sintaksa

Describe the underlined constituent in terms of their function and form

The man fed his dog. (1) "The man" has the form of a noun phrase because its main word, man, is a noun; it has a function of a subject. (2) "His dog" has the form of a noun phrase and function of direct object

Which main verbs are used as operators? Ex?

There are two operators that are not auxiliaries: be and have and examples: It was an anwful system. Amy has just one daughter. But with the verb have there is a choice, it is optional, we can introduce the dummy operator or substitute get as the main verb.

List five possible meanings (roles) of Subject.

agentive, identified, characterised, affected, 'it'

Which indefinite pronouns may be either singular or plural? Ex?

none, all, some, any If they refer to one thing, they take a singular verb: Half(the country) is under water. If they refer to more than one person or thing, they take a plural verb: Some(of the pages) are missing

What is a clause? Ex?

A clause is a sentence-like construction contained within a sentence. Tom married Amy when he was 19. While I was Waiting, I read a chapter of my book.

What are collective nouns? Give two examples of agreement(sg.pl.) and explain differ.

A collective nouns refer to a group of people or things. When members of the group are viewed as unit, singular verbs and singular pronouns are usual: The audience was very noisy. The public has the right to know. When the members of the group are viewed as individuals, plural verbs and pronouns are used:The government are confused about what to do next

What is a transitive verb and in which pattern does it occur? Ex?

A transitive verb is a verb that cannot stand alone in the Predicate of a sentence. Instead, it requires another sentence element to complete its meaning. Sentence pattern: SVDOThe soldiers destroyed the village.

What are declarative sentences? Ex?

Declarative sentences are sentences in which it is normal for subject to be present and to precede the verb, regardless of any other sentence elements : ex. Emma gave Jenny a watch forher birthday

What is the typical role of iO? Ex

Recipient role:the person that is indirectly involved in the action, generally the person receiving something or intended to receive something, or benefit in some way. The paid me the full amount. He bought sandra a bunch of flowers

What is the number of the subject if the phrases linked by and are introduced by each? Ex?

If the noun phrases are introduced by each or every, the subject is singular: Every band and store was closed that day

What are imperative sentences? Ex?

Imperative sentences are sentences which normally have a subject, and whose verb has the base form: ex. Give Jenny a watch for her birthday.

What is the pattern of the sentence with an adverbial complement following dO? Ex?

SVOA: subject+transitive verb+dO+adverbial complement ... You should put (V)the chicken(dO)in the freezer(aC)...I keep (V)my car(dO)outside the house(aC).

What are irregular (fragmentary)sentences? Ex?

That do not conform to the major patterns. They leave out words that we easily supply, usually from the preceding context. A: Where did you put the letter? B: In the top drawer.

The word verb is used in two distinct senses. Which?

-The verb is one of the elements in clause structure, like the subject and the object. The verb phrase operates as the verb. -A verb is a member of a word class, like a noun and adjective. A verb phrase consists of one or more verbs

Explain ungrammaticality of: Has been ill John. John have been ill. John has being ill.

1. Subject John should be placed before the verb; 2. Subject-verb agreement= John has, not John have; 3.verb forms-been, not being.

List four grammatical rules that refer to the indirect object.

1.The iO comes after the verb: Ruth gave my son (iO) a birthday presend (dO). 2.Some pronous have a distinctive form when they function as the indirect object: I paid her (iO) the full amount. 3.if the subject and iO refer to the same person, the iO is generally a reflexive pronoun: The managing director paid herself (iO) a huge salary. 4.When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence, the iO of the active sentence can become the subject of the passive sentence. The principal granted Tony (iO) an interview. Tony (S) was granted an interview

What is the number of the subject if it consists of two phrases linked by and? Ex?

1.The subject is plural even if each is singular: Your kitchen, your living- room and your dining-room are too small. It is also plural if and is implied though not actually present. It is plural when one of the mail nouns is implied but not actually present: British and American English are dialects of one language

Explain the distinction between compound and complex sentences. Ex?

A combination, such as "Paul plays football but/and Amy prefers tennis", which consists of two or more simple sentences, is called a compound sentence. A complex sentence contains another "sentence-like"construction within it:"When the plane landed, the ground crew removed the cargo.

What is a multiple clause membership of verbs? Ex of ambiguities

A given verb can belong, in its various senses, to more than one class, and hence can enter into more than one clause type. The verb „get"is particularly versatile, being excluded only from type SV. Ambiguities: e.g. she made a good model (SVO or SVC), I found her an entertaining partner (SVOC or SVOO), He is cooking his family dinner (SVO or SVOO).

What does a predicate consist of?

A predicate consists of at least one verb (simple verb) or a verb with its complement or object.

What are vocatives? Ex?

A vocative is used to identify the person or persons to whom a sentence is addressed: Come inside, children.

How are passive sentences formed? Ex

A: Charles Dickens wrote many novels P: many novels were written by Charles Dickens.

Describe the process of forming a passive from an active sentence. Ex?

Active sentence pattern: S+V+DO. The DO becomes the subject of the passive version, while the subject of the active version, moves to the end of the passive version. Passive sentences are formed by adding the passive auxiliary be and using a different form of the verb. E.g. Shakespeare wrote King Lear King Lear was written by Shakespeare.

What are adjuncts, what is their position in the sentence, and can they co-occur? Ex?

Adjuncts (A) contribute optional, additional information to a sentence. Sentence may be extended by adding adjunct, they can appear at the beginning of the sentence (Suddenly, the sky darkened) and the can co-occur Unfortunately, my tea is cold as usual.

Explain the distinction between adverbials and adverbial complements? Ex?

Adverbials are optional elements, but aC convey the same information as adverbials but they are obligatory because the main verb is not complete without them. The protestors were outside the White House (aC).

List three possible meanings(roles) of dO?

Affected, resultant, eventive

What is the most frequent subject role? Ex?

Affected-the person or thing directly affected by the action,but not intentionally performing the action: They are drowning. The water has boiled.

What is the most frequent role of dO? Ex?

Affected: She shook her hand. I threw the note on the floor.

What are alternative interrogatives? Ex?

Alternative interrogatives present two or more choices, and the hearer is expected to reply withone of them. One type of alternative interrogatives resembles the form of yes-no interrogative: ex. Should I wear the black sweater or the blue one? The other type resembles wh-interrogatives: ex. Which one do you want, coffee or tea?

What is an intransitive verb and in which pattern does it occur? Ex?

An intransitive verb can occur alone in the Predicate of a sentence, because it requires no other sentence element to complete its meaning. SV pattern: Amy laughed.

What is an object compliment and in which pattern does it occur. Ex?

An object compliment (OC) describes an attribute of the Direct Object. Pattern: SVDOOC- The dye turned the water blue.

Which types of compliments are distinguished? What are their forms?

Compliment is usually a noun or an adjective phrase; forms: the complements in finite causes require the subjective form of pronouns in formal use (American English), but otherwise the objective form.

What are other types of questions? What are their properties? Ex?

Declarative- have the form of a declarative sentence but the force of a question. They have the declarative subject-verb order, but their interrogative force is signalled by rising intonation in speech and by a question mark in writing. You know my name? 2.Alternative- present two or more choices, and the heareris expected to reply with one of them. One type resembles yes-no question: Sould the goverment reduce its deficit by raising income taxes or by cutting expenditure? The other resembles wh- questions: Which do you want, coffee or tea? Tag- are attached to sentences that are not interrogative. They invite the hearer to respond in agreement with the speaker: You haven't said anything yet, have you? They have the form of yes-no questions. The tag question is negative if the sentence is positive, and positive if the sentence is negative. Generally the subject is you and the operator is will: Don't tell him, will you? Rhetorical- do not expect a reply since they are the equivalent of forceful statements. Who could defend such a view?

List three types of time adverbials. Ex?

Duration: They're staying with us for a few weeks. Frequency: We come here quite often. Position in time: Your next appointment is on the last day of the month.

What are exclamative sentences? Ex?

Exsclamative sentences are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how, usually with subject-verb order: ex. What a beautiful watch she received for her birthday!

List four major types of sentences and four major uses of sentences.

Four major types: declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives, exclamatives Four major uses: 1. declaratives correspond to statements: used chiefly to convay information 2. interrogatives correspond to questions: used chiefly to request information 3.imperatives correspond to directives: used chiefly to request action .exclamatives correspond to exclamations: used chiefly to express strong feelings.

What are possible functions of a clause in a sentence? Ex?

Functions of a clause in a sentence: subject, direct object, subject predicate or adverbial. (1) I should have noticed that Zelda doesn't like Zelman. (Direct object). (2) That she left, was nice. (subject) (3)The problem is that she reads junk.(subject predikate) (4)He read books because it was required.(adverbial

What is the number of the subject if the phrases linked by and refer to the same thing. Ex

If the linked units refer to the same thing the subject is singular:A conscientious and honest politician has nothing to fear

How do we call the elements in the following verb phrase: has been working?

Has been- the auxiliaries Working- the main verb

List four sentence structures where the operator plays an essential role.

In the subject-operator inversion (by inverting the positions of the subject and operator -When we form negative sentences by putting not after the operator. In informal style not is often contracted to n't , and in writing n't is attached to the operator. -Operators can carry the stress in speech to convey certain kind of emphasis. Operators are used in various kinds of reduced clauses to substitute for the predicate.

What are interrogative sentences? Ex?

Interrogative sentences are used to chiefly to request information: ex. Are you hungry?

List types of verbs, and specify the patterns in in which they occur.

Intransitive (SV), Monotransitive (SVO),Ditransitive (SVOO), Complex-transitive(SVOC, SVOA),Transitive (SVO, SVOO, SVOC and SVOA),Copular (SVC and SVA).

Give a formal definition of a sentence and explain its inadequacy.

It defines a term by the form or shape of what the term refers to.It's inadequate since many sentences end with a question mark or an exclamation mark; and capital letters are used for names, and full stops are often used in abbreviations.

Give a notional definition of a sentence and explain its inadequacy.

It defines a term by the notion or idea it conveys.There are notices that seem to be complete in themselves but are not generally regarded as sentences: Exit, Danger...on the other hand, there are sentences that clearly consist of more than one thought introduced by the comma.

What is the agreement from the verb when the subject is an indefinite pronoun? Ex?

Most indefinite pronouns take singular verbs: Everybody is now here. Someone has borrowed my comb.

What are fragments, and what are non-sentences? Ex?

Most irregular sentences are fragmentary sentences. These leave out words that we can easily supply usually from the preceding context: ex. Where did you put my pen? I put it in the top drawer. Non-sentences cannot be analysed grammatically as sentences. Most non-sentences can be analyzed not in terms of sentence structure, but in terms of phrase structure. They occur very commonly in newspaper headlines, book headings, titles, advertisements and notices: ex. No smoking!; Traffic chaos!; etc.

How are negative sentences and questions formed in English?

Negative sentences are formed by inserting NOT (n't) after the operator. E.g. They o: should have bought a new house They o: should not have bought a new house. Questions are formed by placing the subject of the sentence after the operator. E.g. Should they have bought a new house?

How are negative sentences formed? Ex?

Negative sentences are formed by inserting NOT(n't) after the operator. They should NOT have bought a new house

Give three examples of agreement with singular nouns ending in -s. Explain

Nouns ending in -ics are singular when they refer to a field of study-economics, linguistics, statistics: Economics was my favourite subject at school. Names of deseases that end in -s are generally treated as singular- AIDS,mumps, measles: AIDS is caused by the HIV virus. Names of games that end in -s are singular: billiards, darts, dominoes: Dominoes is the only game I play at home.

Only one category of verbs can have a passive version. Which? List 3 verbs that cannot

Only transitive can have a passive version; have, resemble and suit cannot.

Which verbs function as operators or can function as operators?

Operators: can, will, have, must, be, do (dummy operator).

What are adverbials? Ex?

Optional elements that we can add to basic structures are adverbials, and they convey a range of information about the situation depicted in the basic structure. I entirely (A) agree. Unfortunately (A), no cure exists.

Give examples of agrement with quantifier phrases and explain the difference.

Plural phrases of quantity or extent take singular verbs when the quantity or extent is viewed as a unit: Ten punds is enough. Two years seem too long to wait. Otherwise a plural is used: Twenty years have passed since I last saw Helen.

Explain the distinction between prescriptive and descriptive rules.

Prescriptive rules tell people how they should speak according to some standard: ex. "don't split the infinitives"; "never end a sentence with a preposition" etc. These rules tell us how we are supposed to use our language. The other approach is to write rules that describe how people actually speak, whether or not they are speaking correctly. These are called descriptive rules.

What are rhetorical questions? Ex?

Rhetorical questions are interrogatives in structure, but have the force of a strong assertion. The speaker does not expect an answer. They can be divided into: a positive rhetorical yesno questions which have negative force (ex. Is that a reason for despair? Surely that is not the reason...), negative rhetorical yes-no questions which have positive force (ex. Isn't the answer obvious? Surely the answer is obvious.) and rhetorical wh-questions (ex. Who cares? Nobody cares. )

What is the order of grammatical units according to the grammatical hierarchy?

SENTENCES-consist of one or more CLAUSES-consist of one or more PHRASES-consist of one or more WORDS.

What is a simple sentence? List patterns of simple sentence.

Simple sentence is a language unit which we must regard as primary, in comprising a minimum sense of completeness and unity. It consists of a single independent clause, which may be one of seven types. Patterns: SV, SVO, SVC, SVA, SVOO, SVOC and SVOA.

What is an adverbial compliment and in which pattern does it occur?Ex?

Some intransitive verbs co-occur with a sentence element that expresses location, direction or time, and that is obligatory in the sentence structure. Intransitive verbs are followed by followed by element which is required to complete the meaning-Adverbial Compliment (AC).

List eight possible meanings of adverbials.

Space, time, manner, degree, cause, comment on truth-value( degree of certainty or doubt), evaluation of what the sentence refers to, providing a connection between units.

Explain the distinction between stative and dynamic verbs. Ex?

Stative V introduce a quality attributed to the subject or a state of affairs : I am French citizen. Their children are noisy. Dynamic V introduce events. They refer to something that happens: Her books sell well. The children play in the yard.

What is a subject compliment and what does it denote? Ex?

The DO is typically that part of a sentence which is affected by the "action" of the verb. It can often be identified by asking a question beginning with what or whom, e.g. The soldiers destroyed the village.

What is a predicate? Ex? Which tests can be used to identify the subject?

The Subject is usually the first element in the sentence, while the rest of the sentence, which includes the verb, is the Predicate (e.g. Amy laughed). The subject of a sentence can often be identified by asking a question beginning with WHO or WHAT

What is Subject-verb agreement and when does it apply?

The agreement test-the subject of a sentence agrees in number (singular or plural) with the verb that follows it

List four grammatical rules that refer to the direct object.

The dO normally comes after the verb. 2.Some pronouns have a distinctive form when they function as the dO. If the subject and dO refer to the same person or thing, the dO is reflexive pronoun. 4.When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence, the dO of active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

What is an operator and what is a prediction? Ex?

The operator is the first or only auxiliary in the verb of the sentence. (You could have been imaging it). Predication is constituent of a predicate, together with operator.

What is a typical role of complements (S and O)? Ex?

The role of attribute. it attributes an identification or characterisation to the subject-if it is a subject complement, or the dO- if it is an object complement: sC- Susan is my accountant. oC- I have made david my assistant.

Explain the distinction between function and form

The same formal unit may have one function in one sentence and quite another in another sentence. Equally, the same function can obviously be performed by units that are very different in form-V:verb,verb phrase; S:noun phrase; O:noun phrase; C:noun phrase, adjective phrase; A: noun phrase, adverb phrase (adverbs), prepositional phrase

List six grammatical rules that refer to the subject.

The subject normally comes before the verb in declaratives, but in questions it comes after the operator. The subject is normally absent in imperatives. 3.Most verbs in the present tense have a distinctive form ending in -s when the subject is singular and refers to something or someone other than the speaker or the person or persons being adressed. Some pronouns ( I,you, she, he, they) have a distinctive form when they function as subject of the sentence, or of clauses in the sentence. The subject determines the form of reflexive pronouns that appear in the same clause. When we turn an active sentence into a passive we change the subjects.

What are two main constituents of a sentence? Ex?

The two main constituents of a sentence are the subject and the predicate: ex. I run. (the subject, the operator and the rest of the predicate)

What is a clause? Explain the distinction between coordination and subordination?

The unit with the internal structure that we have been attributing to a sentence is called clause. If two clauses are on an equal footing, they are coordinated to form the sentence and clause may be subordinated within another clause as one of its elements.

What are linking verbs and in which patterns do they occur? List five linking verbs

The verb that simply links two elements is called linking verb. 5 linking verbs: seem, appear, look, become and go. Pattern: SVSc

Which pronouns are used as gender- neutral pronouns with indef. pron. as antec.?Ex?

Their, they: Everybody wanted a room of their own. Does anyone think they can solve this problem?

What is the number of the subject if it consists of two phrases linked by or or nor? Ex?

Then both phrases are singular the verb is singular:No food or drink was provided.When both phrases are plural, the verb is plural: Either the Unionists or the Nationalists have to make concessions. When one is singular and other is plural, the verb agrees in number with the phrase closest to it: Neither your brother or you sisters are responsible.

What are declaratives? Ex?

They are the basic sentence type. They have basic subjec-verb structure, other elements may be present. The sky (S) darkened(V).

What are exclamatives? Ex?

They begin with what( introduces a noun phrase) or how( for all other pirposes). They express strong feeling, the extent to which the speaker is impressed by something. What a good show it was!, What mess you've made!

What does the sentence structure depend on?

They depend on the choice of the main verbs, regardless of any auxilliaries that may be present.

What is the number of relative pronouns who, which and that? Ex?o

They have the same number as the nouns they refer to: I have written a letter for the student who is applying for a job in pur department. She reported on the decisions that are made at the meeting.

What are sentence patterns of obligatory adverbials? Ex?

They refer to space; patterns: SVA (location is attributed to the referent of the subject) and SVOA (location is attributed to the referent of the direct object). E.g. Daniel stayed very quiet. AND Linda kept Daniel very quiet

What are imperatives? Ex?

They usually do not have a subject. If there is no auxiliary, the verb has the base form: Take a seat. Pass me the bottle

List four meanings of adjunct and give examples of each meaning.

Time (when something happens: yesterday), Place (where something happens: at the restaurant), Manner (how something happens: gradually).

Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive. Ex?

Transitive and intransitive verbs: eat, elect, and teach.

Which types of objects are distinguished? What are their characteristics?

Types of objects: direct object, indirect object and object compliment. Direct object is required to complete the meaning of the verb, answers the question „what?" or „who?", indirect object is followed by the direct, it is more likely to be optional and can be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial and object compliment describes an attribute of the direct object.

What are syntactic characteristics of verbs, subjects, objects, complements, adverbials

Verb-always realized by a verb phrase, normally present in all sentences (including imperative clauses, where the subject is typically absent), determines what other elements (apart from the subject) may or must occur in the clause. Subject- is typically a noun phrase, normally occurs before the verb in a declarative clauses and after the operator in yes-no interrogative clauses. It determines number and person, where relevant, of the verb. In finite clauses require the subjective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms. Object-is typically a noun phrase. It normally follows subject and verb, and if both objects are present, the indirect object normally comes before the direct object. It may become the subject of the corresponding passive clause. And in the finite clause it requires the objective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms. Complement- complement is typically a noun phrase or an adjective phrase normally follows the subject and verb if the subject compliment and the DO if the object compliment. It relates to subject if subject compl., or to the DO if object compliment. Adverbial- normally an adverb phrase, prepP or clause, but it can also be a NP, capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause and its mobility depends on the type and form of the adverbial. It is optional, except for adverbials in the SVA and SVOA clause types.

How are negative sentences formed? What are their properties? Ex?

We can usually change a positive sentence into a negative by inserting not or n't after the auxiliary. I can't tell the difference. A sentence may be negative because of some negative word, apart from not: She never had a secretary. Nobody talked to us. It will generally take a positive tag question: Tom is not shy, is he?

How are most types of questions formed? Ex?

We form most types of questions by inverting the positions of the subject and operator: ex. You could have been imagining it. / Could you have been imagining it?

What are non-sentences? Ex?

We often say or write things that are not grammatical sentences: Hello!; Yes!; Thanks!; No!; They occur commonly in news-paper headlines, book headings, titles, advertisments, notices.

What are wh-interrogatives? Ex?

Wh-interrogatives: an interrogative wh-element is positioned initially and there is general subject-operator inversion: ex. What did Emma give to Jenny for her birthday?

What is the number of the subject if it consists of two phrases linked by with? Ex?

When a singular noun phrase is linked to a following noun phrase by a preposition such as with, the subject is singular even though the preposition is similar in meaning to and: His sister, together with her two youngest children, is staying with them.

What is the subject-verb agreement and when does it apply? Ex?

When the werb agrees with its subject in number and person. The agreement applies whenever the verb displays distinctions in person and number.

What is an indirect object and in which sentence pattern does it occur? Ex?

When two objects are present in a sentence, the Indirect Object comes first, followed by the Direct Object, pattern: SVIODO We gave David the prize.

What is speech act? What may be the communicative purpose of a speech act? Ex?

When we say or write something, we are performing an action- speech act. The intended effect in a speech act is the comminicative purpose of the spech act. It's getting late. ( request for someone to leave with the speaker)Do you want a seat? (offer) Enjoy yourself (wish)

What are yes-no interrogatives? Ex?

Yes-no interrogatives: an operator (verb) is placed in front of the subject: ex. Did Emma give Jenny a watch for her birthday?

What are two main types of questions?What are their properties? Ex?

Yes-no questions. Begin with a verb.They require a reversal of the order of subject and verb. Does (op) this shop (S)opet 24. hours a day? They expect the answer yes or no, but they can be answered in other ways: Perhaps. I don't know. Wh- questions.begin with an interrogative word or phrase. Why should the government cut income taxes? Most of the interrogative words begin with wh-.

List seven verbs that may enter into different sentence structures.Ex with one ?

eaten,smells, felt, made, named, growing, caught ... It smells. It smells sweet; The children are growing. The children are growing carrots.The childern are growing hungry.

Give an example of person agreement and an example of number agreement.

singular plural 1st person am 2nd person are are 3rd person is

List 5 functions of elements of a sentence

subject, objects, adverbials, complements and verbs