intl-i 310 exam 2
⎫ The Greek-Macedonian naming dispute: What was the dispute about? How and when was the dispute resolved?
-----1991 socialist republic of Macedonia was one of the six republics of Yugoslavia with a slav population. Declared independence. Wanted to be named Republic of Macedonia, which Greece strongly opposed. After 27 years of dispute, an agreement was finally reached. Since 2019, the named has been "Republic of North Macedonia" -----the name "Macedonia" is a question of identity, interpretation of history, and historical heritage of Alexander the Great (4th century BC). The name also belongs to a region in northern Greece. Both ethnic/language groups want to use the name (Greeks vs. Slavs). Greeks accuse the N. Macedonians of wanting to steal their cultural heritage as well as their territory.
Orange Revolution:
2004/2005. the victory of pro-Western politicians supported by social protest (Orange Revolution). Yuschenki and Tymoshenko assumed power
⎫ Annexation of Crimea: o When did it take place?
2014 ¥ Shortly after Feb 22, Putin ordered Russian forces to invade Crimea. March 16: a referendum in Crimea to stay with Ukraine or to join Russia.
2008 EU climate package:
20:20:20 targets. 20% of energy from renewable resources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 20%, by 2020
Kyoto Protocol 1997:
37 states and the EU agreed to reduce emission of greenhouse gases by 5% below 1990 levels. Committed members to reduce emissions by 8% each.
Velvet Revolution
A peaceful protest by the Czech people that led to the smooth end of communism in Czechoslovakia. 1989
Perestroika
A policy initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev that involved restructuring of the social and economic status quo in communist Russia towards a market based economy and society o restructuring, aka economic reforms in the USSR
Why are Poland, the Baltic states, and Romania so concerned about Russia's policy towards Ukraine?
All of them have had Russia invade part of their territory in the past, as well as were part of the Soviet bloc during the cold war. Also they are also very close to Russia geopolitically.
Yanukovych
President of Ukraine 2010- -pro-Russian, Euromaidan protests
CFE:
Treaty on Conventional Forces in Europe. Signed in 1990, NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Equal limitations on conventional weapons of the two groups., nullified advantages of conventional weapons of the USSR.
Chernobyl Disaster
a nuclear accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Ukrainian republic in April 1986, caused spread of radioactive contamination. worst disaster in history of nuclear power generation
Glasnost
a policy of the Soviet government allowing freer discussion of social problems o openness, i.e. modernizing the Soviet bureaucracy
Paris Agreement:
adopted by 196 countries, including developing nations. Countries committed to keeping the increases in global average temperature below 2C above pre-industrial levels by reducing emissions. 2016
Cyberattacks:
an attack via cyberspace. Meant to disrupt, destroy, or control a computing infrastructure, destroy data, steal info, or spread fake info. Targets state or public institutions as well as the state's population/public opinion
South Ossentia and Abkazia:
disputed terroritories taht were important in the Russia-Gerogia war of 2008. both include ethnic minority groups that had tried for independence, which was rejected by Georgia. Both participated in war against Russia in 1991-2, which ended in a Ceasefire which was mediated by Russia. Sochi agreement. 2008, Russia-Georgia war included both of these areas
weaponization of information:
involves the exploitation of social media in particular to disseminate propaganda and disinformation, including factual distortion and fabricated information, in order to manipulate public opinion and achieve certain political ends.
President Vladimir Putin's speech at the Security Conference in Munich in 2007: What were its main ideas
o "unipolar model is unacceptable!" o called out US unipolarity. The US's response was further NATO expansion in 2008
The main sources of EU's energy consumption
o 37% oil o 22% gas o 16% coal o 12% nuclear o 5% hydro o 8% renewables
The Nord Stream pipeline: general characteristics and the controversy
o A gas pipeline between Russia and Germany that runs under the Baltic Sea. Built by Russian energy firm Gazprom, backed by European nations. o US is opposed to the project because too close of relation of Germany and Russia, Germany helps Russia to develop economically and depends on them economically o Central European countries are opposed because it bypasses two transit countries and ma allowed Russia to use gas supply as a political weapon o Germany says that the project is an economic one that is needed for economic development and environmental policy
Why and how did Yugoslavia break up?
o After Tito's death in 1980, Serbian nationalism was reborn. Milosevic: Serbian politician who rose to power after Tito's death, began to limit the autonomy of Yugoslavian federal regions. Concept of "Greater Serbia": unite serbs arocess a crumbling Yugoslavia. o This resulted in raised anxiety and split from Yugoslavia and the subsequent split of many of the regions.
Division of yugolsavia by religion
o Catholic: Slovenes, croats, hungarians o Muslim: Kosovars, bosnians o Orthodox: Serbs, Macedonias, Montenegrins
START:
strategic arms reduction treaty. Signed in 1991 by US and USSR, reduction and limits in strategic offense nuclear forces, like nuclear warheads and intercontinental ballistic missiles
Cybersecurity:
the ability of a state to protect or defend the use of cyberspace from cyberattacks organized or supported by other states
cyberwarfare:
warfare that uses cyberattacks and weaponization of information
What's the percentage of the EU energy imports from Russia?
¥ 40.2% of natural gas from Russia ¥ 31.9% of crude oil ¥ 30.2% of solid fuel
The "colorful revolutions":
Georgia (2003), Ukraine Orange (2004), Kyrgyzstan Tulip (2005). Pro-Russia regimes were replaced by pro-Western regimes under the pressure of mass protests. Russia accused the US of interfering in the post-Soviet countries by supporting the colorful revolutions.
Mikhail Gorbachev
Head of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. His liberalization effort improved relations with the West, but he lost power after his reforms led to the collapse of Communist governments in eastern Europe. -secretary general -Openminded, dynamic, wanted to improve relations with the West. This was due to an economic and political crisis in the USSR/Eastern Bloc (lots of debt, and political opposition in Eastern bloc).
Consequences of Georgia-Russia war for relations between the West and Russia
In 2009/2010, the US announced that it would deploy a new missile defense system in Poland and Romania, and Russia responded by deploying missiles as well.
INF:
Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Signed in 1987 by the US and USSR. Destruction of US and USSR ground-launched missiles with a range of 500-5500 kilometers
Euromaidan Revolution:
November 2013, Kiev anti-government protests. Called "Euromaindan" because theyw ere about Europe, and happened in Kiev's Maidan, or independence square. President Yanukovyvh rejected agreement that would ensure greater cooperation with the EU and taking money from Russia instead. Also, many Ukrainians saw Yanukovych as corrupt and autocratic. Yanukovych tried to break up protests with force, which just intensified the situation. 2014 president fled to Russia, Pro-Western forces took power
Different perspective on the end of the Cold War and on the European security:
The Russians wanted to work with Western powers to create new political community as equally founding members. Wanted pan-continental greater European system ("Lisbon to Vladivstok"). Meanwhile, the West saw themselves as the winners of the Cold War, so thought that nothing needed to change, and wanted to demonstrate superiority in the system. "winner take all" mentality
Velvet Divorce
The peaceful split of Czechoslovakia into Czech republic and Slovakia. 1993
Yugoslavia: general characteristics
o Created in 1912 as the kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Sloevens after the defeat of the Austian-Hungarian empire in WW1. Later named Yugoslavia, which was for all south Slavic people, the majority of which are Serbs and Croats. 23M people. o During WWII there were bloody fights between Crotats and Serbs. Both Serbian and Coratian nationalism. o Managed to live in peace following the war thanks to Josip Broz Tito, who was a dictator after the war until his death in 1980. Built Yugoslavia under the slogan "Brotherhood and Unity," nationalism on either side was punishable by exile, prison, and even death. He was half-Serb, half-Croat o Yugoslavia = federal states under its constitution, and highly diverse ethnically and religiously. o After the Cold War, 7 states came out of the counry: Bosnia and Hercegovina, Croatia, FRYOM (Macedonia), Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, Slovenia o Division of yugolsavia by religion ¥ Catholic: Slovenes, croats, hungarians ¥ Muslim: Kosovars, bosnians ¥ Orthodox: Serbs, Macedonias, Montenegrins o Balkan countries are small, as in smaller than even the smaller US states
Stuxnet: Who, when, and why carried out this cyberattack?
o Cyberattack of the use and Israel on Iran in 2010 o Meant to disrupt the Iranian program to develop nuclear weapons o Stuxnet was an extremely sophisticated computer worn that not only affected Pcs but physically destroyed the machines o Destroyed 20% of iran's centrifuges
⎫ Russia's cyberattacks in Estonia(2007), Ukraine (2014-2017), and France (2017)
o Estonia 2007: following bronze soldier statue. Attacks on financial, media, and government websites. Goal of the attacks was to destabilize Estonian society, creating anxiety among people, and destabilize the state as an institution o Ukraine 2014-17: related to the Ukrainian crisis. Disinformation widely spread during Euromaidan (weaponization of information). Additionally, cyberattacks on Ukrainian critical infrastructure. Such as malware that shut down energy, or randomware. o France 2017: disinformation campaign against the rpesidential canidate Emmanuel Macron in 2017. Wanted to increase changes for victory of his main rival, Marine le Pen, who was right wing
Russian-Estonian dispute over the Bronze Soldier
o Estonia = one of the Baltic states, a post-Soviet country. Regained independence in 1991 from USSR. Population 1.3 M, 70% estonias, 25% Russians. o After WWII< USSR placed a bronze statues of a soldier in the center of Tallin, the capital of Estonia o For Russians, the bronze soldier means triumpth over the Nazis. Wanted to remind the Estonians that the Soveits has liberated them from the Nazis. o For Estonians, the bronze solider symbolized Russian domination and occupation. o April 2007, two days of riots erupted in the streets of Tallin over the removal of the statue. The statue was later moved to the outskirts
⎫ Russia's engagement in conflict in Ukraine
o Following the annexation of Crimea, Russia began to support pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine. Since April 2014, predominately Russian-speaking eastern Ukraine. Russian "little green men." Fighting has escalated to outright yet undeclared war between Russia and Ukraine, more than 13k people have been killed thus far
Ukrainian crisis in a nutshell
o Internal crisis began in 2013 o March 2014, Russia invaded and annexed Crimea o Pro-Russia separatist rebels bean seizing territory in eastern Ukraine o Civil war has been going on since 2012, Russia/West tensions o About 13k killed and 30k wounded
⎫ The "Yellow Vest" movement in France
o Macron imposed an eco-tax to encourage people to use less fuel o Increased 2019 fuel taxes o France's gas prices became among the highest in the world o This resulted in the yellow vest movement, or weeks of violent protests in France o The protests have continued, although Macron has implemented economic reforms
Current relations between Russia and Ukraine, including the Kerch Strait incident of 2018 and the split between the Ukrainian Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church
o New Ukranian president: Zelensky. Star of a TV show, is suspected of corruption. Concetration in the political party (Zelensky's), "Servant of the People." July 2019, 60% of the seats. Created in 2018. o Kerch Strait incident of 2018: in Nov 2018. Russian coast guard vessels fired on three Ukrainian naval vessels in the Kerch Strait. Ukrainians says that it's an act of aggression, while Russians say that the Ukrainian ships violated Russian territorial waters. May 2019, UN issued an order for Russia to release the sailors and ships o Split between Ukrainian and Russian orthodox churches : Jan 2019: Ukraniran orthodoc church decided that it wanted independence from the Russian church, which is has been under the control of since the 17th centuty. Said that Moscow-bakced churches in the Ukraine are a tool of propaganda.
Ukraine: general characteristics
o One of the post-Soviet countries o Slightly smaller than Texas o Population 44 million o Capital is Kyiv o Ukraine is divided into two regions in terms of ethnicity and language: western Ukraine and eastern Ukraine. ¥ West: 2/3 speak Ukrainian ¥ East: 1/3 speak Russian ¥ Politically, the elections are usually divided between politicians who support the West (West) and those who support Russia (East) o Ukraine has been under partial or total Russian rule for most of its history. "Russification": banning of Ukrainian, assimilation. Under Stalin's regime, many Russians were re-settled in Russia territory.
Russia's cyberattacks: general characteristics and their strategic goals
o Online disinformation: information manipulation o To sabotage critical infrastructure o Attacks are largely made by non-state actors who are sponsored by Russia authorities. Examples: ¥ Fancy bear: targets government, military, security organizations including NATO ¥ Cozy bear: attacks commercial entities and govt organizations o Their goals: ¥ Assert Russia's claim to great power status ¥ Consolidate its dominance over its self-proclaimed sphere of influence ¥ Destabilize and distract the West to such a degree that it cant counter Russian actions effectively ¥ To undermine hostile government and Wester power structures such as NATO and EU
What theory - realism, liberalism, or constructivism -would be the best analytical instrument to explain the Ukrainian crisis, and why?
o Realism would be the best way to characterize and analyze this conflict o Mutual distrust among states, rivalry o States focus on their own national interests o International politics are a struggle for power o This would explain why sanctions again Russia have no worked under international law to stop the annexation of Crimea. Also peace talks have failed. o The struggle for power between Russia and the West would help to explain some of the tensions that lead to the conflict in Ukraine
Security interest of Russia, Georgia, and the West (Russia-Georgia War)
o Russia: if Georgia joined NATO, there would be a direct NATO-Georgia border. Russia wanted to keep this area in a sphere of influence to use it as a buffer zone to protect itself from the US/NATO o Georgia: president Saakashvili assumed pro-Western stance, joined EU and NATO. It is a sovereign country and can choose freely o South Ossentia and Abkhazia: according to a UN charter, these nations have the right to self-determination o West: wanted..? NATO power? Russia to not control the region or intervene?
⎫ Current relations between Serbia and Kosovo
o Serbia doesn't recognize the independence of Kosovo o August 2018, controversial plan to modify the borders. o December 2018, Kosovo decided to create its own army, which Serbia strongly objected to
⎫ What theory - realism, liberalism, or constructivism -would be the best analytical instrument o explain (a) the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, (b) the Greek-Macedonian naming dispute, and why?
o The best theory to describe the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina is constructivism. This is because constructivism holds that the world is socially constructed and ideational, non-material factors such as norms and identity are central to the dynamics of world politics. Values, beliefs, and norms are important. Constructivism also states that different states view security differently because they perceive reality differently. ¥ Bosnia and Herzegovina - issues of identity (Serbs vs. Bosnians) was at the center of the conflict. Additionally, regional security complexes played a role, as the entire region of the Balkans was dealing with ethnic conflicts at this time. ¥ In the Greece/Northern Macedonia conflict, identity also played a role because the dispute was over a name and cultural symbols, rather than material factors. Additionally, this is an example of how different states perceive reality and security differently. N. Macedonia was only a threat to Greece because they declared it as such, and they saw it as a cultural encroachment that could lead to a territorial one, which N. Macedonia and some other states did not agree with.
When did Slovenia and Croatia declare their independence? What was the reaction of Yugoslavia(Serbia) to the independence of both?
o They declared their independence as the result of increased Servian nationalism, especially due to leader Milosevic. o Slovenia: 1991. Peaceful o Croatia: second to split, 1991, war broke out between Croats and Serbs since there was a large minority of Serbs and nationalism was rampant on both sides. o War about Croatia between 1991-1995 o Reaction of Yugoslavia (Serbia)?
Current situation in Ukraine: general characteristics
o Two agreements which have not been followed (Minsk I and Minsk II), 2014 and 2015.
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia(ICTY):
o What organization established the ICTY and when? ¥ UN, 1993 o What were the ICTY tasks? ¥ To deal with crimes that took place during the wars and conflicts in the Balkans after the Cold War. Also to sentence individuals for crimes such as genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity o The ICTY activities ¥ Charged over 160 people, addressed crimes committed between 1991 and 2001 against members of ethnic groups in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, and northern Macedonia. Verdicts are usually prison sentences
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina: When and why did the war take place? What agreement ended the war? Crimes committed during the war. Bosnia and Herzegovina today: general characteristics
o When and why did the war take place? ¥ B&H declared independence in 1992. Division amony Croats (Catholics), Bosniaks (Muslims), and Serbs (Orthodox) ¥ Bloodiest conflict was between Serbs and Bosniaks, 1992-1995 ¥ Srebenica July 1995: ethnic cleansing and genocide (serbs against bosnians) o What agreement ended the war? ¥ The Dayton agreement (1995), US- sponsored negotiations o Crimes committed during the war. ¥ Rape, genocide (example: Srebrenica july 1995) o Bosnia and Herzegovina today: general characteristics ¥ Strong ethnic divisions ¥ Deyton agreement divided B&H into two entities, one of Serbs and one of Muslims/Bosnians ¥ Very complicated political system with a weak federal government ¥ Poor economy ¥ Separatist tendencies in Republika Srpska ¥ Radicalization among muslim bosniaks ¥ Crotia's meddling in B&H
Autumns of Nations
peaceful revolutions in 1989 and early 1990s that resulted in the end of communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe. included: Poland, Hungary, Czechoslavakia, Bulgaria --exception: Romania! Romanian dictator Ceausecua and wife executed in 1989
⎫ Kosovo War: o When and why did the war take place?
¥ Context: Kosovo was an autonomous region within Serbia during Yugoslavia. After Tito's death, wanted more autonomy. Molisevic limited this autonomy. Clashes began between the Muslim Albanian majority and the Serbian minority ¥ KLA: Kosovo liberation army. Ethnic-Albanian nationalist paramilitary organization that fought for independence of Kosovo. ¥ Kosovo War: 1999. 1997 KLA attacks. 1998 Serbian forces campaign against Albanians. 1999 peace talks ended in failture. ¥ "operation horseshoe": Milosevic plan of ethnic cleansing of Kosovo Albanians. Was this real of NATO propaganda? ¥ March 1999: NATO airstrikes against Serbs begins.
o What were Russia's arguments for annexation of Crimea?
¥ Crimea has always been and will remain an inseparable part of Russia ¥ Context: Crimea was a part of Russia's empire since 1783, became a part of the Ukraine in 1954, its pop is 60% Russian. Crimea is crucial to Russian security interests (naval port in the Mediterranean sea). Ukraine serves as a buffer zone for Russia ¥ In case of Ukraine, our western partners have crossed the line. They acted primitively, irresponsibly, and unprofessionally ¥ In Russia's view, the US backed the overthrow of president Yanukovych in the Euromaidan revolution. US diplomats like Victoria Nuland, John McCain, Geoffrey Pyatt were involved. Russian stress about West's encroachment after the Cold War
o Why are Crimea and Ukraine important in Russia's security policy?
¥ Crimea: crucial to Russian security interests via a Russian security base in the Black and Mediterranean seas ¥ Ukraine: buffer zone to protect Russia from the rest of Europe
⎫ NATO and EU responses to cyberattacks o Cyber defense is a part of NATO's core task of collective defense
¥ Increased after 9/11, 2009 summit following Russian-Gerogia war, and then after the Ukranian crisis o EU recognized cybersecutiry as an important part of secutiry in the EU and its member states ¥ 2013: adopted cybersecutiry strategy
o The role of NATO and the US in the Kosovo War
¥ NATO's attacks on Serbia: 78 days of airstrikes in 1999. This was controversial. NATO's operation as humanitarian intervention... but killing one group of civilians to protect another? Problem of legitimacy under international law. Importance of US's sec of state Madeline Albright. This unilateralism was criticized
new political maps of Europe
¥ Reunification of Germany (1990). In 1949 Germany was divided into two countries, since 1961 the Berlin wall had divided the city, 1989 the Berlin wall was destroyed, in the 2+4 conference (east and west Germany, plus US, UK, France, USSR) the country was reunified. ¥ Breakup of Yugoslavia (began in 1991). Resulted in a series of political conflicts in the early 1990s ¥ Dismantling of the Eastern Bloc and USSR: Warsaw Pact, Council on Mutual Economic Assistance dismantled, Baltic states declared independence and Russia become its own country as well
o Why is Kosovo so important to Serbia?
¥ Very important to Serbian identity (Serbian history). Kosovo region lay at the heart of the Serbian empire in the late middle ages but was lost to the ottoman turks in 1389 following Serbia's defeat in the Battle Kosovo
