removed in the middle ages.

Maison Carrée, Nîmes, France, c. 2 CE (Late Republic)

Denaurius of Julius Caesar with symbols of rule, 44 BCE (Late Republic)

Caesar was the first Emperor to place his portrait on coins during his lifetime, considered an unacceptable act of political arrogance at the time. By 44 B.C. silver denarii with Caesar's image were being widely issued in Rome. These coins served as a signal that his individual authority was becoming a threat to the sovereignty of the Republic. Caesar's coins trace a political career fraught with war and power struggles. But they offer an alternate perspective of Rome's chaotic transition from the glory days of the Republic and the Augustan Age of the Empire.

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, c. 170-175 CE. Bronze (Antonine)

Equestrian portraiture was a key style in Rome, but this statue is one of the only surviving examples. Marcus is depicted with a beard, aligning himself and the Antonines with Hadrian and ancient Greece. The over life-size statue honored his military and civic achievement, and showed tension between dynamism and control. He is dressed in civilian clothing instead of military dress, maybe making himself more recognizable to the majority of Rome. His right hand is reaching forward with his palm outwards, which could be a military gesture, gesture of clemency, or even signaling that he is getting ready to speak.

Ruins of the Forum Romanum (Roman Forum), Rome (Republic through Late Empire)

Forums were centralized public spaces in Roman cities, and were multifunctional locations. The Forum Romanum was born out of a need for a communal public space. It was originally a cemetery, but the burials were moved. There was construction of drainage systems, but construction took place over a long period time, and there were multiple phases in different empires/shifts of power. The forum contained the Temple of Saturn-similar to Greek temples. There was a home for the King/Pontifex Maxiumus, The temple of Vesta which had an eternal burning flame kept lit by the Vestal Virgins. There were spaces that functioned as religious and political platforms, a counsel house for the Roman senate, meeting spaces, commemorative monuments, a basilica, and the Temple of Julius Caesar.

Insula, Ostia, Italy, 2nd century CE (High or Late Empire)

In Rome, housing was organized by social class. Urban middle and lower classes in the city lived in multi-level apartment structures called Insula. Ostia was the Roman port city, 20 miles outside of Rome proper. Insula occupied large areas, and were split into smaller units. The lower units were more desirable, and the smaller and less accessible units were higher (fire was a major concern, and it would be easier to escape from the ground level).

Augustus as imperator (Primaporta Augustus), early-1st century CE copy of a bronze original of c. 20 BCE. Marble (Augustan)

In the Augustan period, portraiture was used as a medium to communicate specific ideas to the Roman population. Here, he is represented as a strong leader of the Roman army. One of Augustus' first diplomatic actions was to restore the Roman army, so it was important to represent him as a leader of the Army worthy of following. He is barefoot, which indicates this is posthumous, or from after his death. He has idealized musculature, a strong posture and face that shows youth and determination. His breastplate is ornate, which was not true to life but had decoration and identification purposes. The iconography depicts an interaction between a Roman and a non-Roman, with the foreigner being indicated by the presence of pants. He is holding a scepter/spear, similar to the Greek Doryphoros. There is a depiction of a dolphin, indicative of his claimed divine lineage to Venus.

Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs, c. 295. Porphyry (Tetrarchy)

In the late empire, trends in figural representation started to change and leaned towards a more schematic representation that isn't naturalistic, but is more abstract. It is a porphyry, or igneous rock, sculpture of four Roman emperors. At the time, Rome was ruled by a tetrarch consisting of two Augusti (senior emperors) and two Caesars (younger emperors). The empire was divided East and West, with one Caesar and Augusti ruling over each. This sculpture shows a transition from naturalism which was present in most Roman art, into the abstract and unrealistic art that would dominate the middle ages.

Third Style wall paintings, from the imperial villa at Boscotrecase, c. 10-1 BCE (Augustan)

Introduced in the 1st century CE in the Augustan period, the third style of painting was characterized by broad, monochromatic planes of color defined by dainty elements that create frames. There are small, floating vignettes containing imagery in the frames. It is liked the second style, but is almost miniaturized against the plain walls. It isn't illusionary, but more of a jewelry-like presentation and ornamentation of the space. This refined and thin painting style showed scenes, but wasn't trying to create an optical illusion like the second style.

Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, c. 161 CE. Marble (Antonine)

On the sides of the pedestal, the same scene is depicted. The scene depicted frontal, side, and rear views of foot soldiers on multiple ground levels from a combination of perspectives. The riders are the same size as their horses, and are clothed and less individualized, less elegant. The relief carvings on this pedestal show similar iconography and representations as the Circus official's carving, showing how lower class art creeped into the art of the State.

Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace), Rome, 13-9 BCE (Augustan)

Public, political art was used to proclaim or disseminate political policy and ideals. It communicated messaged across the social spectrum. The Ara Pacis was dedicated to the peace achieved in Rome, the Pax Romana, during Augustus' reign, and was directed towards the public to send a message about him and his family. The altar was originally located in the Field of Mars, the god of war and was on the main road to be seen by the imperial army. The altar is propaganda that is an autobiographical account of Augustus' accomplishments. The altar was used for sacrifices carried out by the Vestal Virgins and the Emperor, while the public watched from the outside. There are panels and friezes divided by decoration. The upper portions contain figural sculpture that depict processions, the personification of Rome, mother earth, Aeneas, and Romulus and Remus the founding twins of Rome. The bottom half depicts plant motifs, representations of animals, scrolling vines, and swans representative of Apollo.

Tomb relief of the Publius Gessius family, c. 30-20 BCE. Marble (Late Republic or Early Empire)

Roman funerary art commemorated and honored the dead, and was often placed on the edges of the cities with the cemeteries so the people entering/exiting the city would be put in contact with reminders of those who had passed. Tombs were a visual record of lineage, and were extremely individualized in style, size, and decoration. Funerary art is also the only type of monumental art that depicts the lives of the non-elite class. This tomb relief depicts related individuals and tells us about their daily lives and how they contributed to society. There are different representations of age, and an emphasis on the hands. The younger man and woman are Primus and Fasuta, former slaves of the old man, Publius Gessius. Freed individuals took the name of their masters, and this shows representations of the deceased and the living side by side.

Veristic portrait of a man, 1st century BCE. Marble (Late Republic or Augustan)

Roman portraiture was representative of the ideals of the current society and empire, and in the Republic the values of wisdom, lineage, and age were emphasized. Veristic portraits reflected the truth: meaning the showed the age of the individual. It is possible the age in these portraits was exaggerated, to endow them with the age and wisdom that was so revered in the Republic.

First Style wall paintings, House of the Faun, Pompeii, c. 2nd century BCE (Mid- or Late Republic)

Roman wall painting was categorized into four styles, that either embrace of counteract the surface of the wall. The first style from the Republic is a masonry style, which mimics the appearance of stone covered walls. Stucco molding helped to create the illusion, and was a cheap way to create the illusion of marble used in state buildings. The first style aggressively asserts the wall surface by suggesting a stone material on the wall, creating an engagement with the wall.

Forum of Trajan, Rome, c. 106-112 CE (Trajanic)

The Forum of Trajan was a part of the complex of imperial forums, and was the last of the forums to be built. It was the largest and most lavish, with a basilica that separated the forum from the temple. There were libraries between the basilica and the temple, which was dedicated to Trajan. It contained the column of Trajan, statues of captive Dacians, and portrait busts of heroic individuals in round frames between the captive statues. The Forum announced the grandeur of Trajan, and speaks specifically to his military victories against the Dacians. This public space visually and materially introduced how great Trajan and the Empire were, and how well they were doing.

Sarcophagus with the myth of Selene and Endymion, early 3rd century. Marble (Severan)

Sarcophagi were large, stone, bathtub-shaped coffins used to accommodate the dead. They were large, heavy, expensive, elite, elaborately carved, and placed out in the open to be seen and interacted with by the public. Mythology was popular to depict on sarcophagi, Greek mythology brought into the roman consciousness. This depicts Selene, the moon goddess, and a youth, Endymion who she fell in love with. She placed him in an eternal sleep so she could always admire him. His perpetual sleep equated him with the idea of death. It also depicts love and longing, and the desire and value placed on marriage as something that transcended death. The faces of these figures were often carved into the likeness of the deceased. It is visually crowded with no empty space, with vignettes depicting the deceased around the top.

Arch of Constantine, Rome, c. 312-315 CE (Constantinian)

The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch in Rome. It was erected by the Roman Senate to commemorate Constantine I's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, and is the largest Roman triumphal arch. It incorporated work from the time of previous emperors-Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, making it a collage. It also repurposed stone and reliefs, juxtaposing the old sculptural style with the new sculptures on the arch. The public monument communicates victory and praised Constantine in his military and civilian duties.

Arch of Titus, Rome, c. 81 CE (Flavian)

The Arch of Titus is a political monument meant to communicate messages, similar to the Ara Pacis. This arch was commissioned by Domitian after the death of his brother Titus, to commemorate his victories, including the Siege of Jerusalem. There are engaged columns and personification of the victory as winged women, with a coffered ceiling that contains an apotheosis, or deification of Titus. Sculptural relief panels depict the victories of Titus and his father Vespasian, the spoils taken from Jerusalem, winged Victory crowning Titus with a wreath, and an inscription dedicating the arch to Titus, son of the divine Vespasian.

Flavian amphitheater (Colosseum), Rome, c. 70-80 CE (Flavian)

The Colosseum was relatively close to the Forum Romanum, and was originally on lands made to be made into Nero's personal palace after a fire damaged many homes. Vespasian converted it into an amphitheater to give back to the Roman people what Nero had appropriated for himself. The Colosseum is truly massive, and can hold up to 80,000 spectators making it comparable to modern stadiums. It was highly organized in every aspect of its construction and function, with above ground arches with roman numerals that corresponded to seating areas on the tickets. It was a place where the entire spectrum of the Roman population could gather, with the elites sitting closer to the bottom and the poorer classes and slaves sitting further up. There was a canopy that provided shade, a box for the Emperor, passageways and tunnels below, and sand that covered the arena to soak up bodily fluids like blood. the outside has a uniform appearance with rounded arches, engaged columns of Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian order. The Colosseum and other public spaces brought all of Rome together and helped forge the Roman identity.

Aureus of Hadrian, 134-138 CE (Hadrianic)

This gold coin depicts a portrait of Hadrian, who adopted the Greek habit of wearing a beard. His portrait is classicized, further aligning him with ancient Greece. On the reverse, it shows Nilus, the god of the Nile, holding a cornucopiae, a symbol of abundance. He rests on a sphinx with a hippo and crocodile nearby, imagery representative of Egypt and the nile.

Fourth Style wall paintings, from the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, c. 62-79 CE (Julio-Claudian or Flavian)

The Fourth style of wall painting, from either the Julio-Claudian or Flavian period is an intricate style that combines all three previous wall painting styles. The panels on the lower portion depict the masonry style, with framed images on monochromatic grounds above. The images create illusionary spaces, but are not as coherent as the illusions created by the second style. The House of the Vettii was owned by two freed slaves who climbed the social ranks who came to occupy the home after it was damaged in earthquakes. Wall painting styles may communicate the ideals of each ruling family, like architecture and portraiture.

Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome, dedicated 113 CE (Trajanic)

The column of Trajan, located in the Forum of Trajan, is a triumphal column that commemorates Trajan's victories in the wars against the Dacians, and has inspired triumphal columns both ancient and modern. It was topped with a statue of Trajan that was removed in the middle ages, and replaced much later with a statue of St. Peter. The column would have been flanked by libraries that contained information about the Roman-Dacian wars, and has a frieze that wraps the column 23 times- an architectural feat in its day. The frieze depicts Trajan's two triumphs over the Dacians, imperial address, sacrifice, and the army setting out on campaign. The scenes were propaganda specifically directed at the urban population, who had a distrust in the army, to depict the wars as having little collateral damage.

Second Style wall paintings, from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, c. 50-40 BCE (Late Republic)

The second style was introduced around 80 BCE in the Republic, and was a reaction against the first style and the emphasis on the wall. There is a dominance of illusionary imagery that plays with the viewers eyes, and created an open space like a window on the wall instead of emphasizing a flat, closed space. There were columns painted to frame the space, with a consistent use of shadows. There was an interest in expanding the space and suggesting that these closed homes were larger than they were and that they were more integrate with nature than they really were.

Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, c. 161 CE. Marble (Antonine)

This funerary relief carving is on the pedestal of the Column on Antoninus, with Antoninus and his wife Faustina on the back of a winged figure, representing a vehicle for his deification. Rulers were deified upon their death, becoming a new god in the Roman pantheon. He remained loyal to his wife even though she predeceased him by 21 years, so he is being carried to the heavens with her-showing that death has not broken the martial bond.

Funerary relief of a circus official, c. 110-130 CE. Marble (Trajanic or Hadrianic)

This funerary relief depicts a circus official from the prestige circus, the Circus Maximus where there were chariot races held. The images remind us of the career of the individual. We now this is the Circus Maximus because of the architectural representations, but they are mushed together in a skewed perspective. There are skewed perspectives, bobble-like heads, different scales of figural size, and disproportionate bodies. Next to the official is his wife, who is smaller than him because she is not as important. She is depicted like a statue indicating her death, but the sculpture also shows that death didn't break their bond, but they will be reunited in the afterlife. The relief speaks to the individuals private and public life, with characteristics of lower class art, that eventually would start to creep into state art.

Emperor Trebonianus Gallus (or athlete?), 251-253 CE. Bronze (Late Empire)

This larger than life sculpture came from the time of the soldier emperors, a very unstable time in Roman history. Trebonianus was a soldier emperor for a few short years, and is depicted with an old face and a young body. His hands and feet are small, and he is wearing shoes and holding drapery even though he is nude. He has an oratory posture, which can remind us of equestrian statues or spear-bearing statues from Greece. It combines elements of verism in the face and idealized, youthful and heroic bodies. His facial features are rather simple, a trend that would continue to develop in the late empire.

Man with portrait busts of his ancestors, 1st century BCE. Marble (Late Republic)

This marble sculpture depicts a man from the Roman noble class carrying two portrait busts of his ancestors. The identities are not known for certain, but the palm support under one of the busts indicates that bust is of a Roman general. The full-body figure is participating in a Roman funerary practice, where they carried the portrait busts of the deceased during funerary processions. The sculpture also shows verism, a Roman practice in figural representation. Verism shows age and wisdom, unlike previous idealized Greek sculptures which favor a young, athletic man.

Tondo portrait of Septimius Severus and his family, c. 200 CE. Tempera on wood (Severan)

This painting is one of the only painted portraits of the Emperor, Severus and his family. One of the figures faces has been smudged out, part of the Roman practice of damnatio memoriae (modern term), or the removal of an individual from the roman record that was decreed by the senate. He had two sons who co-ruled at one point. Caracalla, one of the brothers, had his other brother murdered so he could have sole power. It is unsure which son is which, but it is an attempt to remove one of them from the record for their transgression.

Sarcophagus with philosopher, orant, and Old and New Testament scenes (Santa Maria Antiqua sarcophagus), c. 270 CE. Marble (Late Empire)

This sarcophagi represented of the growth of Christianity in Rome. Christianity started on the fringes of society, but elite Christians had sarcophagi made to preserve their bodies, different from the functions of previous sarcophagi. Christian art is indebted to Roman and Pagan art, as it follows the iconography of Roman and pagan art. It shows the story of Jonah on a ship in a great storm, swallowed by a sea creature for three days, and then spit out. It shows a female orant in prayer pose, a male philosopher holding a scroll-borrowed from iconography of the ancient philosopher. The faces are uncarved, likely to be carved later to the likeness of the deceased. It shows images of the Good Shepherd protecting the faithful like a shepherd would his sheep, and the Baptism of Christ. The baptism was required for converts, and also represented death and rebirth, from original sin into the life of the faithful.

Head of Vespasian, c. 75-79 CE. Marble (Flavian)

Vespasian came to power after conflict surrounding Nero and Augustus. Augustus' family line extended to Nero, who was not a favored emperor. They often depicted themselves in a way that aligned themselves with Ancient Greece. Vespasian returned to the use of verism in the Flavian period instead of idealism. The verism depicted his age and wisdom, and above all truth. The use of verism helped him dissociate himself from Nero, the last of the Augustan lineage.