MGT 304 Test 1

Job Satisfaction

"[A] pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experience." (Locke, 1976, p. 1300)

Machiavellianism

"the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct" Individuals regarded as being Machiavellian are believed to -

Emotional labor is defined as

"the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display." In other words, it is the effort required to effectively manage emotions to be successful on the job. The concept of emotional labor was introduced by sociologist Arlie Hochschild, who investigated flight attendants and demonstrated that a significant part of their job was attending to the emotions of passengers. Emotional labor has been studied with convenience store clerks, and customers.

The Hawthorne effect

(also referred to as the observer effect) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.

Emphasize drawbacks as well as virtues

. An interesting example of this is the marketing of an energy drink called Cocaine. Cocaine contains three and a half times the amount of caffeine as Red Bull. It was pulled from U.S. shelves in 2007, after the FDA declared that its producers, Redux Beverages, were marketing their drink as an alternative to street drugs, and this was determined to be illegal. The FDA pointed to the drink's labeling and advertising, which included the statements "Speed in a Can" and "Cocaine—Instant Rush." Despite the controversy, Redux Beverages continued to produce and market the beverage in limited markets and online.

PJ Fit is comprised of two forms:

1. Demands-abilities (DA) fit--which refers to the compatibility between the employee's knowledge, skills, and abilities, and the demands of the job. The job characteristics are neither too easy nor too difficult for the abilities of the employee; they match. 2. Needs-supplies (NS) fit--refers to the extent to which the job supplies the employee's needs. This form of PJ fit addresses whether the job fulfills the employee's needs for interesting work and a sense of meaning in their work.

There are different forms of how a person fits into their work environment and two types of PE fit are important:

1. person-organization (PO) fit, which is the match between the person and the organization and 2. person-job (PJ) fit, which is the match between the person and the job.

Attitude

A psychological tendency

3. Group (team) level of analysis

A team that has high-performance norms that encourage a team member to perform at their best.

Meet beneficiaries firsthand

Employees see that their actions affect a real person, and that their jobs have tangible consequences. Connections make customers or clients more accessible in memory and more emotionally vivid. Leads employees to consider the effects of their actions more. Fosters higher levels of commitment.

Check the system for equity.

Employees should perceive that experience, skills, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs explain differences in performance and hence in pay, job assignments, and other obvious rewards.

The Importance of Fairness

Equity theory Organizational justice Developing a fair reputation

Individuals are classified as:

Extroverted or Introverted (E or I) Sensing or Intuitive (S or N) Thinking or Feeling (T or F) Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

Alternative Work Arrangements Can Motivate (some) Employees

Flextime - Job Sharing - Telecommuting - Coworking

ex:Use success (and failure) stories to....

For example, Circuit City went bankrupt in 2009 but was a "great company" in the now-classic book Good to Great. What happened to Circuit City? Alan Wurtzel, the former CEO and the son of the founder, saw the threats coming from Best Buy and Amazon in the early 2000s, and he knew the company was headed for decline. "After I left, my successors became very focused on the bottom line—the profit margin," Wurtzel told a group at the University of Richmond. "They were too focused on Wall Street. That was the beginning of the end," said the former CEO as he recalled the rise and fall of the great company. The lesson here is that no matter how great a company is, care must be taken not to simply copy what they do in today's changing business environment. There is no substitute for a careful analysis and diagnosis before embarking on a search for solutions.

Intrinsic motivation

Gain satisfaction from the task itself

A Crisis of Leadership?

Gallup Study 67% of full-time workers either hate their jobs or have checked out Main contributing factor:

Goal-Setting Theory

Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed.

The Main Ways Jobs Can Be Redesigned

Guidelines for job enrichment. Job enrichment expands jobs by increasing the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work. The first guideline is combining tasks that puts fractionalized tasks back together to form a new and larger module of work. Second is forming natural work units that make an employee's tasks create an identifiable and meaningful whole. Third, establishing client relationships increases the direct relationships between workers and their clients. (Clients can be internal as well as outside the organization.) Fourth, expanding jobs vertically gives employees responsibilities and control formerly reserved for management. Finally, opening feedback channels lets employees know how well they are doing and whether their performance is improving, deteriorating, or remaining constant.

Norms for expressions vary across cultures.

In collectivist cultures (emphasizing group relationships)emotional displays are seen as being concerned with the person expressing the emotion, while peoplein individualistic cultures tend not to think that another's emotional expression is directed at them.

Goal-Setting Theory Evidence suggests:

In the late 1960s, Edwin Locke's goal-setting theory proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance, and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. Also, people will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals. Self-generated feedback is more powerful a motivator than externally generated feedback.

Vertical expansion of jobs

Increases the degree to which employee controls the planning, execution and evaluation of the work.

Levels of Analysis in Organizational Behavior

Individual level of analysis Dyad (or two-party) level of analysis Group (team) level of analysis Organizational level of analysis Industry level of analysis

Narcissism

Individuals regarded as being Narcissistic are believed to display - Narcissism to be positively related to counterproductive workplace behaviors, such as -

Psychopathy

Individuals regarded as show psychopathic tendencies are believed to be - It is sometimes considered synonymous with sociopathy

The three key elements of motivation

Intensity - how hard a person tries. Direction - what a person does (our hope: their actions benefit the organization). Persistence - how long a person can maintain his/her effort.

Psychological Empowerment

Intrinsic task motivation manifested in a set of four cognitions reflecting an individual's orientation to their work role Competence Impact Meaning Self-determination

The Main Ways Jobs Can Be Redesigned

Job Rotation

What attitude do most people think of in a work context?

Job satisfaction is the most researched attitude in Organizational behavior Other attitudes of interest

Leadership Implications: Attitude Change

Leaders may create positive attitudes through developing a sense of meaning with respect to the work performed. By creating a sense of meaning, leaders may be able to activate other positive attitudes about work and improve employee motivation.

Emotional contagion can impact:

Leadership, Teamwork Customer Service

How do you put goal-setting operations into practice?

Management by Objectives (MBO) allows employees to participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable. An organization's overall objectives are translated into specific objectives for each succeeding level. Four ingredients common to MBO programs are: goal specificity; participation in decision making; explicit time period; and performance feedback. MBO programs are common in many business, healthcare, educational, government, and nonprofit organizations.

Why is personality important?

Managers need to know how they can assess personality Personality tests are considered useful in hiring decisions and help managers forecast who is best for a job. The most common means of measuring personality is through self-report surveys

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs, beginning with physiological needs that include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. The second level is safety needs that include security and protection from physical and emotional harm. The next level is social needs that include affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Reaching a higher level, we find esteem needs that include internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. At the top of the hierarchy is self-actualization needs; this is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, and includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment. Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. .

Why be a Leader?

Money Power Prestige Goals People Responsibility

Personality

Moods and emotions have a trait component. Affect intensity - how strongly people experience their emotions.

Practical Implications

Motivation Leadership Negotiation

Evidence __________ the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics does generate __________ and more __________ job performance.

Much evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics—variety, identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback—does generate higher and more satisfying job performance. But apparently we can better calculate motivating potential by simply adding the characteristics rather than using the formula.

ENRICHMENT IS _____ FOR EVERYONE!

NOT

McClelland's Three Fundamental Needs

Need for achievement (nAch)--the drive to succeed at high levels Need for power (nPow)--the need to influence others to do what you want Need for affiliation (nAff)--the need for close personal relationships

Deviant Workplace Behaviors Safety and Injury at Work

Negative emotions can lead to deviant workplace behaviors. These are actions that violate norms and threaten the organization. In addition, research has found that workers asked to do dangerous work while in negative emotional states are more likely to have accidents.

Affective Events Theory

Notice that in the figure, these work environment factors lead to work events such as daily hassles and uplifts (uplifts are moments when everything is going just great). Personality and moods play a role in how people react to hassles and uplifts. For example, a person low on emotional stability may have a stronger reaction to a daily hassle. Taken together, the work environment, events, personality, and moods combine to evoke emotional responses--positive or negative. This, in turn, leads to job satisfaction and performance. Affective events explain the development of effective working relationships between leaders and followers.

Pay and job satisfaction

Once a person reaches an income level where they can live comfortably, the relationship between income and job satisfaction goes away.

The employees value the rewards offered by the organization.

One level of performance may have multiple outcomes (such as a salary increase and a bonus) (designated as the list of valences, Vs, which can be either positive or negative). For example, a negative outcome associated with high performance might be having to stay late at work to accomplish a task and the employee misses his daughter's violin solo at a school concert. So, receiving a salary increase and a bonus has a positive (+) valence. At the same time, having to work late has a negative (-) valence.

Personality-Job Fit Theory

One of the best-researched theories of PJ fit is John Holland's personality-job fit theory. He discovered six different personality types and examined occupations that match these types (see Figure 2.4 above)

Why is personality important?

One of the greatest challenges in the study of personality is its measurement. Managers need to know how to measure personality because accurately measuring personality gives managers an advantage in the recruitment and hiring processes. Typically, personality is measured using self-report surveys.

Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Personality Framework and Its Strengths and Weaknesses

One of the most widely used personality frameworks is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Individuals are classified as Extroverted or Introverted (E or I), Sensing or Intuitive (S or N), Thinking or Feeling (T or F), and Perceiving or Judging (P or J). These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types.

Genes or Environment?

One well-known study in this area known as the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart studies 350 pairs of twins between 1979 and 1999 The participants included sets of both identical and fraternal twins who were either raised together or apart

Big 5 Personality Traits

Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Emotional Stability

Other job attitudes: Organizational Commitment

Organizational commitment is a psychological state that describes an employee's relationship with their organization and a propensity to continue the relationship. People who are not committed to their jobs are absent more often, are less motivated, and perform at lower levels.

Explain why fairness is a necessary condition for leadership using equity theory and the four types of organizational justice.

Organizational justice is the "members' sense of the moral propriety of how they are treated." When people feel an event is unfair, they may even experience moral outrage, which is a severe reaction to the perceived injustice (including strong emotions such as anger and resentment). Organizational justice is now considered to have four components: distributive (equity), procedural, interactional, and informational.

4. Organizational level of analysis

Organizations with strong cultures, the cultural characteristics can have a profound influence on an individual member's behavior. To illustrate this, one needs to look no further than the U.S. Marine Corps. The Marine Corps has a strong culture that includes pride and this inspires Marines to excel (this is evident in their recruiting ads: "The few, the proud, the Marines").

second with 63% of respondents rating this is very important to them

Overall compensation and pay

PO fit is often considered in the context of recruiting employees who will

PO fit is often considered in the context of recruiting employees who will "fit in" with the organizational culture. Organizations seek applicants that embrace their organizational culture and values. Job candidates are interested in working for an organization that has values similar to their own. This is because people are attracted to and trust others that they view as being similar to themselves.

Performance Management

Pay for performance incentive systems The performance management meeting is an opportunity to regularly discuss an employee's performance and results

Problems with Performance Reviews

Perceptions Fear Time Employees __________ tune out

What are the outcomes dictated by employee work attitudes?

Performance Creativity Citizenship Withdrawal Counterproductivity Organizational Performance

What types of outcomes are important in organizational behavior?

Performance & Productivity Work-related attitudes Employee well-being Motivation Employee withdrawal

Person-Environment Fit

Person-Environment (PE) Fit--when an individual's personality is aligned with their environment, it results in job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and better performance on the job

Sources of Emotions and Moods

Personality Time of Day? Day of the Week

What makes our personality?

Personality appears to be a result of both influences. Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Researchers have studied thousands of sets of identical twins that were separated at birth to better understand the role of heredity in personality.

Personality defined as

Personality is a dynamic concept, meaning it is changing all the time. It describes the total of growth and development of a person's whole psychological system. The text definition is that personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.

time of day

Positive emotions have their greatest effect in mid-morning and then remain stable before rising again until midnight.

Motivation, Leadership, Negotiation

Positive mood affects expectations of success by all people, which contributes to their motivation for performance. Leadership is affected by mood and emotion, as people in a positive emotional state are found to be more receptive of messages from leaders. Emotions, those both held and displayed, are effective contributors to negotiation, as the potential impact of displayed emotion on negotiation is large.

Critical thinking skills:

Rationality Self-awareness Honesty Open-mindedness Discipline Judgment

Affect

Refers to the range of feelings that employees experience at work Comprised of emotions and moods

Implications for Managers

Regulate your intense emotional responses to an event by recognizing the legitimacy of the emotion and being careful to vent only to a supportive listener who is not involved in the event Selecting positive team members can have a (positive) contagion effect.

Connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work.

Relate stories from customers who have found the company's products or services to be helpful.

Emotional Intelligence

Research from the field of psychology shows emotional regulation may be a form of intelligence. Emotion regulation is one of the important abilities that high EI people possess. Organizational leaders and human resource professionals find this concept, Emotional Intelligence (EI), relevant to the workplace. In fact, having EI abilities may be essential to be an effective leader.

Explain psychological empowerment and its relationship to job performance.

Research has shown that psychological empowerment is positively related to managerial effectiveness, innovation, and organizational commitment., Empowerment is related to lower stress as well. Meaning is the driver of psychological empowerment; however, all four components make unique contributions to outcomes.

Most people are satisfied with their jobs in the developed countries surveyed.

Research shows that over the past 30 years, the majority of U.S. workers have been satisfied with their jobs. As shown in Exhibit 3-2, people have typically been more satisfied with their jobs overall, with the work itself, and with their supervisors and co-workers than they have been with their pay and with promotion opportunities. Workers do seem to be less satisfied with their pay and promotion opportunities.

most important contributor (67% of respondents reported this was "very important").

Respectful treatment of employees at all levels

The Solution - what should be rewarded

Reward for the results AND __________ This way, desired results are achieved, and the proper behaviors occur Reduces potential unethical or harmful behavior

Link rewards to performance.

Rewards should be contingent on performance, and employees must perceive the link between the two.

Job Satisfaction: An Upward Trend

SHRM survey showed a upward trend in job satisfaction from 2013 - 2015 (highest level in 10 years) Reasons most affecting job satisfaction Job security (67%) Ability to use skills and abilities at work (55%) A positive relationship with the boss (53%) The organization's financial stability (63%)

Extrinsic motivation

Satisfaction comes from the extrinsic reward (e.g., money) Performance > outcome expectancies

Practical Implications

Selection Decision Making Creativity

Sources of Performance Management Ratings

Self-ratings Immediate supervisor Human resources Higher management Peers (coworkers) Subordinates Customers

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) proposes that any job may be described by five core job dimensions:

Skill variety is the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities, so the worker can use a number of different skills and talent. Task identity is he degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. Task significance is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. Autonomy is the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Feedback is the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

SMART Goal Setting

Specific: Well-defined, clear to anyone who has basic knowledge of the task Measurable: Know if the goal is obtainable and how far away completion is. Know when it has been achieved. Achievable: Agreement of stakeholders about what the goals should be. Make sure it is possible. Realistic: Within the availability of resources, knowledge, and time. Time-bound: Enough time to achieve the goal, but not too much time.

Recognize individual differences.

Spend the time necessary to understand what's important to each employee. Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their motivation potential.

Discuss the case for training in emotional intelligence in the workplace.

Table 3.1. Practical Advice for Using Emotional Intelligence Measures for Selection. Meta-analyses have shown that leaders' EI relates to follower job satisfaction. Other benefits of EI demonstrated by research are enhanced employee creativity, teamwork effectiveness, and the ability to resolve conflict. Given the benefits of EI in the workplace, organizations are interested in whether EI measures can be used for personnel selection. In other words, can leaders be confident in using EI to decide who to hire for a job (or who to promote to higher one)? Based upon a meta-analytic review, researchers offer the evidence-based practical advice for using EI for hiring employees shown in Table 3.1.

Facets of Job Satisfaction

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is a questionnaire that addresses aspects of satisfactionwith which good managers should be concerned for the people reporting to them.

Job Satisfaction: A Downward Trend

The Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM) survey showed a decline in job satisfaction from 2009 to 2011

Affective climate refers to the shared affective experience of a work group or team. (Cropanzano, 2015)

The climate, or tone, of the group can be considered feelings that arise from, or in, groups Affective climates are typically referred to as being affectively "positive" or "negative"

These evaluations have three components:

The cognitive component of an attitude is belief The affective component of an attitude is feelings The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to act based on intentions

Emotion Display Display Rules =

The degree to which it is appropriate to display emotions.

It's important to note that there is a downside to trying to change the way you feel :

The effort involved can be exhausting.

Job Crafting:

The extent to which individuals can demonstrate initiative in designing their own work

Employee Engagement

The investment of an individual's complete self into a role Gallup survey (2012) indicates 52% of workers are not engaged 18% are actively disengaged Gallup estimates that actively disengaged employees cost the U.S. between $450 billion to $550 billion each year in lost productivity

Enriched core job characteristics will create positive psychological states, which in turn will create positive work outcomes only when:

The job characteristics model suggests that enriched jobs will lead to positive outcomes only for those persons who are a good match for them. When the fit between the person and an enriched job is poor, positive outcomes are less likely, and problems may well result.

Emotions and OB In the past,

emotions were ignored in OB

Apply your own critical thinking skills based upon your own experiences with behavior in organizations (this is the

evidence-based approach to learning OB).

Most of McClelland's research was on nAch. There is some research support

for the idea that people who have a higher need to achieve do perform at higher levels and people with a higher nAch may be more successful entrepreneurs. However, a high need to achieve is not necessarily related to being an effective leader since those with higher nAch may be more interested in their own attainment rather than coaching others to succeed.

Extraversion

gregarious, assertive, sociable, outgoing

Deep acting

happens when a desired emotional expression is achieved by changing one's underlying felt emotion

Conscientiousness

hardworking, organized, dependable, responsible, persistent

Expectancy theory

has become a standard in motivation, as reflected by its incorporation as a general framework for a wide variety of research." The expectancy theory of motivation has received mixed research support but does provide insight into the process of motivation.

Goal Setting

has been applied using management by objectives (MBO). MBO is a performance appraisal program where leaders meet with their direct reports and set specific performance objectives jointly. Progress toward objectives is periodically reviewed and rewards are allocated on the basis of that progress.

Job involvement --

how much employees identify with their job and view their performance at work as an essential part of their self-esteem.

Use success (and failure) stories to....

illustrate sound practices but not in place of a valid research method

people high on openness to experience fit better

in organizations that emphasize innovation rather than standardization

According to RFT,

individuals who are promotion-focused are oriented toward growth and development, and becoming their ideal. In contrast, individuals who are prevention-focused are oriented toward the things they feel that have to do and focus on their job responsibilities. It's important to ensure that the person's regulatory orientation (i.e., whether they are promotion- or prevention-focused) fits the situation they are in.

Affective events theory

integrates personality, emotions, and moods and considers the impact of the work environment and events that may trigger emotional reactions (positive and negative affect).

Emotion regulation

involves identifying and modifying the emotions you feel.

How the big five traits predict behavior at work emotional stability

is most strongly related to life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and low stress levels. This is probably true because high scorers are more likely to be positive and optimistic and experience fewer negative emotions. They are happier than those who score low. People low on emotional stability are hyper vigilant (looking for problems or impending signs of danger) and are especially vulnerable to the physical and psychological effects of stress.

Good Person-Job (PJ) Fit occurs when

job characteristics are aligned with employees' personality, motivations, and abilities. The concept of PJ Fit also includes the fit with the work group and the supervisor.

The core dimensions of the______ can be combined into a single predictive index called the ______

job characteristics model (JCM) motivating potential score (MPS).

Job Rotation

job rotation, which is also known as cross-training. It involves periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another. When activity is no longer challenging, the employee is shifted to a different task. Strengths of job rotation are that it reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps employees better understand their work contributions. Indirect benefits include employees with wider ranges of skills that give management more flexibility in scheduling, adapting to changes, and filling vacancies. Some weaknesses of job rotation include disruptions, a need for extra time for supervisors addressing questions and training time, and reduced efficiencies.

Research on person-organization fit has also looked at whether people's values match the organization's culture. This match predicts

job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and low turnover.

Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

look at chart

Organizational commitment and job involvement

look at charts

McClelland's theory has received ____ research support than other need theories; however,

more the application of the theory to motivate followers is limited because these needs are believed to be learned at a young age (in other words, it may not be possible to increase an adult's nAch).

The summation of job facets

more sophisticated: It identifies key elements in a job such as the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities, and relations with coworkers.

Evidence-based management Adopt a ___________toward ideologies and theories

neutral stance

BUT -

not all programs are equally effective. A review of 83 organizational interventions designed to improve performance management showed that frequent, specific feedback related to solving problems was linked to consistently higher performance, but infrequent feedback that focused more on past problems than future solutions was much less effective. Some recent evidence suggests job enrichment works best when it compensates for poor feedback and reward systems. Work design may also not affect everyone in the same way. One recent study showed employees with a higher preference for challenging work experienced larger reductions in stress following job redesign than individuals who did not prefer challenging work.

Personality can help us understand why

people act, think, and feel the way we do. This knowledge can help managers put employees in situations that best fit their personalities. Values underlie and explain attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions. Knowing a person's values can provide insight into what makes the person "tick."

As the day week progresses,

positive affects of emotions increases while negative affects decrease. So positive emotions are considerable higher toward the end of the week than they are at the beginning.

Research evidence shows that good PO fit is

positively related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance.

The evidence on job enrichment shows:

reduced absenteeism and turnover costs increased satisfaction

Interpersonal justice

refers to how employees are treated by their leaders including respect and propriety (which refers to whether the leader refrains from offending the follower with comments that are inappropriate).,

Surface acting

refers to producing a desired outward emotional expression without modifying the underlying emotions

Distributive justice

refers to the fairness of decisions made as perceived by followers as described above.

Informational justice

refers to the perceived fairness of the communications made by leaders during a process. Informational justice includes full explanations of processes and the perception that the leader is being truthful., For example, during the great recession of 2008, many organizations had zero pay raises. When this happened, leaders provided explanations for why raises were zero for hardworking employees because of the economic situation. Figure 8.5 summarizes the four components of organization justice and provides a sample item from an organizational justice measure to illustrate each aspect of justice.

Critical thinking is, in short,

self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of problem solving and a commitment to overcome the inclination to think that we have all of the answers."

Employees feel a sense of psychological ownership for their work because they feel a

sense of belonging and experience the organization as a place that makes them feel comfortable, positive, and safe.

When an employee has an emotional episode, it is actually be the result of

series of emotional experiences that are triggered by a single event.

Emotion and mood contagion

spillover effects of one's emotions and mood onto others

myth of rationality

suggested that OB comprised rational concepts and applications, while emotions and moods were seen as highly irrational.

Research has however, shown that

surface and deep-level acting occur simultaneously. Such acting may come with costs, however. Surface acting emotional labor (acting out service roles) has been related to emotional exhaustion and burnout., The emotional exhaustion from surface acting may be reduced by team member's positive actions.

Engaged employees feel

valued by their organization. A longitudinal panel study found employee perceptions of how much they were valued by the organization was related to changes in affective commitment. Also, the resources employees feel that they have on their job positively relates to engagement.

Emotional fluctuations over time can create

variations in job performance.

Repetitive jobs provide little

variety, autonomy, or motivation.

Person-Organization (PO) fit is

viewed as the match between a person's individual values and those of the organization they work for.

Explain how affective climate (positive and negative) of a work group relates to team conflict.

The range of emotions that may be experienced has been summarized in the circumplex model of affect shown in Figure 3.3. This model locates specific emotions in the conceptual space defined by two orthogonal primary dimensions: pleasantness (pleasure-displeasure) and arousal (low activation-high activation). Affective climate is described as having different facets as shown in the figure.

Are These Job Attitudes Really Distinct?

There is a high degree of overlap between the different job attitudes. If a worker has higher job satisfaction, they tend to be more engaged and show a stronger commitment to the organization. Researchers are looking into trying to find ways to measure the different attitudes to get at their distinctiveness. This overlap can cause considerable confusion when trying to assess them.

Minnesota twin studies results

These twins tell us a great deal about the contribution of heredity 50% of the variation in occupational choice is due to heredity 40% of the variance in values related to work motivation attributed to heredity 60% of the variance was due to the environment

day of the week

As the week progresses, positive effects of emotions increases while negative effects decrease. So positive emotions are considerably higher toward the end of the week than they are at the beginning. This tends to be true among many cultures.

What is an Attitude?

Attitudes are a person's evaluation of something

Emotional Intelligence is considered to have four aspects:

Ability to perceive emotion in self and others (e.g., correctly identifying a perceived emotional expression as fear) Ability to use emotion to facilitate cognitive activities like thinking and problem solving (e.g., knowing how to capitalize on a happy mood swing to engage in a creative task) Ability to understand emotional information (e.g. understanding how two emotions can blend into a third emotion) Ability to manage emotion in self and others (e.g. detaching from fear states that interfere with one's functioning)

Emotions Vs. Moods

Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings people experience. This includes both emotions and moods. Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Moods are the feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.

Affective Climate

Affective climate refers to the shared affective experience of a work group or team. (Cropanzano, 2015)

Three Types of Commitment

Affective commitment (emotional attachment) Continuance commitment (cost of leaving) Normative commitment (moral obligation to stay)

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Also called Motivator-Hygiene Theory Motivators--cause satisfaction Hygiene--cause dissatisfaction Different work factors cause people to be satisfied or dissatisfied When people think about what makes them dissatisfied with work, they think of things like supervision, pay, company policies, and the working conditions, which are called "hygiene." On the other hand, when people think of what satisfies them, they are more likely to think of things like advancement, recognition, and achievement, called "motivators." Hygiene factors can only bring a person's satisfaction to the level of "no dissatisfaction" (in other words, they stop complaining about their pay). To motivate people, leaders need to focus on the motivators such as providing people with a sense of achievement.

George Elton Mayo

An Australian In 1926 he was appointed to the Harvard Business School as a professor of industrial research Philadelphia he conducted research at a textile plant in order to develop a method to reduce the plants very high rate of turnover Theorized that alongside the formal organization of a workplace there exists an informal organizational structure as well Most well known for the Hawthorne studies

Ex: Adopt a neutral stance toward ideologies and theories.

An example of this is that most management "gurus" are from North America (e.g., Peter Drucker, Tom Peters, Ken Blanchard). This is not to say that their ideology isn't useful. However, in a global world, EBM demands that we question whether ideology developed in North America applies abroad. EBM would also suggest that we search for theories developed overseas to locate experts from other countries with important ideas.

2. Dyad (or two-party) level of analysis

An example would be a mentor and a protégé.

1. Individual Level of Analysis--

An individual's personality and experiences would explain much of their behavior, and differences in these variables among people would help explain why people behave differently.

Implications for Managers

As a manager, you are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively, and allocate rewards to employees who fit in, and your employees are more likely to be satisfied if they perceive they do fit in. Plan to objectively consider your employees' performance accordingly. Consider screening job candidates for high conscientiousness, as well as the other Big Five traits, depending on the criteria your organization finds most important.

What causes negative job attitudes?

Cognitive Dissonance The incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between attitudes and behavior Creates stress due to: The personal importance of what creates it How much influence the person has over the attitude or behavior Stress drives people to do something to reduce the dissonance

Relational Job Design To make jobs more prosocially motivating:

Connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work. Meet beneficiaries firsthand

three basic principles of expectancy theory

Employees decide to put forth effort when they believe that their effort will lead to good performance The employee's performance will be evaluated accurately and will lead to rewards (e.g., pay raises, bonuses). The employees value the rewards offered by the organization

Perceived Organizational Support

Employees perception of whether or not the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being

Emotional Labor - How to

Deep acting Surface acting

Level of "faking" differs

Deep acting happens when a desired emotional expression is achieved by changing one's underlying felt emotion. For example, a college professor may "psych himself up" to present a lecture to students after learning of a family member's illness. The professor actually becomes more enthusiastic. Surface acting refers to producing a desired outward emotional expression without modifying the underlying emotions. Research has however, shown that surface and deep-level acting occur simultaneously. Such acting may come with costs, however. Surface acting emotional labor (acting out service roles) has been related to emotional exhaustion and burnout., The emotional exhaustion from surface acting may be reduced by team member's positive actions.

When faced with an issue in the workplace Four essential determinations:

Description— Prediction— Explanation— Control—

Explain why fairness is a necessary condition for leadership using equity theory and the four types of organizational justice.

Despite our parents telling us that "life is not fair," employees expect the workplace to be fair. This is, in part, due to the "just world hypothesis" or the belief that people should get what they deserve. There are situations in which employees experience anger when then don't receive what they believe they deserve on a performance evaluation and subsequent pay raise. It has been proposed that the need for fairness is a universal motive. For example, an employee may feel that he should have been promoted to a higher position instead of a coworker. Employees may react to even lesser outcomes, such as who gets an office that has a window in the work group. As these examples illustrate, concerns for fairness permeate the workplace, and effective leaders need to be aware of how followers might react to their decisions.

four types of organizational justice

Distributive justice Procedural justice Interpersonal justice Informational justice

Display rules - Jobs

E.g. customer service = smile, act friendly E.g. funeral director = somber, act caring

Are there jobs where EI is very important or not important?

EI becomes a stronger predictor of performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) when intelligence is lower. This may be explained by the results of a study that found that employees with high EI are better able to control and reduce the counterproductive outcomes of challenging developmental job experiences (EI reduced the unpleasant feelings associated with demanding tasks that required new learning). Taking on these difficult tasks resulted in employees being seen as having more advancement potential. Example: a study conducted with U.S. Air Force recruiters, found that EI was related to success in meeting recruiting quotas. Example: a study of more than 300 managers at Johnson & Johnson found that managers who scored higher on a measure of EI were rated as more effective by their followers.

Evidence For the Existence of Emotional Intelligence

EI is controversial and not wholly accepted. The arguments supporting EI are its intuitive appeal, the fact that it predicts criteria that matter, and the notion that it is biologically-based.

The following summarizes what we can safely conclude about EI:

EI is distinct from but positively related to other intelligences (such as IQ). EI is an individual difference, where some people are more endowed and others are less so. EI develops over a person's life span and can be enhanced through training. EI involves, at least in part, individual's abilities to effectively identify and perceive emotion (in themselves and others), as well as possession of the skills to understand and manage those emotions successfully.

IQ is related to performance job performance what about EI?

EI is related to job performance. This is especially true in jobs that have high emotional labor requirements.

Early thinking on Personality

Early research tried to identify and label enduring personality characteristics. Shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. Early efforts to identify the primary traits that govern behavior often resulted in long lists that were difficult to generalize from and provided little practical guidance to organizational decision makers.

Emotional Intelligence has definitely impacted the workplace through:

Emotional intelligence training programs Specialized Emotional Intelligence consultants Articles in the business press and popular press

Customer Service Job Attitudes

Emotions affect customer service in a number of ways, ranging from the attitude of the employee, the effectiveness of communication with customers, to overall feelings about the outcome. Research has found that people who are on an emotional high at the end of a day take the positive feelings home with them, and vice versa. This good mood, however, tends to dissipate overnight.

AET offers two important messages:

Emotions provide valuable insights into how workplace hassles and uplifting events influence employee performance and satisfaction. Emotions, and the events that cause them, should not be ignored at work because they accumulate.

Evidence-based management

Emphasize drawbacks as well as virtues Use success (and failure) stories to....

Job involvement has been related to

Employee turnover (-) Organizational citizenship (+) Job performance (+)

Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.

Employees can contribute to setting work goals, choosing their own benefits packages, and solving productivity and quality problems.

Employees decide to put forth effort when they believe that their effort will lead to good performance.

This is called the effort à performance relationship, which is the probability that a person believes that their effort will lead to performance (designated as the E à P expectancy).

The employee's performance will be evaluated accurately and will lead to rewards (e.g., pay raises, bonuses).

This is the follower's estimated probability that if they perform well, they will actually receive the reward from the organization (designated as the P à O instrumentality).

Why does your attitude to work matter?

Time Identity They are predictors

The implications for managers are:

To foster effective decision making, creativity, and motivation in employees, look to model positive emotions and moods as much as is authentically possible. Provide positive feedback to increase the positivity of employees. In the service sector, encourage positive displays of emotion, which make customers feel more positive and thus improve customer service interactions and negotiations.

How Can Job Satisfaction Be Measured?

Two approaches for measuring Job Satisfaction are popular: The single global rating The summation of job facets

Type Personality Type A

Type A individuals as ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status-conscious, sensitive, impatient, take on more than they can handle, want other people to get to the point, anxious, proactive, and concerned with time management.

Type Personality Type B

Type B typically work steadily, and may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater tendency to disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve.

5. Industry level of analysis

Where comparisons are made across different industries (this is more typical for research in strategic management than OB).

Plasticity principle

While personality traits tend to be stable, they are not set in stone. Some newer longitudinal studies have revealed that traits are a bit more nuanced than previously believed

Do Attitudes Matter?

Work-related attitudes are Outcome variables in OB research Predictor variables in OB Research OB research has shown that attitudes are related to outcomes that organizations care about, such as job performance and turnover.

Why is this a problem?

Workers often spread their unhappiness or engage in deviance

Use goals and feedback.

You should give employees firm, specific goals, and they should get feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals

promotion-focused

a person will want to be provided with goals that stretch their abilities. Promotion-focused individuals have a need for achievement, focus on advancement, and set learning goals.

prevention-focused

a person would be stressed out by such stretch goals and should be given goals that are within their job description. A prevention focus is a tendency to aim for getting to an end because of a fear of an undesirable alternative. Prevention-focused individuals are vigilant and careful, emphasize fears, focus on avoiding threats, and set prevention goals. The motivating force of a prevention focus is the avoidance of pain.

The single global rating

a response to one question, such as "All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?" Respondents circle a number between 1 and 5 on a scale from "highly satisfied" "highly dissatisfied."

people high on agreeableness match up better with

a supportive organizational climate than one focused on aggressiveness

Effective emotion regulation techniques include:

acknowledging rather than suppressing emotional responses to situations, re-evaluating events after they occur, and openly expressing emotions, or venting.

people high on extraversion fit well with

aggressive and team-oriented cultures

Job sharing

allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job. Only 12 percent of larger organizations now offer job sharing, a decline from 18 percent in 2008. Reasons it is not more widely adopted are likely the difficulty of finding compatible partners to share a job and the historically negative perceptions of individuals not completely committed to their job and employer. The major drawback is finding compatible pairs of employees who can successfully coordinate the intricacies of one job. However, job sharing allows an organization to draw on the talents of more than one individual in a given job. From the employee's perspective, job sharing increases flexibility and can increase motivation and satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-week job is just not practical.

Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT)

an alternative approach to understanding how individuals strive to meet their goals.

Though not all psychologists agree, there do seem to be six basic emotions that emerge in studies:

anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise. All other emotions fall under these six categories. Sometimes as many as twelve emotions are identified.

How the big five traits predict behavior at work openness to experience

are more creative in science and art than those who score low. Because creativity is important to leadership, open people are more likely to be effective leaders, and more comfortable with ambiguity and change. They cope better with organizational change and are more adaptable in changing contexts. Recent evidence also suggests, however, that they are especially susceptible to workplace accidents. When people choose romantic partners, friends, or organizational team members, agreeable individuals are usually their first choice. Agreeable individuals are better liked than disagreeable people, which explains why they tend to do better in interpersonally oriented jobs such as customer service. They are also more compliant and rule abiding and less likely to get into accidents as a result.

How the big five traits predict behavior at work agreeable

are more satisfied in their jobs and contribute to organizational performance by engaging in citizenship behavior. They are also less likely to engage in organizational deviance. One downside is that agreeableness is associated with lower levels of career success (especially earnings).

What role does equity play in motivation? Equity theory

argues that individuals make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others and then respond to any inequities. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair. When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension.

Your job satisfaction is impacted by

current and past emotions.

Good fit is the result of

better communication among employees, increased predictability, interpersonal attraction, and trust in the organization, with trust being the key component that explains the positive outcomes of PO fit.

: OB is the study of _________and their behaviors at work.

both group and individual performance

Behaviors that are driven by emotions are typically

brief and variable.

A few studies have tested the JCM in different cultures

but the results aren't very consistent. One study suggested that when employees are "other oriented" (i.e., concerned with the welfare of others at work), the relationship between intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction was weaker. The fact that the job characteristics model is relatively individualistic (i.e., considering the relationship between the employee and his or her work) suggests job enrichment strategies may not have the same effects in collectivistic cultures as in individualistic cultures (such as the United States). Another study suggested the degree to which jobs had intrinsic job characteristics predicted job satisfaction and job involvement equally well for American, Japanese, and Hungarian employees.

Emotional Stability

calm, self-confident, cool, unworried, secure, relaxed

Areas in the work environment that leaders should pay close attention to are:

characteristics of the job (e.g., Is it boring or interesting?), the job demands (e.g., Is the job just too difficult for the person to handle?), and the requirements for emotional labor (e.g., Does the person have to interact with the public and be courteous to irate customers?).

The Aberdeen Group, a Boston-based research organization that identifies best-in-class practices by working with industry practitioners, conducted a study that compared companies that have engagement programs with those that don't. Their analysis found that

companies that have a formal engagement program reduce the loss of customers due to better responsiveness. In fact, customer referrals actually increased. As shown in Figure 4.7, additional outcomes of engagement were higher revenues, sales teams meeting their quotas more often, and improved cost savings.

Agreeableness

cooperative, warm, agreeable, good-natured, trusting

The first three dimensions—skill variety, task identity, and task significance—combine to

create meaningful work the incumbent will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile. From a motivational standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results) that they personally (experienced responsibility) have performed well on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness). Individuals with a high growth need are more likely to experience the critical psychological states when their jobs are enriched—and respond to them more positively—than are their counterparts with low growth need.

Openness to experience

creative, curious, cultured, imaginative, broad-minded

_________ acting--we actually try to change our emotions _________ acting--we hide our emotions and feelings

deep surface

Heredity refers to those factors that were

determined at conception.

Emotions were thought to be

disruptive of organizational activity and that they decreased productivity. Because emotions were perceived as irrational, the belief was that they were unpredictable and therefore not easily influenced. We now know this is untrue.

Both positive and negative emotions can

distract workers and reduce job performance.

How the big five traits predict behavior at work Extraverts

tend to be happier in their jobs and in their lives as a whole. They experience more positive emotions than do introverts, and they more freely express these feelings. They also tend to perform better in jobs that require significant interpersonal interaction, perhaps because they have more social skills—they usually have more friends and spend more time in social situations than introverts. Finally, extraversion is a relatively strong predictor of leadership emergence in groups; extraverts are more socially dominant, "take charge" sorts of people, and they are generally more assertive than introverts. One downside is that extraverts are more impulsive than introverts; they are more likely to be absent from work and engage in risky behavior such as unprotected sex, drinking, and other impulsive or sensation-seeking acts. One study also found extraverts were more likely than introverts to lie during job interviews.

Emotional Intelligence For example,

the FedEx Global Leadership Institute is charged with continuously updating and innovating in keeping with that Fred Smith call for continuously "raising the standards."

Skill variety—

the degree to which a job includes a variety of different activities and involves the use of a number of different skills and talents

Job feedback—

the degree to which carrying out the work activities provides direct and clear information to the employee regarding how well the job has been done.

Autonomy—

the degree to which the job gives the employee substantial freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures used in carrying it out

Task significance—

the degree to which the job is important and involves a meaningful contribution to the organization or society in general

Task identity—

the degree to which the job requires completion of a "whole" and identifiable piece of work, one that involves doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome

Expectancy theory, therefore, focuses on three key relationships:

the effort-performance relationship, which is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance; the performance-reward relationship, which is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome; and the rewards-personal goals relationship, which is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

Procedural justice

the perception of how fair the process was in making decisions that affect employees. There are certain rules of fair process that are expected by employees., For example, employees want to have a voice in decisions that affect them. They also want some form of an appeal process or way to correct something they see as unfair. Third, they want procedures to be consistent across people and over time. They also want the process to be unbiased and to represent the concerns of everyone affected by the decision. Finally, procedures need to be based on accurate information. Procedural justice has been shown to be more important than distributive justice in how followers respond to the decisions of their leaders in two meta-analytic studies that included a variety of organizational and occupational samples.

Job enrichment -

the practice of enhancing job content by building more motivating factors such as responsibility, achievement, recognition, and personal growth into the job.

Emotional dissonance

the result of the difference between the organizationally-expected emotions and an employee's inner or "real" emotions. In other words, employees are told to "fake it until they make it." All jobs have this requirement to some extent, but some have higher requirements than others (e.g., flight attendants, salespeople, customer service representatives, and nurses).

Goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory don't compete with one another;

they complement each other

Critical thinking skills are applied

to sort through all of the information gathered and then prioritize it (and even discard evidence that appears to be invalid or irrelevant to the problem).

Minnesota twin studies.

twins born in Minnesota from 1936 through 1955 were asked to join a registry. Identical twins (monozygotic and dizygotic reared apart, MZAs and DZAs, respectively) were confirmed through birth records, and 80% of the surviving, intact pairs were located and recruited for participation in various psychological studies. Some twins were reared apart for various reasons (e.g., adoption). These twins tell us a great deal about the contribution of heredity compared to the child rearing environment. A study showed that 50% of the variation in occupational choice (whether a person is a dentist or a soldier, for example) is due to heredity. Most people are surprised to learn this. Another study of MZA and DZA twins showed that 40% of the variance in values related to work motivation could be attributed to heredity whereas 60% was due to the environment (and measurement error). The implications for a leader are that while personality might change, most psychologists believe that it is a relatively stable individual difference. Instead of trying to change a coworker's personality, it is perhaps better to learn about personality differences, understand how different personalities operate at work, and then learn to work effectively with different types. Psychologists have developed inventories (personality tests) to assess personality differences. These tests are useful in training programs on conflict resolution and team building.