Anthropology Unit 4: Subsistence

Bronislaw Malinowski

*1884-1942 - Founder of social anthropology and many methods that form the core of anthropological fieldwork *Became prominent through studies of Pacific Islanders as he extensively studied their marriage, trade and religious customs *Did not wholly "invent" fieldwork, his careful studies, and the brilliant observations which they then allowed him to make, did much to popularize and revolutionize its importance *Vigorously emphasized the importance of immersing oneself deeply in the indigenous language or languages. But perhaps more than any other researcher before him, Malinowski embraced the value of studying everyday life in all its mundane aspects.

Intensive Agriculture

*As agriculture grows some farming communities will turn from small villages into larger cities including large centers of market exchange (aka urbanization). This allows other members of the community to engage in other activities (i.e. non-food production.) *Job specialization results - carpenters, blacksmiths, sculptures, basket makers, stone-cutters, etc.

Market Exchange

*Defined - buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of supply and demand *Prices are set on the basis of supply and demand. *Money is often but not always used as in some non-industrial societies that practice market exchange *Money is defined as something used to make payments for goods and services as well as measure their value *Historically many types of things have been used as money: salt, shells, stones, beads, feathers, fur bones, teeth, etc.

Horticulture: Slash-and-burning (aka Swidden farming)

*Form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops are then planted among the ashes *Groups establish several fields at various stages of growth *Outsiders often seen as destructive to environment, but actually well-suited to tropical environments *Produces more calories than need. Actually less time intensive *Cultures that practice this often have considerable free time

Informal Economy or Black Market?

*The production of marketable commodities that for various reasons escape enumeration, regulation, or any other sort of public monitoring or auditing. *Examples of goods or services that may be obtained on this type of market: *Household services (ex. child care, cleaning, gardening, etc.) *Illegal or Illicit activities (ex. alcohol, drugs, prostitution, illegal labor, gambling, etc.)

Characteristics of Agricultural Societies

*Use technologies other than hand tools, such as irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden or metal plows pulled by harnessed draft animals or even machines *Reside in fixed settlements near cultivated fields *Societies become stratified as populations increase in size

Segregated Pattern

-Common to pastoral, intensive agricultural, and industrial societies -Almost all labor/work is defined as masculine or feminine -Men and women rarely engage in joint efforts and do not help one another -Both boys and girls are raised primarily by women -After puberty boys will spend most time with adult men and girls with adult women

Technology Trends

-Food foragers and pastoralists who are nomadic have fewer and simpler tools than sedentary farmers -Ex. Average member of the Ju/'hoansi owns about 25 lbs. of possessions per member! -The primary tools for horticulturists include the axe, digging stick, and hoe

Land & Water: Industrial Societies

-In Western capitalist societies, private ownership of land and rights to natural resources generally prevails -System is based on the individual not the group as it might be for foraging and some producing societies

Land & Water: Food Forages

-Land is usually controlled by kinship groups rather than an individual -All bands will have their own "territory" an area they occupy that is considered theirs, loose boundaries -Ex. Ju/'hoansi have about 10-30 individuals per 250 sq. miles -Food foragers determine who will hunt game and gather plants in their home range and where these activities take place, outsiders can ask permission to enter, denial rare

Transition to Food Producing Societies

-Neolithic Revolution began around 10,000 years ago and was a time of significant culture change -Domestication of plants and animals -Permanent settlement -Increased management of wild food sources -Increased populations -Increased job specialization and stratification -Began development of simple tools, writing, food storage technologies

Reciprocity: Bartering

-Occurs when two or more partners negotiate a direct exchange of one trade good for another -This transaction can turn hostile of both parties are not in agreement -Could result in negative reciprocity -Each party seeks to get the best possible deal, both may negotiate until a balance has been reached where each feels satisfied.

Land & Water: Food Producers

-Pastoralists require a system that determines rights to watering places and grazing land for their animals. Often land will be divided up based on watering holes -Farmers (agricultural) must have some means of determining title to land and access to water for irrigation -Small scale farmers generally "own" land on lease and must pay tribute to the chief of the tribe who is said to own the land -As long as land in use, rights to use passed down to heirs, no user can give away, sell or dispose of land without approval of elder, group or leader

Redistribution

-Redistribution is the form of exchange in which resources and goods flow into a central place where they are sorted, counted, and reallocated -Redistribution involves a certain amount of centralized power and control -In societies with a surplus to support some sort of government, goods in the form of gifts, tribute, taxes, and the spoils of war are gathered, stored and controlled by some type of leader (ex. chief, elected officials, etc.) -Resources are then redistributed again, hence the name

Dual Sex Configuration

-Seen among some Native American societies -Men and women carry out their work separately -The relationship is balanced and complementary, rather than unequal -Each gender manages its own affairs, and the interests of both men and women are represented at all levels -Similar to integrated society in that neither gender exerts dominance over another

Flexible/Integrated Pattern

-Seen most frequently among food foragers -35% of tasks are performed equally by men and women -Tasks considered appropriate for one gender may be performed by the other without the loss of respect or esteem by others -Boys and girls grow up in much the same way and learn to value cooperation over competition

Technology Resources

-Similar to economic systems, all societies will have some form of technology -Technology (defined)= tools and other material equipment along with the knowledge of how to make and use them -Technological complexity varies among groups, and technological advances are relative to the society in which they are found (i.e. technology fits needs of group)

Redistribution Motives

-The leadership by the chief or person in charge of redistribution has several motives: -Equalize access of resources with the members of the population -Gain or maintain a position of superiority through a display of wealth and generosity. -Assure those who support the leadership an adequate standard of living by providing them with desired goods. -Establish alliances with leaders of other groups by hosting them at lavish gatherings or giving them valuable goods.

Division of Labor by Age

-Typical to have a division by age in all societies although how divided varies greatly -Food foraging societies such as the Ju/'hoansi do not expect children to contribute to subsistence until their late teens. Elders will also "retire" around the age of 60 -In some farming and pastoral communities both children and elders are expected to contribute to the group or household. Girls among the Mayan peasant groups may begin to do housework and watch younger children around the age of 7 or 8 years old. -Industrial societies may also find younger children and elders working in factories to help support their families, especially true among working classes and in third world countries

Urbanization and Peasants

-Urban dwellers increasingly rely on farmers in rural areas for food and often seek to control rural areas -Farmers often turn into peasants (defined below) rural cultivator whose surpluses are transferred to a *Dominant group of rulers that use the surpluses to support their own standard of living *Rulers also distribute the remainder of surpluses to groups in society that do not farm but must exchange their goods or services for food

How Do Humans Meet Basic Needs?

1. Cultural Adaptations 2. Basic Needs (e.g. food, water, shelter) 3. Ecosystem

Economic Systems

1. Defined - a society's arrangement for producing, distributing and consuming goods. 2. Subsistence practice represents an important PORTION of a society's economy but not the complete picture. 3. Caution! Be wary of ethnocentrism and applying our economic values/beliefs on other cultures. This often leads to misunderstanding! A society's economic endeavors are certainly impacted by values, beliefs as well as available resources.

Key Concepts

1. Dependence - Humans depend on wildlife, including plants and animals for their livelihoods. In rural Africa this dependence is often direct, such as the use of animals for food or plants for medicine. 2. Insurance - Wild animals and plants can also provide "insurance" during times of drought. They are better adapted to survive such difficult environmental conditions than cattle, other domestic animals or agricultural crops. 3. Culture - Wildlife has important cultural significance for many African communities. 4. Danger - Wild animals can pose threats to individual's lives or their livelihoods. 5. Conflict - As human populations increase so does conflict with wild animals. Wildlife like lions and elephants can damage herds or crops.

What Are Historical Milestones in Human Cultural Adaptation?

1. Food sharing 2. Plant and animal domestication (10,000 years ago) 3. Horticulture (permanent settlements) and pastoralism (mobile societies) 4. Cities (5,000 years ago)

Characteristics of Food Foraging Societies

1. Nomadic (move with seasons and resource availability) 2. Currently occupy marginal environments (desert, arctic, tropical) 3. Small size of local groups (less than 100 members, limited by carrying capacity) 4. Populations stabilize at numbers well below the carrying capacity of their land 5. Egalitarian (populations have few possessions and share what they have) 6. Division of labor by gender 7. Food sharing and distribution

Characteristics of Pastoral Societies

1. Pastoralism or animal husbandry is the subsistence pattern of raising and maintaining herds of domesticated animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats. 2. Pastoralists are usually nomadic. They share the similar concern of food foragers for finding fresh resources not only for their group but their herds as well. 3. Often engage in transhumance or the seasonal migration following herds of livestock to summer and winter pastures

Types of Food Producing Societies

1.) Horticulture - cultivation of crops using simple hand tools and human energy 2.) Agriculture - cultivation of plants using soil preparation and technologies beyond hand tools 3.) Pastoralism - raising and maintaining herds of domesticated animals

Culture Area

A geographic region in which a number of societies follow similar patterns of life.

Peasant

A rural cultivator whose surpluses are transferred to a dominant group of rulers that uses the surpluses both to underwrite its own standard of living and to distribute the remainder to groups in society that do not farm but must be fed for their specific goods and services in turn.

Egalitarian

A society without formalized differences in the access to power, influence, and wealth.

Ecosystem

A system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the natural environment and all the organisms living within it.

Subsistence

Anthropological definition of "subsistence" activities carried out by individuals in a society: Broad terms: Any activity undertaken by humans to survive in an environment Narrow terms: A food obtaining activity undertaken by humans in order to make a living

Systems of Distribution

Anthropologists often classify the cultural systems of distribution into three primary modes: 1. Reciprocity - the exchange of goods and services of roughly equal value between two parties 2. Redistribution 3. Market Exchange

Industrialized Food Production

As with other aspects of society, industrialization has impacted food production around the globe.

Pastoralism

Breeding and managing large herds of domesticated grazing and browsing animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, horses, llamas, or camels.

Horticulture

Cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes.

Cultural Evolution

Cultural change over time; not to be confused with progress (not always positive).

Culture Core

Cultural features that are fundamental in the society's way of making its living - including food-producing techniques, knowledge of available resources, and the work arrangements involved in applying those techniques to the local environment. *Production of food *Knowledge of available resources *Labor arrangement *Distribution of food *May be prohibitions due to religion/worldview (e.g. Muslims/Jews and pigs, Hindus and cows)

Division of Labor

Despite cross-cultural variations of labor patterns, every society has a division of labor by gender and age at the very minimum There are three documented patterns of labor by gender: 1. Flexible/Integrated Pattern 2. Segregated Pattern 3. Dual Sex Configuration

Control of Land and Water

ESSENTIAL - The access to land and fresh water is naturally a resource all living people MUST obtain to survive VARIATION - Some societies have private ownership of these resources while others divide them up among who has occupied that land the longest SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS - Trends in land/water control closely tied to a society's mode of subsistence

Primary Modes of Subsistence

Each pattern involves natural resources and the technology (knowledge and tools) developed by the society to effectively utilize those resources. 1. Food foraging societies 2. Food producing societies 3. Industrialized societies

Food Foraging

Hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods.

Convergent Evolution

In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by different peoples with different ancestral cultures.

Parallel Evolution

In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by people whose ancestral cultures were already somewhat alike.

Food Foraging: Limiting Population

One way that these groups limit population growth is by the prolonged nursing of infants. The longer the mother nurses the less likely she is to ovulate. The other factor is their low percentage of body fat. Lower body fat leads to a later onset of ovulation and the onset of menstruation.

Food Foraging: Mobility

Strongly limited by their difficult living environments which they occupy Distance between their food supply and fresh water must not be so great that more energy is required to obtain fresh water than can be obtained from food

Neolithic

The New Stone Age; prehistoric period beginning about 10,000 years ago in which peoples possessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated plants and/or animals

Transhumance

The action or practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle, typically to lowlands in winter and highlands in summer.

Agriculture

The cultivation of food plants in soil prepared and maintained for crop production. Involves using technologies other than hand tools such as irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals.

Primary Resources

The following are the primary resources available within all societies and cultures. Their specific subsistence practice will influence their treatment and allocation of these resources. -Land and Water Resources -Technology -Labor

Progress

The notion that humans are moving forward to a better, more advanced stage in their cultural development toward perfection.

Carrying Capacity

The number of people that the available resources can support at a given level of food-getting techniques.

Neolithic Revolution

The profound cultural change beginning about 10,000 years ago and associated with the early domestication of plants and animals and settlement in permanent villages.

Cultural Ecology

The study of human interaction with ecosystems to determine how nature influences and is influenced by human social organization and culture.

Forms of Reciprocity

Three main forms of reciprocity: 1. Generalized - The value of what is given is not calculated and repayment is not specified. 2. Balanced -A direct obligation to reciprocate in equal value for the relationship to continue. 3. Negative - The giver tries to get the better of the deal.

Food Foraging: Gender Division of Labor

ALL societies have some type of division of labor by gender Foraging groups often follow this pattern: Men: hunting, butchering, processing of hard or tough materials, and overall more dangerous activities Women: collecting food, domestic chores

Food Foraging: Egalitarianism

Among many food foraging societies egalitarianism is an important characteristic. To be egalitarian means to have no status differences among members of a group. Generally the only status differences are with age and sex. Very little hierarchy. No one member will accumulate more physical goods than another, thus greatly reducing jealousy and conflict.

Slash-and-burn Cultivation

An extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops are then planted among the ashes; also known as Swidden farming.

Agribusiness

Large-scale businesses involved in food production, including farming, contract farming, seed supply, agrichemicals, farm machinery, distribution, processing, and marketing. Also known as corporate farming, it stands in contrast to smaller family-owned farms.

Food Foraging: Food Sharing

Men and Women will both share the "fruits" or results of their labor, and they each provide a different food resource and all contributions are valued. Food sharing among members and neighboring groups can also provide the basis for creating and maintain social allies and networks.

Food Foraging: Population Size

Must limit their population size due to the carrying capacity of the environment (the amount of people the land and support with its available resources) Often this can create what is called a density of social relations; meaning that the limited availability for resources forces larger groups to live together, and more people can create more social conflicts.

Cultural Adaptations

Refers to the process and time it takes a person to assimilate to a new culture.