Middle East in the Age of Empire
Ba'ath Party
"Renaissance" - pan-Arabism, Arab nationalism, socialism, anti-imperialism. "Unity, Liberty, Socialism". Formed in Syria.
Eisenhower gave grant of x in 1950s (does threaten to take it away due to DMZ issue on waterways)
$26mil (motivated by Holocaust)
Nasser funds/founds number of Egyptian cultural institutions, e.g.
'56 High Council of Arts, Letters and Social Sciences, '58 Ministry of Culture, Ballet, plus folk arts e.g. Chair in Folklore Studies at Cairo University.
Irgin hanged two Br. sergeants in. 1947, for crimes including:
'membership of a British criminal terrorist organisation known as the Army of Occupation'
French Algeria ought to be regarded as the
'reincarnation of the Ancien Regime' (landowning noble class over a disenfranchised Muslim Third Estate, undercut by military rule and no right of rebellion)
OED defines terrorism as
'unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims'
Wafd
'wealthy, secular, nationalist notables', meeting in palaces of notables (e.g. Hmad al-Basil) but gain real pop. supports, e.g. students
Treaty Suppressing Piracy and Slave Traffic
(1820) - no piracy in return for trading rights, follows years of attack. Arabs parties to this contract, for ever' otherwise they're an 'enemy of mankind'. Also trying to control slave trade. Bureaucraticallly managing (though remember this not so unusual for PRIVATEERS)
Free Officers' Coup
(Egyptian Revolution) 1952
George Antonius
(Egyptian-Lebanese, edu. at Cambridge) = important historiographical frame for thinking about "Arab nationalism", as its first theorist. Hourani: 'a slightly uneasy combination of two different kinds of writing. It is a work of historical narrative, but also of political advocacy.' - quite viciously against British. He thinks Arab nationalism beginning (though v. infant) under Muhammad 'Ali, impetus from Abdulhamid II and Young Turks, then ARAB REVOLT as first expression
French used aerial bombardment to kill x over 3 days in Damascus
1,500 (incl. foreign residents - League of Nations 'appalled')
Abdulhamid II produced x from 1880-1892
1,819 photographs (presented to the Library of Congress and the British Library)
Number of Palestinian refugee registered by 1972
1.5 million (Arabs in E. Jerusalem forced to leave, signing contracts which give up their right of return)
Britain only gained x% of Indian trade at Basra compared to rivals post-Treaty
10
Charles X removed x days after he ousts Bey from Algeria
10
x% of infiltrators could be plausibly labelled as terrorists
10
From 1967 to 2000, Fatah commit...
100 attacks (do really succeed in terrorising Northern Israel)
FLN only have...
1000 members
UNWRA spending x per refugee per year on food in 1967 ; less than X per person on health, and less than x on education
13 ... 4 ... 12
When Nasser takes over, industry is x% of GDP
13%
French casualties in Algeria just 2,788, compared to
141,000 FLN
Egyptian sources tell public they shot down x planes on first day of fighting
161
Earliest recorded local agent was in x in Muscat
1793
Br. propose treaty that would allow their free passage through the Bosphorous and the Dardanelles in exchange for banning anyone holding berat from trade
1808
Deed of Agreement
1808 - contractual rather than constitutional, between parties. Qur'anic throughout. Not Lockeian - anyone who goes against will be punished. Some clauses more similar, e.g. taxes not to oppress the poor, but given lack of limits/checks not clear how this would be enforced - asking them to do, citizens do not have innate rights. Doesn't work and quickly abandoned.
Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth when they refuse to release Christian captives, in spite of previous agreements between Naples and Algiers about the treatment of captives
1816
Refusal to kiss hand of the bey
1816
Muhammad 'Ali defeats the Wahhabis
1818
Britain closed the Baghdad Residency in x, because of inactivity - had mainly been worrying about the region earlier, when Fr. in Egypt
1821
Regulating Act prevents British residents from engaging in trade (not native agents!)
1822
Massacre of the Janissaries
1826
People of Constantine appeal to British to uphold their natural rights (Law of Nations)
1834
Balta Liman Treaty
1838 - abolished all monopolies w/ Britain, Britain to be taxed equally to local merchants - v. free trade (ADD THIS TO ENLIGHTENMENT LOL); so that Br. would help reconquest of Syria
Hatt-i Serif
1839 - following first and second Egyptian crises. Written by FOREIGN MINISTER rather than ayan: nobility. --> bureaucracy + who it's for. Granting "people" concessions, coming close to the centre. Regular tax assessment, regular system for troops. Bureaucratic, not democratic.
First 'modern' hotel for tourists in Istanbul (some before then)
1840
Census of berat holders
1841
French first give out land in Algeria in
1848
Bank of Algeria created for Europeans
1851
Perpetual Maritime Truce w/ Shaykhs of Pirate Coast
1853 Treaty to deal w/ WAR - shaykhs securing own ascendancy in region, as Br. NOW have an interest in keeping them in power
Concession fo the Suez Canal
1856
Islahat Fermani
1856 - published on eve of Paris Peace Conf. for the Crimean War. Religions getting more autonomy - attend whatever schools they like, build new places of worship without permission in places where they're majority, meritocracy.
New land tenure law which gives private land to those CULTIVATING
1858
in Osman Hamdi Bey's book, Les costumes populaire de la Turqie en 1873 he writes 'Druzes and Maronites seem to have been finally quelled; obedient subjects, they now live as brothers' - silencing of...
1860
Improvements of port at Algiers
1860 (shows turning towards urban/mercantile needs - civilian)
Land survey in Aleppo, in order to give uncultivated land away to those who can cultivate it. Enriches families such as the Marcopolie and Poche
1866
Lord Clarendon's Formula on Bahrain Islands
1869 - shows difference between Whitehall and Gov. of India, as represented by Clarendon saying he's happy for Tehran/Persia to take over the costly duty of policing the Gulg
Absorption of all shari'a courts into French legal system
1870-1930
Civilian Rule in Algeria
1870s
Ottoman resurgence in Iraq around Basra
1871
"assimilationist" application of French real estate laws to Algeria
1872 (not really assimilation - a tactic to get what they want).
Ottoman Constitution
1876. Created by bureuacrats - the sultan is young, previous was deposed on account of bankruptcy. Drawing from Belgium (strong monarchy) - not liberal, Sultan still can't be blamed. Crucial that ARTICLE 1 states that no territory can be. detached. Defines citizenship for all on basis of Ottomanism. Turkish as official language. Shari'a for laws touching it, all else to be in civil. Sultan has huge powers to dismiss bills, Minister or Chamber, chooses senate for life. Deputies - 1 per 50,000 people.
Beirut win petition to become provincial capital
1888
From x, Algerians (esp. women) can choose to have French common law applied to cases - could already appeal to Fr. jurists as qadi courts had been made subsidiary
1889
Qabla/Islamic law accused of enabling marriages of v. young Algerians to older men
1907
First Arab Congress in Paris
1913
Ottomans propose changes to personal law of ALL religions --> put into place, but only in Turkey
1917
First Alawite rebellion against the Fr. begins
1918
Jewish university founded in Palestine
1918
Shi'a clerics in Iraq declare jihad against Britain in
1918 (Sayyid Mushin al-Hakim, later one of the most important Shi'ite leaders in the world)
King-Crane Commission
1919 - good for looking at options available
Afghanistan Constitution - wide ranging reforms, nothing to do w/ British or French imperialism
1923
French law criminalises family desertion - enters Algerian law
1924
League of Nations ban pictures of mutilated Syrian bodies taken by Fr. and circulated in the West
1926
Exclusion Zone, Syria
1926 - stop Turkish Kurds escaping to Syria (Turkey's request)
Arab Women's Conference in Palestine
1929
Fuad forced to dismiss Sidqi by the British because autocratic reaction had brought too much disorder
1933 (int. comparisons w/ the US - when you're not RESPONSIBLE so directly the issues of autocracy don't hurt q so much)
Fuad dies & preferential treaty
1936 (two are connected - good time for change)
Palestinians murder district commissioner in Galilee, leading to martial law
1937
Can finally get a train from Istanbul to Baghdad in
1940 - lost all meaning
Proclamation of the FLN
1954
Attack at Karamah refugee camp
1955
Baghdad Pact
1955 - A treaty supported by the West that united the defenses of Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan, and Iran, to counter the threat of the expansion of the Soviet Union. JORDAN AND LEBANON PREVENTED FROM JOINING DUE TO IMPACT OF VOICE OF THE ARABS
Beginning of the SETTLER revolt against the Premier - fears that the Algerian problem will fell the Fourth Republic. Has the support of the army.
1958
Fatah set up by Yasser Arafat
1959
Yemen Civil War
1962-1970 - Nasser's "Vietnam" according to Rogan. He intervenes on the side of the Yemen Arab Republic
UNWRA states refugee camps not fit for human habitation
1966
Ba'ath Revolution in Iraq - leading to nationalisation of oil
1968
PFLP attack El Al Flight 426 en route to Ben Gurion Intl Airport, Israeli and Algerian hostages (40 days)
1968
Coup in Sudan
1969
Leila Khaled and Salim Issaw hijacked TWA flight 840 from Rome to Tel Aviv
1969
Libyan monarchy overthrown by Muammar al-Ghaddafi
1969 (modelling himself on Nasser, oil nationalism)
Coup which brought Asad to power in Syria
1970
Three planes exploded in Jordanian deset, lading to Black September
1970
Hamas founded
1987
When Israel left in charge of Palestinian camps during Lebanese civil war, Red Cross estimate that x died
2,000
In 1952, x% of girls studying home economics in Iraq - FAO report by UN says not enough; in the next decade, the same AUTHOR writes a report on the need to improve educational equality for girls
20
After Young Turks, x permits given to newspaper publishers in the first month alone
200
Raphael Patai's The Arab Mind still used to train US marines in
2004
Jewish immigrants gain x acred 1922-9 - some of the most fertile land in the North
240,000
By 1956, x Algerians displaced
3 million
Jewish pop. of Palestine from 1882 to 1935
3% to 27% (before Kristallnacht!)
Alexandria develops from pop. of 3,000 to x over the course of centralisation
300,000
Palestinians attacked a Jewish medical convoy - only x out of 112 survived, pictures circulated throughout Palestine
36
Tribal Rebellion of 1871 - settlers ask for x gold francs as reparations from surviving tribes
36 mil
Following '67, all but x countries sever ties with the US
4 (Tunisia, Lebanon, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia)
By the mid 1850s, Algerian population had reduced from
4 mil to 2.3 mil
non-Europeans accounted for 90% of staff in agency but
40% of wages
Khartoum Summit
4th Arab league summit. Came after Arab defeat to Israel in 6 Day War. Famous for its khartoum resolution known as the Three No's. No peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiation with Israel. --> arms race
1949-56, x infiltrators are killed --> reprisals, such as Qibya
5,000
FLN killed x as many Algerians as French in the first three years of the war
6
Syrian, lower class rebels fighting pitched battles against Ottoman troops, inflicting more than...
600 casualties
In 1949, population of Palestine is x Jews and x Arabs, because 700,000 of them have left
716,000 ... 156,000
After 1948, x Palestinians became refugees
750,000 (400 out of 500 Arab villages disappeared)
During 3rd phase of fighting, Israelis control
78% of mandate Palestine
No. villages destroyed during Algerian War of Independence
8,000
During takeover, x native buildings demolished, with only half of value. compensated IF they choose to pay out ( generally. don't)
800
Dayr Yassin Massacre
9 April 1948 - even though had just signed a nonaggression pact. Violence incl. throwing a 90 year old man from his balcony, blind young man killed w/ wife and baby. Survivors marched to Jerusalem as prisoners. 20 more massacres in area from Apr-June, e.g. Nasir ad-Din, all houses destroyed.
'The Clash of Ignorance' was written by Said after
9/11
By 1953, approx x% of the 100,000 Bedouin in the Northern Negev. before 1948 are expelled - this is linked to 1858 Ottoman land tenure changes - no written evidence that Bedouin cultivating, oral history not accepted
90%
Iraqi national identity
= importing textbooks which emphasise Umayyads over 'Abbasids (or 'Ali, Husayn etc); suppression of Kurds, esp. when oil is found in Mosul
Young Turks
A coalition starting in the late 1870s of various groups favoring modernist liberal reform of the Ottoman Empire. It was against monarchy of Ottoman Sultan and instead favored a constitution. In 1908 they succeed in establishing a new constitutional era.
Hezbollah
A radical Shiʿite Muslim organization in Lebanon engaged in guerrilla warfare against Israel
Islamic modernists
Abduh and al-Afghani earlier, positive that Islam and European reform can be reconciled; al-Kawakibi and Rashid Rida - more cautious, new problems as reforms have not helped: former blames on Turkish (though he's not well regarded in Syria according to Masters), latter worried about debt (his account of Istanbul in 1908-9) and women (his speech post-1930 and the developments that are described in Thompson) - secret societies, often having to operate abroad due to persecution; also think we need to take their claim to an alternative temporal modernity seriously - following Ibn Khaldun's tradition of history, where corruption opens space for new "nomadic" (or subaltern) group to take control - the key to the future is genuinely located in the past, this is not just rhetorical justification - in this way we can invest them w/ modernising positions that are truly opposed to Westernisation (links to Khary al-Din - Christianity is backwards)
Revolution of 1920 (Iraq)
Acc. beginning 1917 when BR. take Baghdad (or even earlier - Shi'a help the hated Ottomans defeat Br. at Kut!) and impose heavy handed, Indian-style rule → insurrection; escalates beginning 1918, when Br. governor in Najaf assassinated → repression. Chance for Br. to give concessions in June (asking for Parliament/independence with Arab king - Shi'a clerics prepared to accept Faisal!!) but ORIENTALISM - don't believe it would be possible for them to form stable coalition, take hostages (incl. son of important cleric) → June 1920 fatwa (Sunni clerics also sign up), distributed through printing across Iraq; July 1920 - controlling most of Middle Euophrates, trains derailed etc; eventually crushed by massive force, v. expensive → client monarchy (play 'God Save the King' at his coronation); Shi'a lose out because mistrusted by Faisal, and losing among their own constituencies (years of defeat), boycott elections which does not help their cause
Koppen desert threshold
Accepted by all powers in 1918 - aridity line, meaning there can be no cultivation beyond this. Useful because Ottoman land tenure is related to cultivation.
Senatus Consults (1863 &65)
Agreed to normalise Arab status on condition of their acceptance of inferiority of their customs and institutions
justifying their journey into 'this Land of Infidelity and Obstinacy' through hadith, Muhammad said 'Seek knowledge even if it is in China'
Al-Tahtawi
An Imam in Paris
Al-Tahtawi - 'On Organisation of the French State', using the Fr. state FOR HIS OWN PURPOSES. Using Qur'anic comparisons and Arabic poetry to explain non-scriptual political interventions.
Jean-Leon Jerome
Allied w/ the Goupile famile through marriage (famous distributors of prints). Training Ottoman artists, the big man in Orientalism, travelling the world through students
Cemal Pasha
An Ottoman military leader and one-third of the military triumvirate known as the Three Pashas. Minister of the Navy. One of the main perpetrators of the Armenian genocide, also known for repression of nationalists in Syria (which combined w/ poorly managed locust plague)
Black Saturday
Anti-British protests in Cairo, Jan 1952
Syrian congress debates giving women the vote
April 1920
Haifa falls, starting second phase of exodus
April 1948
Nabla
Arab Renaissance
1930-47 phase of Algeria
Arab plains (Abd al-Qadir)
Lausanne Conference 1949
Arabs all made peace process contingent on repatriation, Tel Aviv agree to house 65-70,000 refugees but even this is protested at home, esp/ w/i Mapai
The Iron Wall by Ze'ev Jabotinsky
Argues for violence, aggression and refusal to accomodate Arabs as a means to secure peace - RECOGNISES arabs as agents (unlike a diplomat like Weizman, who thinks they can use diplomacy because doesn't realise Arabs will react)
Jules Harmond, 1910
Argues that attempts at assimiliation are contrary to civilising mission, based on fact Arabs will never/take v. long time to be Fr. (social darwinism)
Education Minister who wrote the New Historians out of textbooks in the early 2000s
Ariel Sharon
Yasar Tolga Cora
Armenian officer conscripted into war w/ Turkey, fought at Gallipoli, fled from Ottoman army in 1917 via Russia. Published his memoirs in 1977 - doesn't fit into Armenian OR Ottoman national narratives of the war, e.g. shows pride in his achievements as soldier
'For Djamila Bouhired' by Verges and Arnaud
Article written about the injustice of Bouhired's sexual torture in prison; Verges did, however, ague that military did not have the jurisdiction to try the case
Lord Moyne
Assassinated by the Stern Gang in 1944 - the highest ranking official in the Middle East
Warnier Law (1873)
Assimilating Algerian property - assigns patronymic names, divides up land based on "family" THUS MAKES the family in Algeria into
When he published his memoirs in 2001, was taken to court by Human Right's Organisation
Aussaresses
Israel in 1967 was ''an act of faith, not an act of statesmanship'
Avi Shlaim - reassessment based on Israel docs being declassified
In 1948, which side of Cold War supports Israel?
BOTH - USSR see kibbutz as a communist project
1963 Revolution, or Ramadan Revolution
Ba'ath party in Iraq - only holding onto power for a few months
Lord Clarendon's Formula (ADD DATE)
Bahrain peripheral issue for Westminster, but CRUCIAL for East India Company/Gov. of India
Algeria has pre-existing national narrative based on x, as well as more coercive x class (compare to Gulf)
Barbary pirates ; landowning
Ottoman Decentralization Party
Based in Cairo, federalised Ottoman state
Sayyid Talib al-Naquib
Basra Reform Society Party MP, but is not allowed to attend Parliament in 1914. Still, when faced w/ British invasion goes to tell the Ottomans, who tell him he can be governor if successful. It's the Gulf states that impede his success - Kuwait try to arrest him, Saudis are sympathetic but in talks w/ Br. at that time - these connections formalised in 1915
'Abid's Red Star Society (1920)
Battalion of nurses that went into battle against the Fr., dubbed the 'Joan of Arc of the Arabs'
1962 as a 'black hole'; 'we saw an Algeria made practically without us... it was worse than before, because we have broken all of the barriers and it was very difficult for us to go back to that.'
Baya Hocine, veteran of the struggle
First Intifada (1987-1993)
Began as a mass uprising against the Israeli occupation in Gaza and quickly spread to the West Bank. Does a good job of horrifying the world - Palestinians throwing stones, Israelis fire back.
Anatolian Railway
Beginning 1871-2 under the Ottoman gov., then goes to. Deutsche Bank who get 99 year concession, ADD the Baghdad railway to. this from 1902
Hijaz railway
Beginning under Abdulhamid II, using labour from recently settled Muslim refugees in Transjordan (also part of centralising); reason for antipathy between Husayn and Young Turks, not because its "European" but because it disrupts local caravan economy, and his hegemony over region because of its ability to extend capacity of centre...
'We must prevent at all costs their return'
Ben Gurion on Palestinians in June 1948
'in various parts of the country new Jewish settlement will not be possible unless there is transfer of the Arab fellahin', 'transfer... is what makes possible a comprehensive settlement program'
Ben-Gurion speech, 1937
"making the desert bloom"
Ben-Gurion's project to cultivate desert land left behind by Bedouin.
Land Reform under Nasser
Benefitted 4 mil people, in average 50% increase in holdings, still known as 'freedom law' when it was repealed in the '90
One of the "New Historians" who changed tack after the second Infitada
Benny Morris
Author of 'The Roots of Muslim Rage', which cites civilisational clash rather than imperialism as key reason for hatred, because Christian religion is naturally more secular
Bernard Lewis
Munich Olympics 1972
Black September Organisation kills 11 Israeli athletes - HATED for this
Eisenhower Doctrine
Br. to take step back in ME, US taking over
Shayk of Jabal Shammar plays the
British and Ottomans against each other (pledges allegiance to former whilst supporting latter)
Native Resident in early C19th at
Bushire
Syrian Central Committee
Calls for self-government FROM PARIS in 1908
'Sleeping Baby' phenomenon in Islamic law
Can claim inheritance rights from husband based on 'dormant pregnancy' for up to 5 years, Qablas blaimed for oversight
UN Partition of Palestine 1947
Can see how non-sensical this is
Heikal says that the x tormented Nasser
Collapse of the UAR (unpopular policies, such as redistribution of 1 mil acres by 1959, suspension of regional goverment - accused of imperialism)
Joseph Desparmet
Collected oral narratives which show the myths around Algeria, e.g. Last Ottoman gov. (Husayn) a JEWISH tyrant who acts against a saintly intervention, or the betrayal of Jewish banker, Bacri (loved the Rights of Man); OR saint who begins to behave like the Fr. before they arrive, predicting the changes they'll bring, helping them during the invasion.
Journalist said of x in 1920, it would leave Lebanon a 'laughable mix of communities'
Confessionalism
During first ceasefire (May-June), Israel buy arms illegally from
Czechoslovakia - USS trying to. court them
Sirham Tergeman
Daughter of Damascus - first ch. on beauty of Damascus (authenticity and modernisation?); later describes women's role - carrying food, bombs etc
Argues that Husayn uses Arabism when it's useful to him but inconsistently - Abdullah and Faisal are both Arabists, e.g. Faisal angered by the treatment of Arabs in Syria
Davis.
Argues that Husayn is traditional compared to Abdullah - mainly annoyed that shari'a is not being properly applied
Dawn
'For Djamola Boupacha'
De Beauvoir highlighted the horrors of her torture, e.g. bottle inserted inside her - but saying that no one seems to care. Interestingly emphsises that Boupacha was a virgin, even though goes against her own ideas of viriginity and purity. Emphasised that this was unexceptional - unlike Sartre not abut the glorification of survival, but sharing collectively the shaming of torture
Agreement between GB and Shaykh of Bahrain
Dec 1880. Ottomans trying to reassert themselves → coaling depot in Bahrain, + discontented branch of shaykhs had promised to support them, so when the ruling Shaykh Al-Kalifa promises he won't let coaling depot go ahead w/o British permission, they convince him to let him control Bahrain's treaties/negotiations generally. Not allowed diplomatic relations but in return Br. let him stay i power.
The Death or Sardanapalus
Delacrois (1827) - linking to story where the besieged Asyrrian king, Sardanapalus, orders guards to kill all servants, animals and concubines: feeding into discourse of Eastern savagery, also eroticism of the concubines
Women of Algiers in their apartment (1834)
Delacroix
Lion Hunt
Delacroix (1855) - remember that Burke says that chivalry dies with the Fr. Rev.
Massacre at Chios
Delacroix, 1824
Fanatics of the Tangier
Delacroiz (1836-8): he said the Arabs provided him with a visual equivalent of the peoples of classical Rome/Greece
'to win the war on terror, we must win the war of ideas'
Deputy Secretary of Defence, 2002
Edmond Pelissier de Reynaud, Annales algeriennes vol. 3 (1854)
Describes cruel tactics he saw used by Colonel A. Pelissier against messianic revolts of 1845 - tribes hiding in caves, refusing to hand over their guns, so they decided to burn them out - estimates c. 500 killed (incl. women and children), w/ 100 wounded; incident was 'painfully broadcast throughout France' and Europe, but he is... Justifying cruel action on the behalf of French as product of the cruel action of insurgents, and the 'passions and ideas' which make the 'plague' that is war, which will always affect humanity
Lyautey System
Divide and rule tactics developed by Lyautey to subdue Morocco
Lake Huleh
Draining first proposed by John MacGregor, Scottish traveller in Huleh Valley in the 1860s. Abdulhamid II gains the land and proposes to do it -puts up for concession. Br. company actually gained concession to do this in 1934, but could not do it for obvious reasons. ISRAEL take up the cause - gives them a reason to be in the Syrian DMZ, bad for environment and ecology, refuse to compensate Arab landowners. SUCH A GOOD EXAMPLE.
Arab Kingdom
Dream of Napoleon III - more like the Ancien Regime; his defeat leads settlers to claim THEIR RIGHTS
"New Cuba"
Dream of secessions non-French Europeans in Algeria following assimilation under civilian backlash
Fly Whisk Incident (1827)
Due to France not listening to requests for repayment for grain loans from 1793 and 1798!! (Also an interesting Fr. Rev. connection)
Isma'il Pasha
Educated in France, leader of Egypt
Manners and Customs
Edward Lane, 1836 (1 Ch. on Gov., 3 Chs. on Domestic Life, 2 Chs on Superstition + more on specific elements (e.g. Magic), Ch. on Dancing Girls). Egyptians as 'Europeans in the Middle Ages'
Author of Orientalism, Culture and Imperialism and 'Shattered Myths'
Edward Said
Oral sources show that the x resettlement programmes are unpopular
Egyptian
"Camel Corps"
Egyptian soldiers fighting for Br. in WWI
al-Faluja
Egyptians trapped there (Faluja Pocket) when Israelis push into Egypt in '48 - 4 month siege. Key for development of Nasser's ideology.
Michel Chiha
Embodiment of the Phoencian narrative - well-connected Roman Catholic family which benefitted from the Beirut expansion in late C19th, instrumental in writing the constitution
al-Nasiri
End of the world as he knew it - the Franks have broken the cycle of history
'There lines are not history; they are testimony and feelings which I have brought forth from memory and which are not based on any other source.'
Epigraph in Tawfiq al-Hakim's The Return of Consciousness (1974)
Modern Islamists do Islam a disfavour by removing 'its humanism, aesthetics, intellectual quests, and spiritual devotion'
Eqbal Ahmed
Transport workers' strikes
Esp. cabbies! shutting down Cairo and Alexandria
Max von Oppenheim
Establishes route for Deutsche Bank; 1902 says that Br. would never attack Germany in Europe because they'd be too fearful of the use of Islam by the Caliph
'weapons of the weak' 'silence, sabotage, subterfuge'
Evans on terrorism
al-Bustani
Example of Christian in Lebanon who's an Arabist - how to build coalitional basis for unity (against sectarianism and missionaries)? (slightly different problem) - ARABIC (dictionary and encyclopedia to help incorporate science, National School 1863); 1860 = backwards, taking Syrians closer to Africa and Europe (yet past also basis for unity - again comparisons w/ Ali Mubarak - he says more peace in past than has been - links to later Phonecian narratives)
Nuri al-Sa'id
Example of an ex-Ottoman soldier who defected to Faisal when Ottomans lost control of Iraq - becomes member of elite, but seen as an upstart by the traditional elite of Baghdad (son of minor gov. auditor, attending military school)
Lydde Death March
Exodus from Lydde and Ramle in July, up to 70,000 Palestinians leaving, SIGNED OFF BY BEN-GURION (though had prevented exodus from ARAB CHRISTIAN NAZARETH earlier that month)
Nasser supported range of pan-Arabist/neutral/anti-colonial ventures, e.g.
FLN, Palestinians from '52, Voice of Africa '54, Mau Mau, + further clandestine connections not yet properly explored, e.g. Popular Front for Liberation of the Occupied Arabian Gulf, PDLP
'there is still... no Iraqi people'
Faisal (1933) (--> development of populism)
Osmund Hamdi Bey
Famous for his costume book - yet also a Orientalised subject at times, e.g. has to pose as 'Arab' in Paris, wearing clothes he would never normally (like something out of his costume book)
'To the theory of the 'absolute evil of the native' the theory of the 'absolute evil of the settler replies'
Fanon, Wretched of the Earth
Radio Bari
Fascist radio station, big impact in Egypt
Phalange
Fascist, Christian party in Lebanon - against Muslim efforts to join Great Syria in 1936. Reacting to socio-economic issues, pro-women's inclusion in workpace. Set up labour organisations
British surround Faruq's palace with tanks, to prevent him installing a pro-Axis government
February 1942
"patriotic motherhood"
Feminism that can be stomached in Syria - far more liberal. Still among these, was controversial to say (as one did) that they should wait for equal rights until children have matured
'The use of violence is a crime against the people'
Ferhat Abbas
Enfumades
Fires set to "smoke" people out of caves, killed many
Chaim Weizmann
First President of Israel. Considered the 'father'. of industrial fermentation, his production method was of great importance for British during the War industry of WWI.
Sardinian Christian Giuseppe Raffo
Foreign Minister under reforming Ahmad Bey
Landless Arab Enquiry Commission
Formed by JEWISH communities in Palestine, only counts tenants rather than wage labourers - problematic because Kibbutz takes away wage jobs for Arabs
Polygamy and child marriage in Algeria
Forming Orientalist discourses on the incompatibility of personal law
SR
Fr. intelligence. agency in Syria - telling judges how to rule, LOTS of bureaucrats, Cabrillet part of this - more similar to Br. in Egypt pre-WWI than Br. in Iraq
Clauzel
French General who is particularly intolerant - sees Fr. pave roads through cemetries, convert mosques to Churches
African Army
French army which provided social mobility - best soldier rises through the ranks
Great Revolt of Syria
French decide to end the mini-states: announce policy for union w/ Representative Assembly, elections to be held Oct 1925 Great Revolt (before this guerilla outbreaks) - coordination of Druze, People's Party in Damascus and al-Qawuqji's Hizb Allah in Hama (this lasts longer) French respond w/ aerial bombardment Druze finally defeated but only by force of 95,000 Frenchmen al-Qawuqji held out till 1927, betrayed by Bedouin tribes. (Impressive to be able to form coalition w/ the Druze - secretive)
Midette Pasha
French leftover after Napoleon, founded the Egyptian Museum
al-'As
Frustrated w/ the cases of plunder during revolt he does here of --> Saqba Accords --> National Council of the Revolt. Actually being v. controlled about all of this. Also authored The Practices of Warfare in the Battles of the Syrian Revolt - v. specific, anecdotal
Populism arises when the masses see themselves as having undergone a period of peripheralization and 'not only reconceptualizes itself but also reconstitutes itself as "the nation" in opposition to the politically dominant "anti-nation"'
Gelvin
Argues (wrongly). that Faisal's views on education/empowerment of women make him FRENCH
Gelvin (pro-woman camp incl. people like al-Jabiri & Shaykh Sa'if Murad, using Aisha and Islamic law - women's property during marriage - as justifications)
'colonialism has made Algerians into 'assassins' because 'it's the only way we can express ourselves'.'
Germaine Tillion, quoted in Evans
The Battle of Algiers (1966)
Gillo Pontecorvo, wins the Venice film festival that year. Big focus on the role of women, which is inspired esp. by Fanon's writings on the subject.
International Law
Gradually replacing (over nineteenth century) the arbitrary system of negotiation between equals
Evian Accords (1962)
Granted independence to Algeria
British empower x, a controversial mufti who did not accept the WP, involved w/ Nazi Germany during the war, hated by Arabs and economic elites of Palestine. Persecuted other leaders - saw himself as the natioanl cause.
Hajj Amin al-Husayni (never before had a role like this before in Palestine, e.g. all religious authority - CREATING "tradition") (involved w/ Iraq coup of 1941)
Says Eden one of those classic Orientalists who would be happier in the desert reciting poems w/ the Bedouin
Heikal
CIA Intervention in Middle East
Helped topple gov. of Syria 1949, Iran 1953, plotting to remove Qasim in Iraq, but Ba'athists got there first. Shows that what the US don't get about Suez is not concept of imperialism, but DEFUNCT impeialism - canal zone no longer important to either, neither really having empires worth protecting in Asia
Djamilia Bouhired
Her and her aunt's home became bomb-making factory, she carried the bombs. When Fr. raided 'they were greeted like welcome guests by attractive women with fresh coffee.' Big focus of the film The Battle of Algiers. When Djamilia was arrested, refused to give information under torture. Fatiha continued to hide leaders, making men upstairs couscous under nose of the Fr. while they waited for arrival of another FLN member.
Lalla Fatma N'Sumer
Hero of Algerian resistance in Kabylia in mid-1850s - venerated like a Saint, and LED THE RESISTANCE
'in this country where prestige and respect are primarily founded upon fear, our force of arms and our strict justice are feared insufficiently: only they ... can impose reason.'
High Commissioner on Syria - violence necessary tool of tutelage, because
German officer ON THE LINE disagree w/ Armenian genocide (taking away resources) but happens because
Higher up the command agree (e.g. Lieutenant Colonel Bottrich tries to increase), need Ottomans to help them win the war
Noble, Palestinian rival families
Husaynis versus Nashaibis
"Coercive diplomacy"
IDF/Ben-Gurion continuing to use force whilst in diplomatic talks, e.g. extending Negev and West Bank territory whilst in talks w/ Jordan - extending to places they're actually less interested in (e.g. Jerusalem - according to McDougall) because worried that internationalisation of Jerusalem is the first step to letting through ALL Un Policity
"This blessed advance will not stop until we hit the last nail in the coffin of the Sykes-Picot conspiracy."
ISIS Caliph Abu Bakr, 2014
Military Schools
Important for giving many of the leaders the same background, e.g. Ramadan Shallash (Tribal School), Sa'id al-'As and Yasin al-Hasimini, Mustafa Kemal
Reproductive futurism
Important within developmentalism - discursive effects on the mandate state + genuine concerns over lower class poverty (and anxiety w/ the lower classes more generally)
Paul Monroe
In 1932, Monroe led an expedition of educators from the International Education Institute to Iraq, where they visited schools in the Baghdad and Basra areas before hosting a conference on education in the nation's capital and publishing their findings in the Monroe Report to the Government of Iraq. Recommended they undo uniform education - girls should be taught home economics, boys agricultural skills (rural)
Qalqilya
In 1967, Moshe Dayan illegally evicted residents and razed 850 buildings to ground, a "punishment" against gov. orders but limited reprisal
Port of Kuwait
Independently operating w/o Br OR Otto support, developed trade routes, elite families (who place members along the routes), complex credit systems
phantom sovereignty
Institutions that act as if they're sovereign but are not - problem because these institutions, or at least their cultures, remain
Suez Canal crisis provided cover for...
Invasion of Hungary by the USSR
Battle of Algiers used to train anti-terrorism units in
Iraq War
Irgun and Stern Gang
Israeli terrorist organisations, set up in response to White Paper. Irgun led by Menachim Begin
First Fatah martyrs were killed by
JORDANIAN authorities looking to prevent escalation
Yusuf Affair
Jacob Lasry + Tunis-trained officer Yusuf extract money in town v. violently, receives heavy criticism by Ministry of War in Paris
Exclusive Agreement - Kuwait Shaykh and GB
Jan 1899. Following coup in 1896, Shaykh signs w/ British as a way of securing his rule. Keeps it secret from the Porte, who have ALSO recognised him.
Said that crowds of Egyptians, Tunisians and Syrians want to march down the Champs-Elysees to. sodomise and 'spike' the President (April 2011)
Jean-Marie Le Pen
SS Exodus
Jewish refugee ship with the British turn away, so Irgun and Stern blow up Central Policy HQ. 4 Br. killed, 33 wounded (total = 10 and 54)
After 1948, x have to flee Baghdad
Jews
Thinks Cairo is better than Paris, but Istanbul worse than both - backwards in some ways, despite modern stations, because has not had the French influence. Dr. Clot Bey is positive example of this (setting up under Napoleon, carrying on)
Jirji Zaydan
Journal of an expedition to the court of Marocci in the year 1846
John Drummond-Hay - does not want to be there, though one of the best at getting on w/ native governments. 'dirty brown colour'; iconoclasm as "religious fanaticism"; disparaging of religion generally (e.g. says that he hopes 'the Prophet's Kleefa [Khalifa] on earth... is not as false as his master')
'The Mahommedan, if he will to come among us would have the privilege guaranteed to him by the constitution to worship according to the Koran; ... Such is the spirit of toleration inculcated by our political Institutions'
John Tyler on US secularism
Egypt was warned about aerial bombardment which destroyed their runways by
Jordan - do not do anything because don't trust (Jordan taunting Egypt about hiding behind UNEF)
'best of enemies' - Shlaim's phrase to describe
Jordan and Israel (Golda Meir had a meeting with Abdullah at the time of partition)
'In transforming Muslim women and marriage... "France will have legitimated its conquest of Algeria."'
Judge, Ernest Zeys
1851-71 phase of Algeria
Kabliya. mountains
'dramatise our own plight'
Khaled on the need for terrorism
'How miserable one can become when one thinks only of oneself and no others. ... I long for love... I am in union with my humanity - with Palestine.'
Khaled, imprisoned
Grand Liban
Larger Lebanon - al-Khoury
Lebanese Civil War
Lasted from 1975 to 1990. Was a religious conflict between Christians and the PLO, Sunni Muslims and Shi'a Muslims.
Crimieux Law
Law which integrates Jewish communities into Fr. law in Algeria - had to be CAMPAIGNED for by peopele such as Lasry
Arab Higher Committee (1936)
Leading Palestinian Revolt, but leadership was decimated by this - 10% of adult male pop. killed, and econcomic boycott v. harmful.
US supply funding during the election in...
Lebanon 1957 - then use Leb as a platform to potentially launch campaign against Iraqi coup
1958 Coup in Iraq
Led by Abd al-Karim Qasssim (communists, national democrats, Kurds and Iraqi nationalism) and Abdul-Salam Aref (Ba'thists, socialists, Nasserism/pan-Arabism); FO cells but v. popular (Radio Cairo part of this) - coalition of 4 main parties, and setting off spontaneous peasant revolutions in countryside - only 3,000 troops, 2,000 of whom had no ammo; not suspected by Br. as had raised army wages, which did quell some of the rebellious tendencies 1952, but Baghdad Pact put pressure on Army and then Suez. (execution of Br. collaborators - beginning w/ tone of violence; hospital at Abu Ghaurayb into prison for Old Regime → Saddam Hussein's torture prison: these are the direct legacies of Old Reg) Coalition breaks down because of Communist projects to educate rural women --> worries these are political (probably right)
Jacob Lasry (real name Hayyim Yisra'el Rafa'el Ya'akov al-'Asri)
Lender to military in 1830s, helped extract money from people of Tlemcen. Lots of power, HIGH interest rates (30%), Fr. officers having to go through lots of shit to try and get lower debt settlements. Became part of civil authority in Oran, 1855, spearheading a moralising campaign esp. among the Jewish community. Reinforces the anti-semitism of the Fr. who are indebted to him - shows not all powerful.
The places that DO have contentious border issues...
Libya, Palestine (though this may be more of an immigration issue - certainly could make a case for a Palestine separate to Syria) and Iraq (lesser extent)
July Monarchy (1830-48)
Louis Philippe I
Lebanese Representative Council reopens ideas about female suffrahe
March 1923
Syrian Parliament
March 2020 - proclaims Faisal King - would have preferred Turkey but split off, know they need to act quickly as Zionist tensions rise
"frozen scandal"
Mark Danner - idea that continual revelations of wrongdoing lead not to investigation and change but rather to a permanent state of scandal
Setif and Guelma Massacres (1945)
Massacre which sparks the Algerian WoI - converts liberals like Ferhat Abbas, no longer think cooperation is how to get what you want
Stress that ME borders are less artificial than we think - tending to follow provincial capitals
Masters and Hanssen
Israel proclamation of Independence
May 1948 (add more detail later)
Idea that though these borders were created in 'imperial contexts', doesn't make them illegitimate - if they were why would they be so enduring?
McDougall
Sees Algeria as a continuation of the Crusades, dressed up in new language
McDougall (lecture - could pass off as your own)
al-Quwatli
Member of Arab Congress 1913, WWI joined al-Fatat, arrested under Cemal Pasha, tried to commit suicide rather than confess. Joins National Bloc when he's FINALLY granted amnest, 1930.
Dashnak and Huchnak
Militarised Armenian nationalist groups that fought against Ottoman/Young Turk rule over Armenians.
Yasin al-Hasimini
Military school, Arab societies AND CUP, fighting in Syria but loyal to Ottomans right up until he can't be, because they're focusing on Turkey. Important leader.
Premodernity recognises that 'The order of this world is not an order of appearance'
Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (similar arguments made in Scott's Seeing Like a State)
Aswan Dam Project
More agricultural land. US funding, but Nasser asks for more from USSR and leads to US turning away
1956, Fr. think they've won by x says only lead to more violence; also questions what Fr. are expecting, Franco-Algerian friendship?
Mouloud Feraoun
Visits Istanbul after Young Turk rev., sees city as like a provincial capital
Muhammad Rashid Rida
Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni
NOT the mufti - popular Palestinian leader in 36-9 and for Arab Liberation Army - lack of arms led to his death when taking back al-Qastal (couldn't hold their gains)
Says that the difference between al-Tahtawi and Lane is not 'othering' but the fact that former sees space for humane exchange, latter uses language of a scientific observer
Nader
'Voice of the Arabs'
Nasser's radio station
Iraqi Red Crescent Society 1932
Nationalist society founded by a woman
Argues that the West views Arab women's backwardness as cultural rather than socio-economic phenomenon, despite stripping women of wealth
Nawal el-Saadawi
Israelis illegally divert the Jordan river into
Negev region - attempt to squeeze Syrians. Ben-Gurion supports by INTERIM PM, Sharrett, does not.
David Ben-Gurion
New Historians particularly critical of his role - rejected peace offers such as Egypt's, offered recognition in return for land and settlement. Refuses to write orders down which effectively countenances violence on the ground.
Nahda
Nineteenth-century Arabic literary renaissance that was part of a wider movement for cultural and social reform
Group which help get the Algerian question onto the agenda at the UN by 1957
Non-Aligned Movement
Economic elites leave Haifa, thinking they can return (from oral histories) - partially caused by the leadership of al-Husayni
Nov 1947
Place in western borderlands of Egypt - fairly independent till 1880s/90s, questions over Arabic as main language at this point
Oasis of Siwa
x unites the region more than Arab nationalism ever did
Oil - also makes it financially unstable ,open to intervention, wealthy = more arms = more war
British still maintaining links in x into the '70s - still places that US aren't interested in
Oman
Berlin to Baghdad railway
On eve of WWI, transporting 600,000 passengers and 116,000 tonnes of goods; almost all equipment used is German, and 19 mil gold marks worth of rails imported from Germany 1910-3; becomes used for transportation of Armenians, shows what POWER these tools give them, power to ethnically cleanse
al-Fatat
One of the new Arabist/nationalist societies that arises after Young Turks
Israelis used x to prove lack of cultivation during Ottoman period (meaning would have become state lands)
Orientalist travellers (problematic because they're fitting into Orientalist discourses about Arab decline/Holy Land)
Awda al-Qusus
Ottoman official, Abdullah incl. him in government which helps smooth his problems with indigenous politicians
Official Report on Re-Establishing Ottoman Control over Kuwait
Ottomans prepared to forgo tribute to be recognised in Kuwait. Shaykhs want higher title, imperial warrants for temples, as well as relief from custom duties and taxes. Ottomans get little in return other than promises of loyalty.
David Roberts
Paintings and lithographs establishing this as 1) Holy Land; 2) land of Classical interest, classicalism/Egyptology esp. popular in the latter half of the eighteenth century and onwards (Tutankhamun tomb found 1922)
Rashid Khalidi
Palestinian-American history at Columbia - believes not just about Israel's strength - Palestinians weak and FAILING to act on this, new "villains" added to the story like al-Husayni
Resolution 242
Passed Nov 1967 - based on the idea of peace in exchange for land, thus effectively cemented disappearance of Palestine in its assumption that Palestinians would be subsumed into Arab communities
Camp David Accords (1978)
Peace treaty between Egypt and Israel; hosted by US President Jimmy Carter; caused Egypt to be expelled from the Arab league; created a power vacuum that Saddam hoped to fill; first treaty of its kind between Israel and an Arab state
Onley
Points out that political rule in the Gulf was collaborative
City Beautiful
Policy to beautiful Beirut according to local literary elite / urban elite, follows Beirut priorities in terms of what's needed but named after/dedicated to. Ottoman sultans etc
Stanlisaw Chebowski
Polish painter, trained in France but employed by Fuad Pasha and Abdulaziz, working with the Sultan to paint. Also tied up in conflicts over Polish nationalism at the time
Higher National Committee
Popular, elected local committee in Syria - declares Syria to be independent
Town which had to be abandoned by army during Suez crisis, leading to 1,100 civilian deaths
Port Said
Egyptian National Charter
Published '62 - far more socialist - slight of US over Aswan. Further decreases landholding limits to 100 acres
Wanted Damascus 'paved with asphalt and the Barada River was like the Seine' (1919)
Published in Faisal's organ, al-Asima
White's example in Syria, demonstrating the non-existence of Syrian-Turkish barrier as obstacle
Qamishli - nationalist protestors ordering Syrian flags to station to protest arrival of Fr. governor, anti-nationalist protestors harass stationmaster, take them and deface them - the interesting thing is that the station is IN TURKEY, yet source makes no mention of the fact that Syrians are crossing border and harassing official of another country
Davis (The Blood-Red Arab Flag) argues
Qawasim not "pirates" but committing "piratical" acts against Hindu ships.
Qibya Massacre
Qibya Incident - reprisal against infiltration, Ariel Sharon attacked village and burned to ground, killing 69 Palestinians 2/3 of whom were women and children (Ben-Gurion defended)
During 2 weeks of waiting between closing of Straits and war 'the entire nation succumbed to a collective psychosis' (Shlaim), e.g.
Rabin (Military Chief of Staff) and Prime Minister Levi Eshkol BOTH experience nervous breakdowns
Proposed (in syria) that a woman's right to vote impeded her husband's individual freedoms; 'Ajamy responded that women's rights exist for herself (Rashid Rida struck a chord - worries that men who followed women amounted to rape!)
Rashid Rida
Coup of 1941 in Iraq
Rashid al-Kaylani replaced Nuri al-Sa'id as PM - apparently working with Axis powers (Br. believes this is because of the overly nationalist education of the army!). Britain used force to restore the Regent and pro-British gov., and incident = justification for military occupation. Leads to one of the worst pogroms in Baghdad's history - 200 Jews killed. (Farhud)
Fuad Pasha
Reforming Grand Vizier, invited Chlebowski, role at Mount Lebanon
Wafq
Religious endowment land - appropriated by Fr., based on their "backwards" land burning techniques
Parisian Women Dressed as Algerian Women
Renoir (1872) - deliberate homage to Delacroix, he loved that painting
Wahhabism
Rising in the Holy Region from mid-C18th, takes over early C19th - conservative reform movement.
Believes that prior to Nasserism, most Egyptians would have used the term 'Arab' to denote Bedouin or people from the Arabian peninsula
Rogan
'The ancien regime spoke European languages; the new vanguard spoke the language of the street.'
Rogan, on new forms of Arab nationalism after 1948
Thomas-Robert Bugeaud
Rose up in Napoleon's campaign in Egypt, then became governor-general of Algeria in 1840 following his brilliant work in the campaign
''Why do we need the mandate... when those colonisers do not know any meaning of 'morals' other than 'force'?'
Sa'id al-'As
Transjordan
Same land mass as Indiana, pop. of 350,000, subsidy of £150k from Br. goes a long way. Made to REDUCE LAND AVAILABLE FOR BALFOUR.
Growth in the '60s in Egypt is limited by...
Sanctions, end of Western/US aid, war
Ben Badis
Scholar who wanted to prevent French eclipse of Algerian value - esp. critical of anti-semitism. Set up the Association of Algerian Muslim Ulema.
In 1849, Ottomans discovered x in Basra
Secret British military base
Shlaim questions Dayan's sanity because
Seems to drive the war the MOST at the point it's over, e.g. really pushes into Syria (which he had opposed fighting) when he hears intelligence of Egyptians telling al-Atasi war is over; doesn't want Old City, or fight w/ Jordan really, and pushes again when he knows ceasefire is imminent (Old City causes huge problem - controlling 1,250,000 arabs now!)
Argues that Algerian escalation comes from popular Bonapartism - still a political force
Sessions
OAS
Settler terrorist organisation - Feraoun is killed by settler terrorists just 3 days before the Evian Accords
Iron Hand / People's Party
Shabandar's groups (Zaghlul of Syria) - first rebellion, then party politics
'Abbas builds railway which reaches into x, really for the first time
Siwa
Petit Liban
Small Lebanon, desired by Edde.
Song about the Taking of Algiers
Song of emotive lament ('I am grieved, O World, about Algiers') but also presenting historical narrative who to blame for invasion: Turkish War Minister to blame - inauspicious day, sinful (wine, debauchery), Turks generally abandoning the brave Algerians at time of fight problems w/ new inhabitants/transition under French Muslim law → Christian, city becoming dirty, nomenclature ('Al-Qaisariya has been named Plaza'), the 'dishonourd flag' national image - used to themselves be a pincer, most courageous afraid of her - references to historical tradition, Barbary coast revolutionary intent - asks Abd al-Qadir for forgiveness - this song has a political purpose as well as cultural? Inspire them against the French, stir national sentiment (esp. as it blames Turkey, thus is anti-defeatist)
Women's memoirs from w/i Turkish palace in WWI
Speak v. little about the war - is this a war memoir? Where it comes up, only in terms of food, e.g. short on this luxury.
US encourage Saudis to ...
Spread Wahhabism as a counter to communism (against the Brotherhood, also Iran because it's a Shi'a theocratic state)
Nasser used public funds to build x, sign of social inclusivity but is not institutionalised
St Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo.
Mustafa Khaznadar
Survivor of the massacre at Cios, taken as slave → gift to Bey, he dies 1878 and completely reliant on regime and loyal to it (at the same time, inc. networking w foreign businessmen, responsible for the first loans on foreign markets which benefit HIM financially)
Treaty of Berlin (1878)
Takes much of Anatolia away - reorienting away from the 1876 constitution
1830-7 phase of Algeria
Taking cities and coastal enclaves
Charles X of France
The king that succeeded Louis XVIII, and ruled from 1824 to 1830. He is not a conservative, but a reactionary. He considered himself a monarch by divine right and moved to restore lands that the Aristocrats had lost during the revolution. The French liberals wanted a legitimately constitutional regime, and when matters came to a head in 1829 Charles abandoned efforts to accommodate liberals and appointed an ultraroyalist ministry.
'Charging Israel with Original Sin'
Title of a rebuttal of the New Historians, written by Ben-Gurion's biographer
Bernadotte Plan
To annex Palestine to Abdullha, incl. some area currently held by Abdullah - both sides reject this and Bernadotte is assassinated
'Essay on Algeria' (1841)
Tocqueville. Mainly worried about Algeria as symbol of decline, as well as some strategic advantages. Colonisation necessary, esp. in light of jihad and the history of Muhammad, first caliphs, Arab Conquests - ahistorical.
The only country which celebrates the Arab Revolt today
Transjordan
al-Salt Region
Transjordan - Ottomans had lost contact, despite being gateway to Mecca and Medina. Able to re-establish 1867 AND start taking taxes properly from 1872. Eventually able to settle Muslim refugees there (e.g. Circassians from 1901-6) who help to build railways. ADMIN AND ECONOMICS NEEDED
Tribute for the '123'
Tribute for those who died during Algerian campaign, subscriptions die up - unpopular (aggressive), or apathetic?
Lawrence Oliphant
Trying to get empty land for settlement in Transjordan in the 1860s/70s - Jewish "Land of Gilead", Vizier initally tempted as wanted population there
Kayali argues using Talin that there was no
Turkification - Turkish deputies in charge in Aleppo because of large Turkish pops., language insignificant, SOME secularisation but that's not Turkification
Seeing change in language of treaties from
Turkish to French/Italian
Resolution 1514 (1960)
UN calls for swift and unconditional end to colonialism
'Right of return'
UN endorsed policy as of Dec 1948
Resolution 388
UNSC pass after '73, with agreement of most reps at UN (incl. Arabs), in spite of fact it's a repeat of 242. Sadat won military victory at the expense of Palestinians
Safar family
Upper class and v. powerful family, 8 of whom employed as native agents in Bahrain
'Urabi Revolt, 1881
Uprising in Egypt led by Ahmad Urabi. Despite wide support, it was crushed by the British. 'Egypt for the Egyptians '
Ibrahim Hananu
Wealthy Kurdish family, CUP and Young Turks, leads revolt against the Fr. in Aleppo and Antioch in 1919. Receives aid from Mustafa Kemal until Turkey sign their agreement in 1921.
In The Wretched of the Earth, Frantz Fanon (1961)
Why terror should be used, based on psychoanalysis of the dehumanising effects of colonisation upon the individual and nation
Images d'Epinal
Widely available vignettes for public in France - comparison can be drawn between Pellerin's Battle of Wagram and Fall of Constantine
Ahmad al-Nasiri
Writing. a classic Islamic history about the Alawi dynasty - ruled Morocco since C17th. 'Know that the condition of this generation... is unlike the condition of generations that went before it', power of Franks at 'reprehensible and unprecedented height', 'we find ourselves on the brink of a time of corruption'
The Voyage of Muhammad as-Saffir
Written 1845-6 - not published, was identified later. Embassy mission, but AFTER Algerian invasion.
La Revue Phennicienne (1919)
Written by people like Charle Corm, Michel Chiha and al-Khoury: a literary elite
Haganah
Zionist military force - meant to be legal but collaborates w/ terrorist organisations, involved in the bombing of the King David Hotel
Confessionalism
a form of government that emphasizes power sharing by different religious communities through guaranteed group representation
United Arab Republic (1958-1961)
a short lived union between Egypt and Syria. Began in 1958 and ended 3 years later, when Syrian seceded from the union from an internal Syrian coup declaring Syria's independence. V. quick - got rid of all parties (can see why communists did not want to join); and Iraq did not subscribe, disappointment
Israel nearly reach agreement w/ Syria in 1953 which would give them 70% of land - does not happen because..
add in clauses they know will be disagreeable for Syrians
League of Nations threw out a Syrian petition on French violence because it lacked
admissable evidence, e.g. the gang rape of a fifty year old woman by 17 soldiers was not included because her name had been left out
Jacques Pucheu
aid that his section chief in Aures mountains encouraged men to rape women
'Frankish lands have attained the highest degree of proficiency in mathematics, natural sciences, and metaphysics ... Nevertheless, they have not pursued the straight path, or entered upon the road towards salvation.'
al-Tahtawi
'The men are slaves to the women here, and under their command, irrespective of whether they are pretty or not.'
al-Tahtawi
British gave Abdullah green light to
annexe West Bank (Glubb), so long as he avoided Jewish territory
1890s - 1920s, divorce cases being overturned in Algeria because Fr. disagree w/ the presence of an
arbitrator
The Sacred Mountain
by Charles Corm, won international poetry prize in 1934
Menachem Begin said of '56 and '82, they were wars of..
choice - v. problematic to fit within Isaeli historiography
Desert is x, compared to city which is "striated" space
clean, open space
Even under Maliki schools, to prove consummation women have to bring x, because the authority of the qabla is no longer admissable in Qadi courts
colonial medical certificate
Le Grand Odalisque
commissioned by Napoleon's sister, Queen of Naples; distortion referring to other sensual works, e.g. Venus of Urbino by Titian, Madonna with Long Neck. Ingres (1914)
Issues w/ local agents were
conflict of interesrs ; unreliable/difficult to verify ; lack of training
Syria has economic collapse in 1860 due to
cotton
1870-1900 phase of Algeria
desert
For Aleppo, Tanzimat meant
direct return to political incorporation - successful in the sense there's no hint of seccessionism (e.g. al-Kawakibi considered a malcontent according to. Masters), but Aleppo DOES become part of global economic sphere.
Al-Tahtawi
does not see Europeans as threat, rather the fact that human reason has outstripped Prophets - how to reconcile this? - ulama to incl. doctors, scientists and priests; academic interest in Enlightenment writers, also Orientalist writers on Ancient Egypt, but turning this into argument for territorial nationalism (Egyptian pride); political limits - his family lost out to Muhammad 'Ali's reform of tax-farms, and he fares differently under different leaders; but obv. benefitting educationally and he focuses on education (working for Ministry under Sa'id), translation (esp. texts on great kings - e.g. Peter the Great - and declining states, e.g. Mont on fall of Romans) - wants ruler to institute positive and knowledgeable reform, but not populist
First suicide bomber...
during Lebanon Civil War
George Bush used x in the Middle East to create sense of awe abput the West
education (exhibitions, publications, exchange visits, textbook on democracy)
Egyptian delegation at 8th Intl. Cong. of Orientalists (1889) were
embarrassed (dirty depiction of Cairo)
Khirbet Khizeh (1949) by Yizhar Smilansky
expulsion of Arab Palestinians from first-person perspective of a soldier, best-seller, on Israeli high school curriculum. NY times - 'It is difficult to read this book and not feel distrubed'; the individual author is tormented by action, but goes along w/ group of untroubled soldiers; narrator compares these Palestinians to Jews going to concentration camps, 'We were the masters now'; written by someone who went on to be in Knesset, and the narrator begins to imagine what they will do with this land, e.g. opening stores and synagogues, forgetting they had had to empty it out Only translated into English in 2008, and not published in Br. till 2011, 2015 in US - why?
1924 election in Iraq
fatwas issued against it, boycotted by Shi'a - still, 1922 treaty ratified by SLIM majority
Egypt couldn't commit full troops in '67 because the best were...
fighting in Yemen
Syrian Prime Minister, al-Za'im, unpopular because he made
full peace offering to Israel, incl. offer to settle 350,000 Palestinians in exchange for land
In September 1938, British took revenge for death of a soldier by ...
getting a bus full of Palestinians and forcing them to drive across land mines - then photographed it, and forced villagers to bury the remains in a mass grave
PFLP have different strategy to Fatah - the former do...
high profile, international attacks (compared to guerilla attacks)
French had a fairground ride where you could
hit Abd al-Qadir on the head
colonial civic oder
idea that there is overlap between state and society, because the colonial state which is set up goes through extra constitutional methods to broker power and involve itself in people lives, creating a space of negotiation mainly for elites (who then form client networks). Term is useful because it emphasises fluidity, deemphasises rigid separation between state and society (Lebanon develop a word for the client relationship - za'im)
When the Khedive visited Paris to see the Exposition Univeselle in 1867, he found out he was staying
in the recreation of the medieval Cairo palace (aka as part of the exhibit!)
Druze leader, al-Atrash, accuses Fr. of crushing religion, speech and movement (grain trade to Haifa had been cut off) - sent letters across the country invoking
liberty, egality, fraternity
One French commander said he would punish anyone who brought back a
live prisoner
map of Muhammad 'Ali's territory in Egypt was
lost
Algeria is always about x rather than realpolitik
masculinity and honour
Sanussi Enver Pasha saw Islam as useful
military tool
After the Suez Canal crisis, Nasser...
nationalises 55 more British and French assets - state becomes a major industrial partner
Succarie (2008) states that US diplomacy is trying to turn Middle Eastern youth into
neoliberals
Khayr al Din
not dissimilar to al-Tahtawi in that he's looking to use constitutionalism to secure autocracy, but having to deal w/ real problem of indebtedness. 1860 Const; debt management committee, then as PM changed admin, shari'a procedure (wanted codification so that Europeans would be forced to act under this), urban improvements, teaching at Zaytuna mosque, Gov. press, library, modern school. Fired due to foreign influence → Grand Vizier, where he deposed Isma'il Pasha. Not "territorial nationalism" - wants Ottoman recognition for Tunis Bey's sovereignty in return for securing dynasty (this why he has to resign '64). The Surest Path - analysis of strongest modern civilisations - economic/military strength coming from education and free political institutions. Anything NOT disallowed ok; comparison of modern w/ ancient, e.g. newspapers like 'ulama (again, similarities to Tahtawi)
'67 is the first time Arabs begin to use the...
oil advantage - better in '73, causes global economic slump
Berat and beratlis
patent which allows holders (beratlis) to enjoy some of the privileges of Ottoman legal system - expands beyond those who it was meant for, e.g. translators, to wealthy Christian merchant family.
CUP abolished x in Beirut
pro-labour regulations, which had allowed workers' strikes (and had been supported by Sultan personally during Hamidian rule)
Fr. remove aspects of x from Islamic law
property law
French women in Algeria seeking services of the x, had knowledge on abortifacients, infanticide, posions for wives (according to Adolfe Kocher, author of manual on Algerian medicine)
qabla
Saint-Simonion concept of modernity
rational reorganisation of society (where everyone has place along a hierarchy) led by intellectual elite
Dujayla Land Settlement 1945
restructuring rural families into self-sufficient units- part of the reason it doesn't work is because they're SO FAR AWAY FROM EACH OTHER - fearing unrest
Muhammad Ali (Egypt)
rises because of his Albanian army - army reforms coming from their increasing lack and his need for obedience, other reforms helping this army (e.g. foundry at Alexandria, arsenal, forced labour), medical schools - these proceeding along Fr. lines because these are the experts he has to hand; lack of fuel → Syrian expansion for wood; irrigation and canal projects to raise money (cotton); when money becomes scarce, goes back to tax-farming, expanding power of landowners who can keep better eye on peasants and prevent desertion. Sending students to France because he doesn't trust the Europeans he has employed. Founder of "modern Egypt" even though Turkish, trying to attract Turkish notables and prepared to sacrifice secession for dynastic guarantees
Sartre argues that Alleg's account
saves French shame
In 1906, Aleppo still has no
sea link by rail (impact of concessions)
Sadat undoes x
secularism - promotion of Islamist societies. Also union w/ US
Plan D
secure UN area w/ corridors between settlements, thus would involve capture and clearing of hostile elements (main reason for Exodus in Shalim, 2014); Morris - saying that it called for complete destruction of villages, then says this is 'implicitly, or explicitly, expulsion' - q. clearly explicit. Begins Apr/May 1948
Benny Morris believes that x drove transfer, rather than ideology
security (how does this fit with the nonaggression pacts that might be signed before massacre?)
Unveiling and Veiling by Nazira Zayn al-Din (1928)
she uses veil not necessarily as oppressive in and of itself, but symbolic of a wider oppression which (like the veil) is not part of authentic Islam (lots of preaching against this, class issues as well - she appeals to the FRENCH which doesn't help matters)
Advantages of BEING a local native agent were
social status ; protection (esp. useful for merchants, e.g. Resident intervened for an agent in Bahrain in 1834 before Treaty had even taken place, and this was ACCEPTED) ; lowered customs and access to British trade through treaties
Bureaux Arabes
spoke Arabic, good concept of local conditions compared to rural counterparts, favouring policies that would not disrupt local ways of life; influential under Napoleon III esp - do want economic transformation though, away from nomadic lifestyle (this is security risk) but not legal, this will waste limited resources (most influential on education but Amrouche shows the limits of this)
When tax-farming became too arduous in Jabal Druze, the people of 'Ammiyya appealed to
the Ottomans (successfully!) (1889)
Syria has military administration in x for the whole period
the desert
French poem said the defeat of Abd al-Qadir's capital in 1835 signalled
the reappearance of Napoleon (resurrection? that would be a sick point to bring McDougall and Sessions together)
Beltways around Damascus and Aleppo
to cut through orchards - prevent nationalists
'add women and stir'
type of history which makes sure to tell history of women
British and US consulates undo x in Iraq during mandate period, in line w/ the Monroe Doctrine
universal education for boys and girls
gender as 'category of historical analysis'
using gender to TRANSFORM our idea of history, e.g. Thompson on Syria, Surkis on law in Algeria, Pursley in Iraq
Dayan opposed fighting in Syria because would be
war of pure choice
During Palestinian revolt, Br. gave x to the Jews
weapons - wanted their help to put it down
Ali al-Wardi
writing about Khaldun (nomadic society vs cicil society) and the need for constant revolution against civil society/state because it would always tend towards corruption (rather than to reach perfect society) → b. 1913, likely formed by his experiences during this time (awarded honour of no. 1 student in kingdom of Iraq at school)
