BIOL 161 A&P I

Analyze disease states and predict how they will impact overall bone function (including remodeling).

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Describe the sensory input that helps to coordinate movement and regulate recruitment.

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Describe the cellular and extracellular components of bone tissue and cartilage.

A 'periosteum' is found on the outside of bone. This is a dense fibrous layer, where muscles insert. It contains bone forming cells. It is not found in the regions of bone covered by articular cartilage. The endosteum is the name given to the tissue that lines the inner surfaces of bones.Unlike cartilage, bone has a very good blood supply. Bone is riddled with blood capillaries. The central cavity contains blood vessels and is a storage for bone marrow. All of the osteocytes in bone are within 0.2mm of a capillary. The tissue fluid from the capillary reaches the osteocytes though canaliculi.Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue that contains lots of calcium and phosphorous salts. About 25% of bone tissue is water, another 25% is made up of protein fibers like collagen. The other 50% of bone tissue is a mixture of mineral salts, primarily calcium and phosphorous.The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly collagen called ossein and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts. Bone tissue is a mineralized tissue of two types, cortical bone and cancellous bone.Organ capsules (collagenous type) and walls of arteries (elastic type) contain dense irregular connective tissue. Cartilage and bone are supportive tissue. Cartilage contains chondrocytes and is somewhat flexible. Hyaline cartilage is smooth and clear, covers joints, and is found in the growing portion of bones.https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/human-anatomy-and-physiology/skeletal-system/v/cellular-structure-of-bone

Analyze the result of problems that may occur at an epiphyseal plate.

A growth plate fracture affects the layer of growing tissue near the ends of a child's bones. Growth plates are the softest and weakest sections of the skeleton — sometimes even weaker than surrounding ligaments and tendons. An injury that might cause a joint sprain for an adult can cause a growth plate fracture in a child. Growth plate fractures often need immediate treatment because they can affect how the bone will grow. An improperly treated growth plate fracture could result in a fractured bone ending up more crooked or shorter than its opposite limb. With proper treatment, most growth plate fractures heal without complications.

Outline the characteristics of long bones and how they relate to function.

A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. ... Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as levers; they move when muscles contract.Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion.Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs.Keep in mind, however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges).

Explain how the structure of protein or steroid hormone affects its target cell receptor location.

A steroid hormone directly initiates the production of proteins within a target cell. Steroid hormones easily diffuse through the cell membrane. The hormone binds to its receptor in the cytosol, forming a receptor-hormone complex.https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/signal-transduction/v/cellular-mechanism-hormone-action

Relate how forces on the body impact bone remodeling.

Bone remodeling involves resorption by osteoclasts and replacement by osteoblasts. ... The purpose of bone remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair micro-damage to bones from everyday stress, and to shape the skeleton during growth. Bone growth factors affect the process of bone remodeling.

Analyze the role of growth hormone and IGF-1 in bone growth including how disruptions in hormones may affect regulation.

Growth hormone stimulates the liver to secrete insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), which is also capable of binding insulin as well as insulin-like binding receptors on the cell surface.https://labtestsonline.org/conditions/endocrine-system-and-syndromes

Define motor unit and muscle recruitment.

Motor unit recruitment refers to the activation of additional motor units to accomplish an increase in contractile strength in a muscle. A motor unit consists of one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it stimulates. ... The higher the recruitment the stronger the muscle contraction will be.Motor unit recruitment may be defined as "the successive activation of the same and additional motor units with increasing strength of voluntary muscle contraction." [1] The central nervous system can increase the strength of muscle contraction by the following: Increasing the number of active motor units (ie, spatial recruitment) Increasing the firing rate (firing frequency) at which individual motor units fire to optimize the summated tension generated (ie, temporal recruitment)https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/human-anatomy-and-physiology/nervous-system-introduction/v/motor-unit

Analyze problems at the neuromuscular junction and what the result may be due to the problem.

Myasthenia gravis is a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease that causes weakness in the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for breathing and moving parts of the body, including the arms and legs. The name myasthenia gravis, which is Latin and Greek in origin, means "grave, or serious, muscle weakness."At the normal neuromuscular junction, a nerve cell causes a muscle cell to contract by releasing the chemical acetylcholine (ACh). ACh attaches to the ACh receptor — a pore or "channel" in the surface of the muscle cell — twisting it open and allowing an inward flux of electrical current that triggers muscle contraction. These contractions enable someone to move a hand, to dial the telephone, to walk through a door, or to complete any other voluntary movement. Myasthenia gravis occurs when the immune system makes antibodies that destroy the ACh receptor (AChR), a docking site for the nerve chemical acetylcholine (ACh). Some treatments block acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme that breaks down ACh, while others target the immune system. MG occurs when the immune system makes antibodies that destroy the ACh receptor (AChR), a docking site for the nerve chemical acetylcholine (ACh). Some treatments block acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme that breaks down ACh, while others target the immune system. About 85% of people with MG have antibodies against the ACh receptor (AChR) in their blood. The antibodies (Y-shaped protein that immune cells, called B cells, use to attack bacteria and viruses) target and destroy many of the AChRs on muscle. Consequently, the muscle's response to repeated nerve signals declines with time, and the muscles become weak and eventually disappear.

Identify the major shapes of bones.

The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The four principal types of bones are long, short, flat and irregular. Bones that are longer than they are wide are called long bones.There are five types of bones in the skeleton: flat, long, short, irregular, and sesamoid.

Describe the major functions of the skeletal system.

The major functions of the skeletal system are body support, facilitation of movement, protection of internal organs, storage of minerals and fat, and blood cell formation.

Explain how the parathyroid glands help to regulate calcium levels in the body.

The parathyroid hormone (PTH), secreted by the parathyroid glands, is responsible for regulating blood calcium levels; it is released whenever blood calcium levels are low. PTH increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts, which break down bone to release calcium into the blood stream.

Compare and contrast the anterior and posterior pituitary gland, including the role of hypothalamic neurons.

The posterior pituitary is, in effect, a projection of the hypothalamus. It does not produce its own hormones, but only stores and releases the hormones created by the hypothalamus, whereas the anterior pituitary produces and secretes its own hormones.

Describe the location of the thyroid and parathyroid glands.

The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland that lies in front of the windpipe (trachea), just below the voice box (larynx). ... The parathyroid glands are four tiny glands located behind the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce a substance (parathyroid hormone) that helps control the amount of calcium in the blood.The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland that sits low on the front of the neck. Your thyroid lies below your Adam's apple, along the front of the windpipe. The thyroid has two side lobes, connected by a bridge (isthmus) in the middle

Describe the steps of fracture repair.

There are four stages in the repair of a broken bone: 1) the formation of hematoma at the break, 2) the formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus, 3) the formation of a bony callus, and 4) remodeling and addition of compact bone.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MNkI6Of2PRs

Describe the role of ATP in muscle contraction.

Three functions of ATP in muscle contraction are the following: (1) Its hydrolysis by an ATPase activates the myosin head so it can bind to actin and rotate; (2) Its binding to myosin causes detachment from actin after the power stroke; and (3) It powers the pumps that transport calcium ions from the cytosol back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Fully explain the sequence of events involved in the contraction of a skeletal muscle cell from generation of an action potential (excitation) to relaxation.

YT VID

Identify the different proteins involved at each stage and describe their role in facilitating muscle contraction.

YT VID

Compare the function of the endocrine system with the nervous system, including time and location of action.

https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/thescienceofhumanpotential/chapter/the-nervous-system-connecting-sensation-and-movement/

Compare and contrast compact bone and spongy bone including function of each.

https://www.easybiologyclass.com/difference-between-compact-and-spongy-bone-comparison-table/

Predict how problems with protein function will alter or affect the contraction cycle.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/muscles/v/tropomyosin-and-troponin-and-their-role-in-regulating-muscle-contraction

Define the components of a hypothalamus:pituitary:endocrine gland axis.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/advanced-endocrine-system/endocrine-system-introduction/v/hypothalamus-and-pituitary-gland

Identify the role of cartilage in bone growth or formation.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-musculoskeletal-system/v/cartilage

Compare and contrast the structure and transport of protein (non-steroid) and steroid hormones.

https://www.sophia.org/tutorials/steroid-and-non-steroid-hormones

Describe the possible cellular mechanisms resulting from hormone:receptor binding

https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/chemical-coordination-and-integration/mechanism-of-hormone-action/

Describe the general steps that occur during bone remodeling.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dV1Bwe2v6c

Compare and contrast the function, location and lineage of osteogenic cells, osetoblasts and osteoclasts during bone growth repair and remodeling.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=78RBpWSOl08

Identify the components of the growth hormone axis.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAeBKRaNri0&vl=en https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWHH9je2zG4

Describe where epiphyseal plates are located and the different cellular layers that contribute to an epiphyseal plate.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkHRRu6q2_o

Define interstitial growth versus appositional growth.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4JLLVp7_7o

Organize the steps of muscle contraction: Explain the big picture of each of the four main stages.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ousflrOzQHc&app=desktop

Compare and contrast intramembranous and endochondral bone formation.

n intramembranous ossification, bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal connective tissue, but in endochondral ossification, bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. ... Interstitial growth occurs in hyaline cartilage of epiphyseal plate, increases length of growing bone.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDBx2rzR_tQ

Relate the terms hormone, endocrine gland, and target cells.

ormones are powerful messenger molecules that control essential body functions by carrying messages from endocrine glands to target cells and tissues. Some hormonal actions cause short-term changes, such as a faster heartbeat or sweaty palms. Others dictate long-term development, such as bone and muscle growth. Still other hormones control continual body functions, such as maintaining body fluids, heart rate and metabolism.Hormones have many unique features and interact with target cells in specific ways. Natural hormones are potent. That is, very small amounts cause a response. The same hormone can be made by different glands. For instance, both the ovaries and the adrenal gland release estrogens. A hormone can have different effects depending on the target cell's location, the gender of the individual and the species. For instance, estrogen released from a women's ovaries prepares the uterus for monthly mentrual cycles, while the same molecule binds with bone cells to maintain bone strength. Hormones influence gene expression by binding DNA in a cell's nucleus. That is, hormones turn on certain genes that are preprogrammed to make specific proteins. These proteins cause a cell to respond in a new way (grow, secrete, metabolize, etc.) https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/nclex-rn/rn-endocrine-system/rn-the-endocrine-system/v/cellular-mechanism-hormone-action?modal=1