Psychology test 4

What is internal locus of control? Why is this a more successful way of approaching life?

An internal locus of control is the place (locus) to which an individual attributes control over the receiving of reinforcers—either inside or outside the self. If one controls how they react to stress or receive it then they are less likely to have the harsh side effects of stress because they are choosing to see the good in the situation.

What is "cognitive-dissonance theory"? Explain Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)'s experiment.

Cognitive-dissonance theory is the view that we are motivated to make our cognitions or beliefs consistent with each other and with our behavior. Some participants in this study were give a dollar to tell others a boring task was interesting while the other group of participants were given twenty dollars to do the same thing. They were then asked how interesting they thought the tasks were. The participants who were paid less thought the tasks were more interesting.

What are conditions of worth and how do they contribute to personality development?

Conditions of worth are the standards by which the value of a person is judged. Children may come to think that they have merit only if they behave as their parents wish them to behave. Because each individual has a unique potential, children who develop conditions of worth must be somewhat disappointed in themselves. They cannot fully live up to the wishes of others and be true to themselves. Children in some families learn that it is bad to have ideas of their own, especially about sexual, political, or religious matters. When they perceive their caregivers' disapproval, they may come to see themselves as rebels and label their feelings as selfish, wrong, or evil. If they wish to retain a consistent self-concept and self-esteem, they may have to deny their feelings or disown parts of themselves. In this way, their self-concepts become distorted.

How would a behaviorist measure personality?

Behaviorist view that personality is plastic- that situational or environmental influences, not internal, individual variables, are key shapers of personality. In contrast to the psychoanalysts and structuralists of his day, Watson argued that unseen, undetectable mental structures must be rejected in favor of that which that can be seen and measured.

What is the difference between "dispositional attributions" and "situational attributions"?

Dispositional attribution is an assumption that a person's behavior is determined by internal causes such as personal traits. Situational attribution is an assumption that a person's behavior is determined by external circumstances such as the social pressure found in a situation.

What are Freud's three levels of awareness? Discuss each level.

Freud labeled the region that pokes into the light of awareness the conscious part of the mind. He called the regions below the surface the preconscious and the unconscious. The preconscious mind contains ideas that are out of awareness but can be made conscious by focusing on them. The unconscious mind is shrouded in mystery. It contains primitive instincts like sex and aggression. The unconscious part of awareness is where the idea of repression is found.

Explain the risk factors for cancer and strategies to reduce the risk.

Having carcinogenic genes, smoking, drinking too much alcohol, consuming too much saturated fat, tanning, having depression, or prolonged stress are all factors that can increase the chance of getting cancer. Ways to reduce the chance of getting cancer include getting regular medical checkups detect cancer early; stopping smoking; eating fewer saturated fats and more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains; and exercising regularly.

Discuss Adler's individual psychology.

Individual psychology is Adler's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes feelings of inferiority and the creative self.

Why is laughter good medicine?

Laughter stimulates the output of endorphins, which might enhance the functioning of the immune system.

Why do people tend to marry someone similar to themselves?

People tend to marry people similar to themselves because of propinquity and reciprocity. Propinquity.

Explain "prejudice", "discrimination", and "stereotyping".

Prejudice is an attitude toward a group that leads people to evaluate members of that group negatively - even though they have never met them... Discrimination refers to the behavior that results from prejudice... It is the hostile behavior directed against groups toward whom one is prejudiced... Stereotyping is erroneous assumptions that all members of a group share the same traits or characteristics.

Explain psychological hardiness.

Psychological hardiness is a cluster of traits that buffer stress and are characterized by commitment, challenge, and control.

Discuss "selective avoidance and selective exposure".

Selective avoidance is diverting one's attention form information that is inconsistent with one's attitude. Selective exposure is deliberately seeking and attending to information that is consistent with one's attitudes.

How did Karen Horney differ from Freud in her view of personality?

She argued that little girls did not feel inferior to little boy like Freud's teaching would suggest. Horney agreed with Freud that childhood experiences are important in psychological development. Like other neo-Freudians, however, she asserted that unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses are less important than social relationships.

What are some of the physical symptoms of stress?

Some physical symptoms include headaches, muscle tensions, neck back pain, upset stomach, dry mouth, chest pains, rapid heartbeat, difficulty falling or staying asleep, fatigue, loss of appetite or overeating, increased frequency of colds, lack of concentration or focus, memory problems or forgetfulness, jitters, irritability, short temper, and anxiety

What does the MMPI measure?

The MMPI is designed for use by clinical and counseling psychologists to help diagnose psychological disorders. It accurately measures a person's problem.

Explain "actor-observer effect" and "self-serving bias".

The actor-observer effect is the tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational factors but to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors. The self-serving bias is the tendency to view one's successes as stemming from internal factors and one's failures as stemming from external factors.

What is "bystander effect"? When do we help someone who is in trouble?

The bystander effect is the tendency to avoid helping other people in emergencies when other people are also present and apparently capable of helping. People tend to be more helpful during times of trouble if they are in a good mood, are empathetic, believe an emergency exists, assume responsibility, know what to do, and know the person in trouble.

What is "fear appeal"? Provide an example.

The fear appeal is a type of persuasive communication that influences behavior on the basis of arousing fear instead of rational analysis of the issues. An example of this would be warning women about the risks of not getting a mammogram instead of telling them the benefits of getting one.

What are the 3 psychic structures of personality? Explain each structure.

The three psychic structures include id, ego, and superego. The id is the psychic structure, present at birth, that represents physiological drives and is fully unconscious. The ego is the second psychic structure to develop, characterized by self-awareness, planning, and delay of gratification. The superego is the third psychic structure, which functions as a moral guardian and sets forth high standards for behavior.

What is the 3-stage response to stress? Explain each stage.

The three-stage response is called the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). The three stages include the alarm reaction, the resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage. The alarm reaction is the first stage of the GAS, which is triggered by the impact of a stressor and characterized by sympathetic activity. The resistance stage is the second stage of the GAS, characterized by prolonged sympathetic activity in an effort to restore lost energy and repair damage. Also called the adaptation stage. The exhaustion stage is the third stage of the GAS, characterized by weakened resistance and possible deterioration.

What is trait theory?

Traits are reasonably stable elements of personality that are inferred from behavior.

How does the presence of other people influence our behavior?

When there are more people around us suggesting doing something, we are more likely to listen even if it isn't the right thing to do, but if there are fewer people, we are less likely to conform to their beliefs.

Discuss the primary sources of stress amongst adults in America.

The primary source of stress amongst adults in America is daily hassles, life changes, and health problems

What was the purpose of the Milgram study? Explain his experiment briefly.

The purpose of this study was to test if people would resist immoral requests made by an authority figure. During the Milgram studies, the forty participants, ranging 20 years old to 50 years old, all had various levels of education. The participants were either learners or teachers. The scientist straps the learner in. the learner expresses some concern, but this is, after all, for the sake of science. ...You follow the scientist to an adjacent room, from which you are to do your teaching. This teaching promises to have an impact. You are to punish the learner's error by pressing levers marked from 15 to 450 volts on a fearsome looking console. Labels describe 28 of the 30 levers running the gamut from "Slight Shock" to "Danger: Severe Shock." the last two levers are simply labeled "XXX." Just in case you have no idea what electric shock feels like, the scientist gives you a sample 45-volt shock. It stings. You pity the person who might receive more.

Explain the risk factors for coronary heart disease and strategies to reduce the risk.

The risk factors of coronary heart disease include a family history of the disease, the physiological conditions of the patient, the patient's consumption history, whether they have type A behavior, what kind of job strain they have, having chronic fatigue, stress, anxiety, depression, and emotional strain, and finally, a physically inactive lifestyle. Strategies to reduce the risk for coronary heart disease include stopping smoking; eating fewer saturated fats and more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains; reducing hypertension and lowering LDL (harmful) serum cholesterol, through medicine if necessary; modifying type A behavior; managing feelings of anger; and exercising regularly.

What are the two main categories of personality tests? Name one test from each category.

The two main categories of personality tests are the objective tests and the projective tests. Objective tests are the tests whose items must be answered in a specified, limited manner; tests whose items have concrete answers that are considered correct. An example of this kind of test would be the MMPI which presents questions in a true-false format. A projective test is a psychological test that presents ambiguous stimuli onto which the test taker projects his or her own personality in making a response. An example of this kind of test would be the Rorschach inkblot test.

How did Asch demonstrate conformity through his experiment?

There were eight participants in his study, and they were all asked to look at cards with different sized lines on them and asked which lines were the same. The participants would say the right answer confidently at first until multiple people disagreed with them. The discomfort in the Asch study was caused by the pressure to conform. Actually, the other seven recruits were confederates of the experimenter. They pre-arranged a number of incorrect responses. The sole purpose of the study was to see whether you would conform to the erroneous group judgment. How many people in Asch's study caved in? How many went along with the crowd rather than give what they thought to be the right answer? Seventy- five percent. Three out of four agreed with the majority's wrong answer at least once.

How might an individualist differ from a collectivist in the way that they view personality development?

To an individualist, the self is separate from the other people. To a collectivist, the self is complete only in terms of relationships to other people. An individualist is a person who defines themselves in terms of personal traits and gives priority to their own goals. A collectivist is a person who defines themselves in terms of relationships and groups and gives priority to group goals.

Explain Type A and Type B behavior pattern.

Type A behavior is the behavior characterized by a sense of time urgency, competitiveness, and hostility. Type B people, in contrast, relax more readily and focus more on the quality of life. Type B people are less ambitious and less impatient, and they pace themselves.

Describe Eysenck's Trait theory.

British psychologist Hans J. Eysenck focused on much of his research on the relationship between two personality traits: introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability. Carl Jung was the first to distinguish between introverts and extraverts. Eysenck added the dimensions of emotional stability-instability to introversion-extraversion. He said that people who are introverted and stable were phlegmatic. People who are introverted and unstable are melancholic. People who are extraverted and stable are sanguine. People who are extraverted and unstable are choleric.

Who is a famous Humanist who developed Client centered therapy? Discuss his self-theory.

Carl Rogers is the one who developed Client centered therapy. Roger's self-theory focuses on the nature of the self and the conditions that allow the self to develop freely. Two of his major concerns are the self-concept and self-esteem.

How did Hippocrates contribute to trait theory?

Hippocrates believed that traits were embedded in bodily fluids. In his view, a person's personality depends on the balance of four basic fluids, or 'humors', in the body. Yellow bile is associated with choleric (quick-tempered) disposition; blood with a sanguine (warm, cheerful) one; phlegm with a phlegmatic (sluggish, calm, cool) disposition; and black bile with a melancholic (gloomy, pensive) temperament.

Why would irrational beliefs increase anxiety and depression?

Irrational beliefs increase anxiety and depression because they are our personal doorways to distress. In fact, they can give rise to problems in themselves. When problems assault us from other sources, these beliefs can magnify their effect

What is social support? Explain 5 types of social support.

It acts as a buffer against the effects of stress. The five types include emotional concern, instrumental aid, information, appraisal, and socializing. Emotional concern is listening to people's problems and expressing feelings of sympathy, caring, understanding and reassurance. Instrumental aid is the material supports and services that facilitate adaptive behavior. Information includes guidance and advice. Appraisal is the feedback from others about how one is doing. Socializing includes conversation, recreation, and even going shopping with someone.

Why is some stress bad?

It can overtax our ability to adjust, affect our moods, impair our ability to experience pleasure, and harm the body.

Why is some stress good?

It keeps us alert and occupied.

Explain self-efficacy expectations.

Self-efficacy expectations are our beliefs that we can bring about desired changes through our own efforts.

What factors influence our tendency to conform?

Several factors increase the tendency to conform, including belonging to a collectivist rather than an individualistic society, the desire to be liked by other members of the group, low self-esteem, social shyness, and lack of familiarity with the task. Other factors in conformity include group size and social support.

Describe Social/Cognitive theory.

Social-cognitive theory is a cognitively oriented learning theory in which observational learning and person variables, such as values and expectancies, play major roles in individual differences.

What are the 4 types of conflict? Explain and give an example of each.

The four types of conflict are approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, and the multiple approach-avoidance conflict. Approach-approach conflict is the least stressful and involves making a choice between one thing or another, an example being choosing a banana or strawberries. Avoidance-avoidance conflict is more stressful because you are motivated to avoid each of two negative goals. However, avoiding one requires approaching the other. For example, you may be fearful of visiting the dentist but also afraid that your teeth will decay if you do not make an appointment and go. Approach-avoidance conflict look good from far away but look worse the closer you get. For example, pie looks good until you think of how fatting it is. The multiple approach-avoidance conflict is the most complex. It has several alternative courses of action have pluses and minuses.

Describe the sources of prejudice.

Sources of prejudice include dissimilarity, social conflict, social learning, information processing, and social categorization. Dissimilarity. We are apt to like people who share our attitudes. People of different religions and races often have different backgrounds, however, giving rise to dissimilar attitudes. Even when people of different races share important values, people may assume that they do not. Social conflict. There is often social and economic conflict between people of different races and religions. Social learning. Children acquire some attitudes from other people, especially their parents. Children tend to imitate their parents, and parents reinforce their children for doing so. In this way prejudices can be transmitted from generation to generation. Information processing. Prejudices act as cognitive filters through which we view the social world. We tend to think of people as 'familiar' or 'foreign' or 'good' or 'bad'. Our feelings and reactions toward others may be biased by these perceptions. Social categorization. We also tend to divide our social world into 'us' and 'them'. People usually view those who belong to their own groups... Isolation from the out-group makes it easier to maintain our stereotypes.

What are the components of Sternberg's Triangular model of love?

Sternberg's view of love involves three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment... Intimacy refers to a couple's closeness, to their mutual concern and sharing of feelings and resources. Passion means romance and sexual feelings. Commitment means deciding to enhance and maintain the relationship. Passion is most crucial in short-term relationships. Intimacy and commitment are more important in enduring relationships. The ideal form of love-consummate love- combines all three. Consummate love is made up of romantic love plus commitment. Romantic love, in Stenberg's scheme, is characterized by passion and intimacy. Passion involves fascination, sexual craving, and the desire for exclusiveness. Intimacy involves closeness and caring-championing the interests of the loved one, even if it entails sacrificing one's own. People are cognitively biased toward elevating their partners positively that is, we idealize those we love.

How does stress impact immune system functioning?

Stress causes steroids like cortisol to be released into the immune system. When too many steroids are released in the body, the immune system weakens because the steroids prevent the body from forming antibodies. Too many steroids also cause inflammation to decrease. The people who are more stressed out are more susceptible to getting the Epstein-Barr virus because stress causes the immune system to become weaker.

Describe the 5 stages of psychosexual development.

The 5 stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. The oral stage is the first stage of psychosexual development, during which gratification is hypothesized to be obtained through oral activities. The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development, when gratification is attained through anal activities. The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, characterized by a shift of libido to the phallic region... The latency stage is a phase of psychosexual development characterized by repression of sexual impulses. The genital stage is the mature stage of psychosexual development, characterized by preferred expression of libido through intercourse with an adult of the other gender.

Explain the ABC model of behavior.

The A stands for activating event, B stands for beliefs, and C stands for the consequence. An example of an activating event is failing a text. The consequence may be getting grounded. Beliefs may arise that they are not good at school.

What is the A-B problem? Discuss "specificity, strength of attitudes, vested interest, and accessibility".

The A-B problem is the tissue of how well we can predict behavior on the basis of attitudes. This includes. Specificity, strength of attitudes, vested interest, and accessibility are all factors that help in predicting behavior. Specificity. We can predict specific behavior from specific attitudes than from global attitude... Strength of attitudes. Strong attitudes are more likely to determine behavior than weak attitudes... Vested interest. People are more likely to act on their attitudes when they have a vested interest in the outcome... Accessibility. People are more likely to behave in accord with their attitudes when they are accessible - that is, when they are brought to mind.

Explain "elaboration likelihood model" and "central/peripheral routes".

The elaboration likelihood model is the view that persuasive messages are evaluated (elaborated) on the basis of central and peripheral cues...The central route inspires thoughtful consideration of arguments and evidence. The peripheral route associates objects with positive or negative cues.

What are the 5 factors in the Five Factor Model? Explain each factor.

The five factors include the two found by Eysenck—extraversion and neuroticism—along with conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience. Extraversion contrasts talkativeness, assertiveness, and activity with silence, passivity, and reserve. Agreeableness contrasts kindness, trust, and warmth with hostility, selfishness, and distrust. Conscientiousness contrasts organization, thoroughness, and reliability with carelessness, negligence, and unreliability. Neuroticism contrasts nervousness, moodiness, and sensitivity to negative stimuli with coping ability. Openness to experience contrasts imagination, curiosity, and creativity with shallowness, and lack of perceptiveness.

What is "fundamental attribution error"?

The fundamental attribution error is the assumption that others act predominantly on the basis of their dispositions, even when there is evidence suggesting the importance of their situations.

Discuss validity, reliability, and standardization.

Validity in psychological testing is the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability in psychological testing is the consistency or stability of test scores from one testing to another. Standardization in psychological testing is the process by which one obtains and organizes test scores from various population groups, so that the results of a person's completing a test can be compared to those of others of his or her gender, in his or her age group, and so on.