Biology v5

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. Endorphins are natural signal molecules. Molecules that have similar shapes to endorphins have similar effects. Morphine, heroin, and other opiates mimic endorphins by binding to endorphin receptors in the brain. The role of molecular shape in brain chemistry illustrates the relationship between structure and function one of biology's unifying themes. any of a group of hormones secreted within the brain and nervous system and having a number of physiological functions. They are peptides which activate the body's opiate receptors, causing an analgesic effect. Endorphins are endogenous opioid neuropeptides and peptide hormones in humans and other animals. They are produced by the central nervous system and the pituitary gland. The term "endorphins" implies a pharmacological activity (analogous to the activity of the corticosteroid category of biochemicals) as opposed to a specific chemical formulation. It consists of two parts: endo- and -orphin; these are short forms of the words endogenous and morphine, intended to mean "a morphine-like substance originating from within the body".[3] The class of endorphins includes three compounds—α-endorphin (alpha endorphins), β-endorphin (beta endorphins), and γ-endorphin (gamma endorphins)—which preferentially bind to μ-opioid receptors.[4] The principal function of endorphins is to inhibit the communication of pain signals; they may also produce a feeling of euphoria very similar to that produced by other opioids.

inert gas

(also, noble gas) element with filled outer (valence) electron shell that is unreactive with other atoms

About one million atoms will span across a period (.) in times new roman 12pt font.

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An unreplicated chromosome contains one double strand -DNA molecule. A replicated chromosome contains two identical double strand -DNA- molecules, the chromatids, that are joined at their centromere. Each chromosome has one very long DNA molecule, with hundreds or thousands of genes arranged along its length.

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Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds or salts. Environment affects the strength of ionic bonds. In a dry salt crystal, the bonds are so strong that it takes a hammer and chisel to break enough of them to crack the crystal in two. Place the same salt crystal in water, and the salt dissolves as the attractions between its ions decrease.

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Enzymes work best within a certain pH range, and, as with temperature, extreme pH values (acidic or basic) can make enzymes denature.

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The entire library of genetic instructions that an organism inherits is called its genome. The chromosomes of each human cell pack a genome that is about 3 billion nucleotides long.

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The roots of a tree absorb water and minerals from the soil. The leaves take in carbon dioxide from the air. Solar energy absorbed by chlorophyll drives photosynthesis, which converts water and CO2 into sugar and oxygen. The tree releases oxygen to the air, and its roots help form soil by breaking up rocks. The tree also provides shelter, fruits, and leaves for animals.

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The way DNA encodes a cells information is analogous to the way we arrange the letters of the alphabet into precise sequences with specific meaning. The word rat conjures up an image of a rodent. The words 'tar' and 'art' which contain the same letters, mean very different things. Therefore you can think of nucleotides as the alphabet for writing books (DNA).

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The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

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organisms that reproduce young tend to not live as long The central trade-off to life history theory is the number of offspring vs. the timing of reproduction. ... K-selected organisms subsist near the carrying capacity of their environment (K), produce a relatively low number of offspring over a longer span of time, and have high parental investment.

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10 steps of glycolysis

1. Hexokinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose, making it more chemically reactive. The charge on the phosphate also traps the sugar in cell 2. Glucose 6 phosphate is converted to fructose 6-phosphate 3. Phosphofructokinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP to the opposite end of the sugar, investing a second molecule of ATP. THIS IS A KEY STEP FOR REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS 4. Aldolase cleaves the sugar molecule into two different three sugars 5. Conversion between DHAP and G3P: this reaction never reaches equilibrium; G3P is used in the next step as fast as it forms 6. Two sequential reactions (1) the sugar is oxidized by the transfer of electrons to NAD+, forming NADH (2) using energy from this exergonic redox reaction, a phosphate group is attached to the oxidized substrate making a high energy product 7. the phosphate group is transferred to ADP (substrate level phosphorylation)in an exergonic reaction. 8. the enzyme relocates the remaining phosphate group 9. Enolase causes a double bond to form in the substrate by extracting a water molecule, yielding PEP, a compound with a very high potential energy 10. the phosphate group is transferred from PEP to ADP forming pyruvate https://microbiologyinfo.com/glycolysis-10-steps-explained-steps-by-steps-with-diagram/

How many species have been identified?

1.8 million have been identified. The most accurate census, conducted by the Hawaii's University, estimates that a total of 8.7 million species live on the planet.

how many electrons can be in the first electron shell?

2 electrons. Hydrogen and helium are the only elements to have one shell of electrons.

s orbital

2 electrons; spherical

Photosynthesis equation

6CO2 + 6H2O --> light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

fermentation

A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. the chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving effervescence and the giving off of heat. Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of respiration.

covalent bond

A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule A Covalent bond is the bond formed when atoms share electron pairs between themselves. They do this because the orbitals overlap over each other. When they do this, it enables both the atoms to attain the full configuration which means it will be stable. There are no charges involved. An example covalently bonded compound is CH4. Covalent bond mostly occurs between nonmetals because it takes too much energy for them to donate electrons, unlike metals. Since neither party is willing to give up, they decide to share.

polar covalent bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally A covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. The shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive.

double bond

A covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms

Chlorophyll

A green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and some bacteria Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis makes plants green

red list

A list of worldwide threatened species maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature

glycolysis

A metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C₆H₁₂O₆, into pyruvate, CH₃COCOO⁻, and a hydrogen ion, H⁺. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP and NADH. Glycolysis is a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

polymerase chain reaction

A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a method widely used in molecular biology to make several copies of a specific DNA segment. Using PCR, copies of DNA sequences are exponentially amplified to generate thousands to millions of more copies of that particular DNA segment.

Scarlet Kingsnake vs eastern coral snake

A mimic of the eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius), scarlet kingsnakes typically have alternating bands of red, black, and yellow in which red touches black but not yellow (in eastern coral snakes red touches yellow but not black. Example of mimicry. Both snakes live in north and south carolina

The Chemiosmotic Theory

A model to explain the synthesis of ATP. The theory proposes that the energy for ATP synthesis originates from the electrochemical gradient of protons across a membrane Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. An example of this would be the generation of adenosine triphosphate by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis

guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

A nucleotide consisting of guanine, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. Can be hydrolyzed to release free energy. Commonly used in RNA synthesis and also functions in signal transduction in association with G proteins. GTP (also known as guanylyl imidodiphosphate, guanosine-5'-triphosphate, or guanosine triphosphate) is a chemical compound (nucleotide) that is incorporated into the growing RNA chain during synthesis of RNA and used as a source of energy during synthesis of proteins.

white coat hypertension

A phenomenon in which patients exhibit elevated blood pressure in the hospital or doctor's office but not in their everyday lives.

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)

A phosphorylated three-carbon sugar; an intermediate in glycolysis and photosynthetic carbon fixation. A three-carbon carbohydrate that is the direct product of the Calvin cycle; it is also an intermediate in glycolysis. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P is the product of the Calvin cycle. It is a 3-carbon sugar that is the starting point for the synthesis of other carbohydrates. Some of this G3P is used to regenerate the RuBP to continue the cycle, but some is available for molecular synthesis and is used to make fructose diphosphate.

polypeptide

A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. a linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule. Peptides are short chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The simplest peptides are dipeptides, followed by tripeptides, tetrapeptides, etc. A polypeptide is a long, continuous, and unbranched peptide chain.

Eutrophication

A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria. Eutrophication or hypertrophication, is when a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which induce excessive growth of algae.[2] This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.[3] One example is an "algal bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is often induced by the discharge of nitrate or phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers, or sewage into an aquatic system.

porphyrin

A ring on the "head" of a chlorophyll molecule. A porphyrin is a large ring molecule consisting of 4 pyrroles, which are smaller rings made from 4 carbons and 1 nitrogen. These pyrrole molecules are connected together through a series of single and double bonds which forms the molecule into a large ring The "head" of a chlorophyll molecule is a ring called a porphyrin. The porphyrin ring of chlorophyll, which has a magnesium atom at its center, is the part of a chlorophyll molecule that absorbs light energy. ... Compare the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll with the action spectrum of photosynthesis that Engelmann found.

Electron transport chain

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP. The electron transport chain is a series of electron transporters embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular oxygen. In the process, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, and oxygen is reduced to form water. An electron transport chain is the a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons across a membrane.

Lactic acid fermentation

A series of anaerobic chemical reactions using pyruvic acid that supplies energy when oxygen is scarce Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose and other six-carbon sugars are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in solution. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such as muscle cells. Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose and other six-carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six-carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in solution.

scientific method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

compound

A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

deciduous tree

A tree that sheds its leaves and grows new ones each year.

inductive reasoning

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations. reasoning from detailed facts to general principles

hydrogen bond

A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule. A hydrogen bond is a relatively weak bond between two oppositely charged sides of two or more molecules. ... Bonds form when atoms share or transfer valence electrons.

cuticle

A waxy covering on the surface of stems and leaves that acts as an adaptation to prevent desiccation in terrestrial plants. A cuticle, or cuticula, is any of a variety of tough but flexible, non-mineral outer coverings of an organism, or parts of an organism, that provide protection. Various types of "cuticle" are non-homologous, differing in their origin, structure, function, and chemical composition

why does ATP donate phosphate?

ATP donates its phosphate group to another molecule via a process known as phosphorylation. The phosphorylated molecule is at a higher-energy state and is less stable than its unphosphorylated form, and this added energy from the addition of the phosphate allows the molecule to undergo its endergonic reaction. ATP donates a phosphate and then becomes ADP

how many different species of bacteria are there?

According to a new estimate, there are about one trillion species of microbes on Earth, and 99.999 percent of them have yet to be discovered.

Acidophiles

Acidophiles or acidophilic organisms are those that thrive under highly acidic conditions (usually at pH 2.0 or below). These organisms can be found in different branches of the tree of life, including Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. 'Methods of pH homeostasis and energy generation in acidophiles' (with reference to Baker-Austin & Dopson, 2007[1] and Apel, Dugan, & Tuttle, 1980):[2] (1) Direction of transmembrane electrochemical gradient (pH) and blocking of H+ by the cell membrane; (2) Reversed membrane potential through potassium transport, a modification towards maintaining a stable Donnan potential; (3) Secondary transporter protein; the H+ and Na+ gradient is harnessed to drive transport of nutrients and solutes; (4) Proton pump actively removes H+, balancing the energy gained from the H+ entry to the cytoplasm. (5) Vesicles containing protons avoid acidification of the cytoplasm, but still generate ATP from the electrochemical gradient (in A.ferrooxidans); (6) Uncouplers (uncharged compounds), such as organic acids, permeate the membrane and release their H+, leading to acidification of the cytoplasm; (7) To avoid this, heterotrophic acidophiles may degrade the uncouplers; (8) Alternatively, cytoplasmic enzymes or chemicals may bind or sequester the protons. The use of acidophilic organisms in mining is a new technique for extracting trace metals through bioleaching, and offers solutions for the phenomenon of acid mine drainage in mining spoils.

How do plants turn co2 into sugar?

After carbon dioxide enters the leaf through stomata it moves into the mesophyll cells where photosynthesis occurs and glucose is constructed. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars.

elements in human body

Almost 99% of the mass of the human body is made up of six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. Only about 0.85% is composed of another five elements: potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium. All 11 are necessary for life.

cyclic electron transport

An alternative pathway for electrons during the Calvin cycle that increases the production of ATP In photosynthetic light reactions, the flow of electrons that produces ATP but no NADPH or O2. Cyclic electron transport is a light-driven flow of electrons through a photosynthetic reaction centre with the electrons returning to the reaction centre via an electron transport pathway.

flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

An energy carrier that accepts electrons and feeds them into the electron transport chain In biochemistry, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a redox-active coenzyme associated with various proteins, which is involved with several important enzymatic reactions in metabolism. A flavoprotein is a protein that contains a flavin group, this may be in the form of FAD or flavin mononucleotide (FMN). There are many flavoproteins besides components of the succinate dehydrogenase complex, including α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and a component of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex; some examples are shown in section 6. FAD can exist in four different redox states, which are the flavin-N(5)-oxide, quinone, semiquinone, and hydroquinone.[1] FAD is converted between these states by accepting or donating electrons. FAD, in its fully oxidized form, or quinone form, accepts two electrons and two protons to become FADH2 (hydroquinone form). The semiquinone (FADH·) can be formed by either reduction of FAD or oxidation of FADH2 by accepting or donating one electron and one proton, respectively. Some proteins, however, generate and maintain a superoxidized form of the flavin cofactor, the flavin-N(5)-oxide.

pepsin

An enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins the chief digestive enzyme in the stomach, which breaks down proteins into polypeptides. Pepsin is an endopeptidase that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced in the stomach and is one of the main digestive enzymes in the digestive systems of humans and many other animals, where it helps digest the proteins in food.

dehydrogenase

An enzyme that catalyzes a chemical reaction during which one or more hydrogen atoms are removed from a molecule. an enzyme that catalyzes the removal of hydrogen atoms from a particular molecule, particularly in the electron transport chain reactions of cell respiration in conjunction with the coenzymes NAD and FAD. A dehydrogenase is an enzyme belonging to the group of oxidoreductases that oxidizes a substrate by reducing an electron acceptor, usually NAD⁺/NADP⁺ or a flavin coenzyme such as FAD or FMN.

consumer

An organism that obtains energy by feeding on other organisms

difference between archaea and bacteria

Archaea have three RNA polymerases like eukaryotes, but bacteria have only one. Archaea have cell walls that lack peptidoglycan and have membranes that enclose lipids with hydrocarbons rather than fatty acids (not a bilayer) both are prokaryotes

organs are made of tissues

As we saw above, every organ is made up of two or more tissues, groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific task. Humans—and other large multicellular animals—are made up of four basic tissue types: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.

3 domains of life

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Bombardier Beetle

Bombardier beetles are ground beetles in the tribes Brachinini, Paussini, Ozaenini, or Metriini—more than 500 species altogether—which are most notable for the defense mechanism that gives them their name: when disturbed, they eject a hot noxious chemical spray from the tip of the abdomen with a popping sound.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)

Coenzyme that shuttle protons or electrons from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain. A coenzyme found in all living cells that is a carrier in the electron transport chain. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a cofactor that is central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups.

qualitative

Data in the form of words description based data; phenotypical

pelagic

Describing organisms that live in the water column away from the ocean bottom. relating to the open sea. fish, sea birds, etc

aldolase

Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase, often just aldolase, is an enzyme catalyzing a reversible reaction that splits the aldol, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, into the triose phosphates dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Aldolase is a protein (called an enzyme) that helps break down certain sugars to produce energy. It is found in high amount in muscle tissue. A test can be done to measure the amount of aldolase in your blood Step 4 in glycolysis

parenchyma

Fundamental tissue composed of thin-walled living cells that function in photosynthesis and storage. the cellular tissue, typically soft and succulent, found chiefly in the softer parts of leaves, pulp of fruits, bark and pith of stems, etc.

hair tipped gecko feet allow it to climb walls

Geckos run up walls and scurry across ceilings with the help of tiny rows of hairs on their feet. The hairs, known as setae, generate a multitude of weak attractions between molecules on the two surfaces that add up to a secure foothold. Moreover, making and breaking the bonds that hold individual setae to a surface is easy. So, unlike glue or tape, a gecko's sticky feet attach and detach effortlessly, a trait envied by mechanical engineers. Scientists have recreated geckolike adhesion using silicones, plastics, carbon nanotubes, and other materials—but they've run into a scaling problem: The stickiness diminishes when the size of the adhesive exceeds a few square centimeters, severely limiting its practical applications. Even the gecko hasn't solved this problem, Autumn says. In theory, each gecko hair is so sticky that the animal, which has about 6.5 million setae, should be able to hold up a 130-kilogram linebacker. In reality, a gecko can lift only 2 kilograms with its front feet.

Which of the following best describes how genetic information in a retrovirus is eventually translated into proteins?

Genetic information in retroviruses has a different flow of information than that of the host cell—from RNA to DNA. This is made possible by an enzyme called reverse transcriptase. After the viral RNA genome is converted into DNA by reverse transcriptase, this DNA version of the viral genome integrates into the host genome. Once integrated, host enzymes transcribe and translate the viral DNA into viral proteins.

diatomic elements

H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I The diatomic state of that atom is much more stable than the unbound state. They are diatomic because based off their electron arrangement, which can be seen in a lewis dot structure, their electrons will pair with eachother (covalently) to form a complete orbital.

cilia

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion

Can we digest fructose?

However, fructose needs to be converted into glucose by the liver before it can be used by the body. ... While some sweet fruits and vegetables contain fructose, they provide relatively low amounts. Some people do not absorb all of the fructose they eat. Everything ending in -ose is, of course, a carbohydrate (commonly sugar). The different names are slightly different chemical bonds. To start with, there are monosaccharides which are the basic blocks that other sugars (polysaccharides) are built out of. The most common ones are glucose (aka dextrose), fructose, and galactose. All three of them have the same chemical formula (H6C12O6 C6H12O6) but they differ in how they are arranged. Here is a diagram showing how the atoms are arranged in each. Because of the slightly different arrangement of atoms and the slightly different shape the molecule takes, the chemistry is a little different between them. I don't know enough to explain exactly what the differences in chemistry are. They're similar molecules, though, and mostly behave the same, although our body does use them a little differently. Glucose is what we use for energy. The others have to be converted into glucose to use (if our cells have the tools to do so. We can do it with fructose and galactose. Others not so much). Fructose is very useful because it tastes sweeter than glucose and sucrose, but because it has to be converted into glucose it doesn't give as much energy. That means you can make something sweeter with fewer calories. However, because it triggers different behavior in the body in order to use it, it may still be generally less healthy than glucose. Nutrition science is complicated and you should do a lot more research before forming an opinion (and remember to use reputable sources with real science). Also, dextrose is another name for glucose. Sugar molecules are chiral, meaning they are "right handed" and "left handed" like your hands. Enzymes that break down dextrose (right handed glucose) can't break down L-glucose (left handed) because L-glucose doesn't normally occur in nature. But L-glucose still tastes sweet! Two monosaccharides make a disaccharide. Sucrose (table sugar) is a disaccharide, made of glucose and fructose. Lactose is a disaccharide made of glucose and galactose. Like the monosaccharides that make them, disaccharides have slightly different chemical properties depending on which monosaccharides they're made of. Disaccharides can't be used for energy directly. Instead, they have to be broken apart into their monosaccharides. That takes a special enzyme designed to break apart that disaccharide, which is why people become lactose intolerant. Lactose is found exclusively in milk. Once young mammals are weened, they normally never consume it again so they stop producing lactase (the -ase indicating it's an enzyme; in this case, the enzyme to break down lactose). Humans rarely encounter other disaccharides, except maltose (glucose + glucose) and can't digest them. As you may have guessed because it ends in -ose, cellulose is also a carbohydrate, just a really big one. Cellulose is many, many linked glucose molecules in a very long chain. Plants use cellulose to store energy and to build stiff structures like cell walls. Starch is almost the same, just shorter chains of glucose. We can't digest polysaccharides with more than two sugars very well at all. We just don't have the enzymes to break them down, and breaking them down takes a very long time. That's why cows have four stomachs - they chew, then swallow and digest a bit, then regurgitate it back up to chew it some more, then swallow it again, then pass it to the next stomachs in a long path that gives the cellulose plenty of time to break down. Instead, cellulose and starches only get a little broken down and feed bacteria in our guts, which as a side effect makes us farty. The long chains of the cellulose (aka fiber) also help bind together our waste so it forms more solid pieces. Yes, fructose tastes sweeter than glucose and yes, it is used in the food industry because of this property (usually as HFCS - high fructose corn syrup) combined with the fact that it is cheap. However, only our liver contains the enzymes needed to convert fructose to glucose. This causes people that consume very high amounts of fructose to have a liver flushed with glucose over long periods of time, and be in higher risk for fatty liver and metabolic disease. We are definitely not meant to have a lot of fructose in our diet. Agreed. Just to add more context, high fructose corn syrup means that it contains more than the normal amount, not that it is exclusively fructose. Ignoring water, it is at most 65% fructose (with the rest being glucose and short glucose chains). Normal corn syrup is mostly glucose, maltose, and other glucose chains. Fructose is also found naturally in fruit, and is of course 50% of sucrose which is normal table sugar (which is also found in fruit). Fructose is still a perfectly natural part of our diet, just perhaps not in the amounts we normally consume. There is a substantial amount of evidence that we consume way too much of any kind of sugar, not just fructose. All of which is to say that we should be mindful of what we consume, but fructose and HFCS are not necessarily bad for us per se, although we should almost certainly consume less of it than we do.

chemical equilibrium

In a chemical reaction, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, so that the relative concentrations of the reactants and products do not change with time.

Orbital hybridisation

In chemistry, orbital hybridisation (or hybridization) is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory. Hybrid orbitals are very useful in the explanation of molecular geometry and atomic bonding properties and are symmetrically disposed in space. Although sometimes taught together with the valence shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, valence bond and hybridisation are in fact not related to the VSEPR model. Hybrid orbitals are the result of a model which combines atomic orbitals on a single atom in ways that lead to a new set of orbitals that have geometries appropriate to form bonds in the directions predicted by the VSEPR model. The VSEPR model predicts geometries that are very close to those seen in real molecules

Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)

In the Calvin cycle, the five-carbon sugar to which CO2 is attached, accomplishing carbon fixation. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco. The 5-carbon sugar to which carbon dioxide is added by the enzyme rubisco. Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) is an organic substance that is involved in photosynthesis. It is a colourless anion, a double phosphate ester of the ketopentose (ketone-containing sugar with five carbon atoms) called ribulose. Salts of RuBP can be isolated, but its crucial biological function happens in solution.

ionic compound

Ionic compounds are compounds made up of ions. These ions are atoms that gain or lose electrons, giving them a net positive or negative charge. Metals tend to lose electrons, so they become cations and have a net positive charge. Nonmetals tend to gain electrons, forming anions that have a net negative charge. In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions. e.g. Salt (NaCl)

hydrogen bonds allow insect to walk on water

It is not simply the water-air surface tension that allows the insect to walk on water. It is the combination of the legs not being wetted and the surface tension. The legs of water striders are hydrophobic. Water molecules are strongly attracted to one another. This is due to "hydrogen bonding": a proton in water is shared between two oxygen atoms of two water molecules. Considering only water and air, minimizing the interface surface area is the lowest energy state, because it allows for maximum interaction between water molecules. If the water molecules were attracted to the molecules of the insect legs and wetted them, the legs would sink into the liquid. However, in the context of the legs not being wetted, the attractive forces of the water molecules result in a net upward force on the legs of the insect as the legs deform the surface.

ATP synthase

Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate. ATP is the most commonly used "energy currency" of cells for all organisms. It is found from adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate.

scintillation fluid

Liquid scintillation counting is the measurement of radioactive activity of a sample material which uses the technique of mixing the active material with a liquid scintillator (e.g. Zinc sulfide) , and counting the resultant photon emissions.

exsanguination

Loss of blood to the point where life can no longer be sustained.

Van der Waals forces

Molecules can attract each other at moderate distances and repel each other at close range.The attractive forces are collectively called VAN DER WAALS forces. These are weak forces which contribute to intermolecular bonding between molecules. These forces are much weaker than chemical bonds, and random thermal motion around room temperature can usually overcome or disrupt them. Van der waals forces include all intermolecular forces that act between electrically neutral molecules. Van der waals forces are sum of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms and molecules. These forces differ from chemical bonding because they result in fluctuations in charge density of particles. EXAMPLES- Hydrogen bonding, Dispersion bonding, Dipole-Dipole interaction. If a molecule has at least two atoms, and one of them has a higher electronegativity than the other - i.e., one of their nuclei attracts electrons more strongly than the other one - it will draw the electrons in the molecule towards the it, at the expense of the other, without actually just straight-up stealing the electrons - without forming ions, in other words. The electron cloud piles up around the more electronegative atom, and starts shrinking around the less electronegative atom. More electrons on one side than the other means that that side is, on average, more negatively-charged than the other side (more positively-charged, on average). This difference in charge across a molecule is called a dipole and opposite sides of a dipole attract each other (e.g. in a water molecule, the oxygen is slightly negative, and hydrogens are slightly positive, so the oxygen in one atoms will attract the hydrogens in another atom) via the same electrostatic force as ions. Such a molecule (e.g. water) with dipoles is said to be polar, vs. nonpolar molecules like CO2 (which has no net dipole, i.e. there are dipoles, but they cancel each other out because they're pulling in opposite directions). This is not a van der Waals force. What van der Waals forces are are intermolecular forces that exist in every molecule, whether ions or not, whether they have dipoles or not, simply because electrons don't sit still. Because electrons don't sit still, at any given moment there might be slightly more of them on one side of the molecule than the other. This causes the side with more electrons to be very slightly negatively-charged, and the side with fewer electrons to be very slightly positively-charged - and all of a sudden, you have a dipole. The dipoles can just pop into existence in any molecule, whether polar or nonpolar. The difference between polar and nonpolar molecules is really that polar molecules have what we call permanent dipoles - their dipoles are always there since they're a consequence of how the molecule itself is built. To get rid of a permanent dipole, you'd have to rip the molecule apart and make something without one. But these spontaneous dipoles can arise in any molecule, even in the nonpolar CO2, which is nonpolar by virtue of having no permanent dipoles. CO2 molecules can just suddenly decide to bunch all its electrons up on one side... ...but it doesn't stay that way. ...unless something makes it stay that way. Now imagine putting 2 CO2 molecules next to each other. One of them suddenly decides to have a dipole. What will the other one do? If the Molecule #2 is next to the positive end of Molecule #1's dipole, that positive end will gently tug Molecule #2's negatively-charged electrons over closer to the partial positive charge - and what do you know, Molecule #2 now has more electrons on one side than on the other. Molecule #2 also now has a dipole. This is what we call an induced dipole - a dipole that didn't exist before, but was brought into existence by getting too close to a dipole that does exist. And since it was caused by another dipole specifically, we call it a dipole-induced dipole (as opposed to an ion-induced dipole, in which dipoles are created by getting too close to an ion). You can imagine repeating this throughout an entire material: charged particles turning everything else (partially) charged. This causes all the particles to try to attract each other: Which begs the question of why all the CO2in the atmosphere doesn't just immediately collapse into a solid if it's all trying to attract each other. They are kind of trying to attract each other, but two major things are stopping all the air from turning solid. First, this attraction is very weak. It's several orders of magnitude weaker than ionic attraction, because the opposite sides of the molecules aren't really "charged" as we might use the word when describing ions. In ionic bonding, one atom steals and electron from another. That's a full extra -1 to the charge of the electron-stealing atom and a full extra +1 to the electron-donating atom... vs. induced dipoles in which sometimes there are maybe a couple extra electrons on one side on average. When we talk about dipoles we talk about partial charge, denoted with a lower case delta (δ) to distinguish it from the much stronger intermolecular forces that affect fully-charged ions. And second, nothing is holding this attraction up. Nothing is keeping it existing besides all the other partial charges around it. Induced dipoles are holding themselves up by their bootstraps, and if they're not strong enough to hold two molecules together, those molecules fly off into space, and in the absence of any surrounding dipoles maintaining the dipole it promptly ceases to exist. This in contrast to permanent dipoles which keep existing because they're built into the molecule itself, not a consequence of chance or its environment. Air molecules have way too much energy for induced dipoles to hold them together. They're just moving too fast for induced dipoles to even try to do anything to a passing molecule. This is why you have to cool CO2 down so much - to make the molecules move more sluggishly so these induced dipoles have time to influence each other - before it becomes dry ice. These are what van der Waals forces are: non-permanent dipole-induced dipole attractions. The exact name of the intermolecular interaction in question basically depends on what's causing induced dipoles to pop into existence. If dipoles pop into existence by luck and then induces other dipoles, we call that the London dispersion force. If non-permanent dipoles are being induced by permanent dipoles, we call that the Debye force. The Keesom force, between two permanent dipoles, is sometimes included within the umbrella of van der Waals forces. Although this would imply that e.g. hydrogen bonding is a specific case of the Keesom force and, by extension, that hydrogen bonding is a van der Waals force. At that point, the term "van der Waals" force becomes moot beyond essentially just meaning "intermolecular force", so I don't include the Keesom force among the van der Waals forces. This also, by the way, answers the age-old question of why oil and water don't mix. I remember reading in an almanac as a kid that the answer was because "oil is nonpolar and water is polar", but that's a bit of a cop-out without explaining what "nonpolar" and "polar" mean or why on Earth they shouldn't mix. Water doesn't mix with oil because water has exceptionally strong permanent dipoles - so strong that it can engage in hydrogen bonding - and oil has no permanent dipoles. It only has the van der Waals forces going for it. Water doesn't mix with oil because water can much more easily stick to itself than it can to oil.

does population grow exponentially?

Naturally it would, however competition for resources stops this from happening. Under ideal conditions, populations of most species can grow at exponential rates. ... As population size increases, the growth rate also increases. The larger the population becomes, the faster it grows. Exponential and Logistic Growth

why does soil need nitrogen?

Nitrogen is an important building block of proteins, nucleic acids and other cellular constituents which are essential for all forms of life. Nitrogen is such an important key nutrient element for plants that it warrants careful management, and - if mismanaged - can lead to severe environmental problems.

cofactor

Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate. A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for an enzyme's activity as a catalyst, a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction. Cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations.

pyruvate

Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms. Two molecules form as end products of glycolysis Pyruvic acid is the simplest of the alpha-keto acids, with a carboxylic acid and a ketone functional group. Pyruvate, the conjugate base, CH₃COCOO⁻, is a key intermediate in several metabolic pathways throughout the cell. Pyruvate, the conjugate base, CH3COCOO−, is a key intermediate in several metabolic pathways throughout the cell. Pyruvic acid can be made from glucose through glycolysis, converted back to carbohydrates (such as glucose) via gluconeogenesis, or to fatty acids through a reaction with acetyl-CoA.

3 kingdoms of eukarya

Plantae, Fungi, Animalia

Where are proteins made?

Proteins are made in the ribosome. The process is interesting, it's called translation. Basically after mRNA is transcribed from a section of DNA, it goes to the ribosome. Now, mRNA contains three nucleotide sections called codons, and each codon encodes an amino acid. So for example, AUG is the start codon which encodes the amino acid methionine. A tRNA molecule can recognize this codon and gather a methionine molecule. This is done for the second codon, the third codon and so on. All the amino acids are sequentially bound via peptide bonds, thus based on an mRNA sequence a polypeptide sequence is created. Polypeptides undergo various changes and folding patterns in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus to give rise to the functional proteins we know. In molecular biology and genetics, translation is the process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or ER synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus. The entire process is called gene expression.

Where does the reactivity of atoms arise from?

Reactivity arises from the presence of unpaired electrons in one or more orbitals of the atom's valence shell. No more than 2 electrons can occupy a single orbital. e.g. An atom with 8 electrons on its valence shell would have 4 orbitals on that shell. 2 electrons in each orbital.

anaerobic respiration

Respiration in the absence of oxygen. This produces lactic acid. Some examples of anaerobic respiration include alcohol fermentation, lactic acid fermentation and in decomposition of organic matter. The equation is: glucose + enzymes = carbon dioxide + ethanol / lactic acid. Anaerobic respiration is respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen. Although oxygen is not the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain. Anaerobic respiration is a critical component of the global nitrogen, iron, sulfur, and carbon cycles through the reduction of the oxyanions of nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon to more-reduced compounds. The biogeochemical cycling of these compounds, which depends upon anaerobic respiration, significantly impacts the carbon cycle and global warming. Anaerobic respiration occurs in many environments, including freshwater and marine sediments, soil, subsurface aquifers, deep subsurface environments, and biofilms. Even environments, such as soil, that contain oxygen also have micro-environments that lack oxygen due to the slow diffusion characteristics of oxygen gas. An example of the ecological importance of anaerobic respiration is the use of nitrate as a terminal electron acceptor, or dissimilatory denitrification, which is the main route by which fixed nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere as molecular nitrogen gas.[3] Another example is methanogenesis, a form of carbonate respiration, that is used to produce methane gas by anaerobic digestion. Biogenic methane is used as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. On the negative side, uncontrolled methanogenesis in landfill sites releases large volumes of methane into the atmosphere, where it acts as a powerful greenhouse gas.[4] Sulfate respiration produces hydrogen sulfide, which is responsible for the characteristic 'rotten egg' smell of coast wetlands and has the capacity to precipitate heavy metal ions from solution, leading to the deposition of sulfidic metal ores.[5]

aerobic respiration

Respiration that requires oxygen

Protista

The Protista, or Protoctista, are a kingdom of simple eukaryotic organisms, usually composed of a single cell or a colony of similar cells. Protists live in water, in moist terrestrial habitats, and as parasites and other symbionts in the bodies of multicellular eukaryotes.

how much fat is in the brain

The brain is composed of about 75% water and is the fattiest organ in the body, consisting of a minimum of 60% fat. Humans have the largest brain to body ratio of any animal, and the blood vessels in the brain, if stretched end-to-end, would be about 100,000 miles long.

how much atp do humans use a day?

The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP daily, which is around 50 to 75 kg. A human will typically use up his or her body weight of ATP over the course of the day. Each equivalent of ATP is recycled 500-750 times during a single day (100 / 0.2 = 500). ADP is converted to ATP for the storing of energy by the addition of a high-energy phosphate group. The conversion takes place in the substance between the cell membrane and the nucleus, known as the cytoplasm, or in special energy-producing structures called mitochondria Most of the ATP in cells is produced by the enzyme ATP synthase, which converts ADP and phosphate to ATP. ATP synthase is located in the membrane of cellular structures called mitochondria; in plant cells, the enzyme also is found in chloroplasts. Whenever a cell needs energy, it breaks the beta-gamma phosphate bond to create adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a free phosphate molecule. ... Cells get energy in the form of ATP through a process called respiration, a series of chemical reactions oxidizing six-carbon glucose to form carbon dioxide.

Substrate-level phosphorylation

The enzyme-catalyzed formation of ATP by direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism. Substrate-level phosphorylation is a metabolic reaction that results in the formation of ATP or GTP by the direct transfer of a phosphoryl group to ADP or GDP from another phosphorylated compound

Hexokinase

The enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis. This is one of the aim regulatory steps of this pathway. Hexokinase is feedback-inhibited by glucose-6-P. A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates hexoses (six-carbon sugars), forming hexose phosphate. In most organisms, glucose is the most important substrate of hexokinases, and glucose-6-phosphate is the most important product.

Ethanol fermentation

The fermentation pathway in plants and fungi during which pyruvate releases carbon dioxide to form acetaldehyde and electrons from NADH are transferred to acetaldehyde to produce ethanol and NAD+. Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products. Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products.

light reaction photosynthesis

The light-dependent reactions use light energy to make two molecules needed for the next stage of photosynthesis: the energy storage molecule ATP and the reduced electron carrier NADPH. In plants, the light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes of organelles called chloroplasts. In photosynthesis, the light-dependent reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes. The inside of the thylakoid membrane is called the lumen, and outside the thylakoid membrane is the stroma, where the light-independent reactions take place.

oxidation

The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction. Biological oxidation is an energy-producing reaction in living cells, and it is coupled with a reduction reaction (Fig. 1). When a compound loses an electron, or is oxidized, another compound gains the electron, or is reduced. Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions represent the main source of biological energy.

Which carbon is most oxidized?

The most reduced form of carbon is CH4, the most oxidized is CO2. Thus the oxidation state of a one-carbon fragment is unambiguous and defined by the number of C-H bonds that have been replaced by C-X bonds, where X = any electronegative element (see periodic table on previous page).

valence shell

The outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the valence electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom.

thylakoid membrane

The photosynthetic membrane within a chloroplast that contains light gathering pigment molecules and electron transport chains. The thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast is an internal system of interconnected membranes, that carry out the light reactions of photosynthesis. They are arranged into stacked and unstacked regions called grana and stroma thylakoids, respectively, that are differentially enriched in photosystem I and II complexes. Thylakoids are membrane-bound compartments inside chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Thylakoids consist of a thylakoid membrane surrounding a thylakoid lumen. Chloroplast thylakoids frequently form stacks of disks referred to as grana.

von helmont soil experiment

The prevailing theory at the time was that plants grew by eating soil, and van Helmont devised a clever investigation to test this idea. He weighed a willow tree and weighed dry soil. ... He dried the soil and weighed it, showing that the soil was almost the same mass. He concluded that the tree grew by drinking water. Close, but not quite..

chelation

The process of binding metal ions to the same ligand at multiple points. Chelation means "to grab" or "to bind." When EDTA is injected into the veins, it "grabs" heavy metals and minerals such as lead, mercury, copper, iron, arsenic, aluminum, and calcium and removes them from the body. Except as a treatment for lead poisoning, chelation therapy is controversial and unproved.

Oxidative phosphorylation

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration. Oxidative phosphorylation is the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing energy which is used to produce adenosine triphosphate. In most eukaryotes, this takes place inside mitochondria. Almost all aerobic organisms carry out oxidative phosphorylation

taxonomy

The scientific study of how living things are classified naming stuff

gross primary productivity

The total amount of solar energy that producers in an ecosystem capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of time

life history

Traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival. The life history of an organism is its pattern of survival and reproduction, along with the traits that directly affect survival and the timing or amount of reproduction. Rates of survival and reproduction can be estimated across age classes, or across different stages in organisms with complex life cycles Life history theory is an analytical framework designed to study the diversity of life history strategies used by different organisms throughout the world, as well as the causes and results of the variation in their life cycles. A trade-off exists when an increase in one life history trait (improving fitness) is coupled to a decrease in another life history trait (reducing fitness), so that the fitness benefit through increasing trait 1 is balanced against a fitness cost through decreasing trait 2 (Figure 2A).

why should you not grow the same crops in the same field each year?

When a single crop is planted in the same place every year, the soil structure slowly deteriorates as the same nutrients are used time and time again. After a few years, the soil becomes unhealthy, drained of those specific nutrients.

ionic bond

When two atoms differ so much in electronegativity that one or more electrons are actually transferred from one atom to the other. The result is a negatively charged ion, an anion, and a positively charged ion, a cation. The attraction between these two ions is called an ionic bond. Ionic bond is the bond formed when an electrostatic attraction occurs between two ions of opposite charges. In simple terms, the bond formed when the positive charge attracts the negative. An ion is an atom which gains a charge when it loses or takes electrons. Most metals prefer donating electrons, hence they form cations. Cations are positively charged ions. They give their electrons so they can achieve the octet formation. Most nonmetals (except noble gases) receive electrons, hence they form anions. Anions are negatively charged ions. The most common example of an ionic bond is between a metal cation and a nonmetal anion. Here, a metal cation (like Na+) bonds with a nonmetal anion (like Cl−.

virus

While there some advanced viruses that seem fancy, viruses don't have any of the parts you would normally think of when you think of a cell. They have no nuclei, mitochondria, or ribosomes. Some viruses do not even have cytoplasm. ... The capsid protects the core but also helps the virus infect new cells. A virus is a biological agent that reproduces inside the cells of living hosts. When infected by a virus, a host cell is forced to produce thousands of identical copies of the original virus at an extraordinary rate. Unlike most living things, viruses do not have cells that divide; new viruses are assembled in the infected host cell. But unlike still simpler infectious agents, viruses contain genes, which gives them the ability to mutate and evolve. Over 5,000 species of viruses have been discovered. The origins of viruses are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. A virus consists of two or three parts: genes, made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; a protein coat that protects the genes; and in some viruses, an envelope of fat that surrounds the protein coat and is used, in combination with specific receptors, to enter a new host cell. Viruses vary in shape from the simple helical and icosahedral to more complex structures. Viruses range in size from 20 to 300 nanometres; it would take 33,000 to 500,000 of them, side by side, to stretch to 1 centimetre (0.39 in). Viruses spread in many ways. Just as many viruses are very specific as to which host species or tissue they attack, each species of virus relies on a particular method for propagation. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by insects and other organisms, known as vectors. Some viruses of animals, including humans, are spread by exposure to infected bodily fluids. Viruses such as influenza are spread through the air by droplets of moisture when people cough or sneeze. Viruses such as norovirus are transmitted by the faecal-oral route, which involves the contamination of hands, food and water. Rotavirus is often spread by direct contact with infected children. The human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, is transmitted by bodily fluids transferred during sex. Others, such as the Dengue virus, are spread by blood-sucking insects. Viral infections can cause disease in humans, animals and even plants. However, they are usually eliminated by the immune system, conferring lifetime immunity to the host for that virus. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but antiviral drugs have been developed to treat life-threatening infections. Vaccines that produce lifelong immunity can prevent some viral infections.

Calvin cycle

a biochemical pathway of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is converted into glucose using ATP The Calvin cycle refers to the light-independent reactions in photosynthesis that take place in three key steps. Although the Calvin Cycle is not directly dependent on light, it is indirectly dependent on light since the necessary energy carriers (ATP and NADPH) are products of light-dependent reactions The Calvin cycle, light-independent reactions, biosynthetic phase, dark reactions, or photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle[1] of photosynthesis are the chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light-dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration. Though it is called the "dark reactions", the Calvin cycle does not actually occur in the dark or during nighttime. This is because the process requires reduced NADP which is short-lived and comes from the light-dependent reactions. In the dark, plants instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves to provide energy for the plant. The Calvin cycle thus happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work.

Metallic bond

a bond formed by the attraction between positively charged metal ions and the electrons around them

reversible reaction

a chemical reaction in which the products reform the original reactants

nonpolar covalent bond

a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms usually occurs with a covalent bond between 2 atoms of the same element. e.g. diatomic elements

ptyalin

a digestive enzyme of the saliva that turns starch into maltose (salivary amylase) a form of amylase found in the saliva of humans and some other animals. Amylase is an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into sugars. Amylase is present in the saliva of humans and some other mammals, where it begins the chemical process of digestion.

Crista

a fold of the inner membrane of mitochondria A crista is a fold in the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. The name is from the Latin for crest or plume, and it gives the inner membrane its characteristic wrinkled shape, providing a large amount of surface area for chemical reactions to occur on.

Phospholipid

a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes a lipid containing a phosphate group in its molecule, e.g., lecithin. Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes. They can form lipid bilayers because of their amphiphilic characteristic. The structure of the phospholipid molecule generally consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails" and a hydrophilic "head" consisting of a phosphate group.

electronegativity

a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons

space-filling model

a model of a molecule showing the relative sizes of the atoms and their relative orientations

ball and stick model

a molecular model that distorts the sizes of atoms but shows bond relationships clearly

adenosine

a nucleoside; a combination of ribose and adenine; serves as a neuromodulator in the brain Adenosine is a purine nucleoside base, most commonly recognized with the molecule adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, and is used thoroughly throughout the entire body in general metabolism.[1] Adenosine's use as a pharmacological drug works through receptors called purinergic adenosine receptors found throughout the body.

newt

a small slender-bodied amphibian with lungs and a well-developed tail, typically spending its adult life on land and returning to water to breed.

non competitive inhibition

a type of enzyme inhibition where the inhibitor reduces the activity of the enzyme and binds equally well to the enzyme whether or not it has already bound the substrate. Non-competitive inhibition is a type of enzyme inhibition where the inhibitor reduces the activity of the enzyme and binds equally well to the enzyme whether or not it has already bound the substrate.

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

protozoa

an informal term for single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris.

hydrolyze

break down (a compound) by chemical reaction with water. to break a chemical bond between molecules by insertion of a water molecule dissolve in water; hydrolysis

dark reaction photosynthesis

converts CO2 and water into sugar, stored as starch Dark reactions make use of these organic energy molecules (ATP and NADPH). This reaction cycle is also called Calvin Benison Cycle, and it occurs in the stroma. ATP provides the energy while NADPH provides the electrons required to fix the CO2 (carbon dioxide) into carbohydrates.

p orbital

dumbbell shaped The p orbital is a dumbbell-shaped or lobed region describing where an electron can be found, within a certain degree of probability. The node of the dumbbell occurs at the atomic nucleus, so the probability of finding an electron in the nucleus is very low (but not zero).

goiter

enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by thyroid dysfunction, tumor, lack of iodine in the diet, or inflammation

most electronegative element

fluorine is the most electronegative element, while francium is one of the least electronegative. F for fluorine, O for oxygen, N for nitrogen. Those are the 3 most electronegative elements. Chlorine is very close behind nitrogen, perhaps they are tied. Then comes bromine, iodine, followed by sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, and phosphorus.

cytochrome complex

group of reversibly oxidizable and reducible proteins that forms part of the electron transport chain between photosystem II and photosystem I A cytochrome complex plays a key part in electron transport associated with the membranes of the thylakoids in the process of photosynthesis. It accepts electrons from Photosystem II through plastoquinone and contributes to proton transport across the membrane. The cytochrome b₆f complex is an enzyme found in the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts of plants, cyanobacteria, and green algae, that catalyzes the transfer of electrons from plastoquinol to plastocyanin

delta minus

high electronegativity

electron orbital

how electrons are spatially distributed surrounding the nucleus; the area where an electron is most likely to be found the three-dimensional space where an electron is found 90% of the time

primary electron acceptor

in chloroplasts, an acceptor of electrons lost from chlorophyll a; found in the thylakoid membrane Specialized molecule that shares a reaction center with the chlorophyll a molecule in the light reaction. traps high energy electron before it can return to ground state in the chlorophyll. When a photon raises a chlorophyll electron to a higher energy level, that energy, and ultimately an electron, has to go somewhere. That somewhere, ideally for the photosynthesizing organism, is known as the Primary Electron Acceptor. The reducing agent is called pheophytin and is a derivative of chlorophyll itself

delta plus

less electronegative

Nucleoside

nitrogenous base + sugar Nucleosides are glycosylamines that can be thought of as nucleotides without a phosphate group. A nucleoside consists simply of a nucleobase and a five-carbon sugar, whereas a nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase, a five-carbon sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. Nucleosides are the building blocks of DNA, consisting of a base (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine, or uracil) linked to a sugar (ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA).

heterotroph

organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes; also called a consumer An organism that cannot make its own food. analogous to autotrophs (plants and photosynthetic life)

extraterrestrial

out of this world; above and beyond what is found on planet Earth alien bruh

Producer

photosynthetic organisms that make food for the environment

biogeochemical cycle

process in which elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the biosphere to another

Receptor

protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response In biochemistry and pharmacology, receptors are chemical structures, composed of protein, that receive and transduce signals that may be integrated into biological systems. These signals are typically[nb 1] chemical messengers, which bind to a receptor, they cause some form of cellular/tissue response, e.g. a change in the electrical activity of a cell. There are three main ways the action of the receptor can be classified: relay of signal, amplification, or integration.[2] Relaying sends the signal onward, amplification increases the effect of a single ligand, and integration allows the signal to be incorporated into another biochemical pathway. In this sense, a receptor is a protein-molecule that recognizes and responds to endogenous chemical signals. For example, an acetylcholine receptor recognizes and responds to its endogenous ligand, acetylcholine. However, sometimes in pharmacology, the term is also used to include other proteins that are drug targets, such as enzymes, transporters, and ion channels. Receptor proteins can be classified by their location. Transmembrane receptors include ion channel-linked (ionotropic) receptors, G protein-linked (metabotropic) hormone receptors, and enzyme-linked hormone receptors. Intracellular receptors are those found inside the cell, and include cytoplasmic receptors and nuclear receptors.[1] A molecule that binds to a receptor is called a ligand, and can be a protein or peptide (short protein), or another small molecule such as a neurotransmitter, hormone, pharmaceutical drug, toxin, or parts of the outside of a virus or microbe. The endogenously designated -molecule for a particular receptor is referred to as its endogenous ligand. E.g. the endogenous ligand for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is acetylcholine but the receptor can also be activated by nicotine and blocked by curare. Receptors of a particular type are linked to a specific cellular biochemical pathways that correspond to the signal. While numerous receptors are found in most cells, each receptor will only bind with ligands of a particular structure. This has been analogously compared to how locks will only accept specifically shaped keys. When a ligand binds to a corresponding receptor, it activates or inhibits the receptor's associated biochemical pathway.

electron carriers

proteins arranged in chains on the membrane to allow the transfer of electrons from one carrier to another. In cellular respiration, there are two important electron carriers, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (abbreviated as NAD+ in its oxidized form) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (abbreviated as FAD in its oxidized form).

trace elements

required by an organism in only minute quantities

making insulin in bacteria

shows the universality of the genetic code cause genes from (humans) can be put into another organism (E Coli) 1. plasmid from E Coli is removed 2. restriction enzymes cut open the plasmid 3. the gene for human insulin is inserted into the plasmid using DNA ligase 4. the recombinant plasmid is put back into the bacteria 5. BAM! INSULIN IS MADE BY THE E COLI Recombinant DNA is a technology scientists developed that made it possible to insert a human gene into the genetic material of a common bacterium. This "recombinant" micro-organism could now produce the protein encoded by the human gene. Scientists build the human insulin gene in the laboratory. Then they remove a loop of bacterial DNA known as a plasmid and insert the human insulin gene into the plasmid. Researchers return the plasmid to the bacteria and put the "recombinant" bacteria in large fermentation tanks. There, the recombinant bacteria use the gene to begin producing human insulin. Scientists harvest the insulin from the bacteria and purify the substance for use as a medicine for people. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/fromdnatobeer/exhibition-interactive/recombinant-DNA/recombinant-dna-technology-alternative.html

STP

standard temperature and pressure

enzymology

study of enzymes

electropositivity

tendency to donate electrons Electropositivity is the measure of the ability of elements (mainly metals) to donate electrons to form positive ions. The elements that can easily accept electrons to form negative ions are called electronegative elements, for example: non-metals.

allosteric activation

the active site becomes available to the substrates when a regulatory molecule binds to a different site on the enzyme Positive allosteric modulation (also known as allosteric activation) occurs when the binding of one ligand enhances the attraction between substrate molecules and other binding sites. An example is the binding of oxygen molecules to hemoglobin, where oxygen is effectively both the substrate and the effector. In biochemistry, allosteric regulation is the regulation of an enzyme by binding an effector molecule at a site other than the enzyme's active site. The site to which the effector binds is termed the allosteric site or regulatory site.

Acetyl-CoA

the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme Acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme. Acetyl-CoA is a molecule that participates in many biochemical reactions in protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production

energy levels

the fixed energies an electron can have different states of potential energy that electrons have in an atom energy levels correspond with the electrons distance from the nucleus. the closest electrons have the lowest amount of energy. (electron shells)

NADP reductase

the last enzyme in the transfer of electrons during photosynthesis from photosystem I to NADPH reduces NADP to NADPH In enzymology, a ferredoxin-NADP⁺ reductase abbreviated FNR, is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction 2 reduced ferredoxin + NADP⁺ + H⁺ 2 oxidized ferredoxin + NADPH The 3 substrates of this enzyme are reduced ferredoxin, NADP⁺, and H⁺, whereas its two products are oxidized ferredoxin and NADPH. Wikipedia

non cyclic electron transport

the linear flow of electrons through photosystems I and II; results in the formation of ATP (by chemiosmosis), NADPH, and O2 Electron transport does not occur in a cycle. Photosystem I and II are involved. Both ATP and NADP are produced as opposed to just ATP in cyclic. System dominant in photosynthetic plants as opposed to bacteria. In photosynthesis: The pathway of electrons. ...and intermediate carriers is called noncyclic electron flow. Alternatively, electrons may be transferred only by light reaction I, in which case they are recycled from ferredoxin back to the intermediate carriers. This process is called cyclic electron flow.

bonding capacity

the number of covalent bonds an atom forms to have an octet of electrons in its valence shell e.g. carbon = 4 nitrogen = 3 hydrogen = 1 e.g. CH4 has a valence of 0 since the carbon has a valence of 4 and hydrogen has a valence of 1. 4 + 4(1) = 8 = 0 bonding capacity. This is why methane (natural gas) is stable.

deductive reasoning

the process of applying a general statement to specific facts or situations reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.) if then reasoning

ecosystem services

the processes by which life-supporting resources such as clean water, timber, fisheries, and agricultural crops are produced There, ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories: provisioning, such as the production of food and water; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.

NADH

the reduced form of NAD+; an electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is a cofactor that is central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine nucleobase and the other nicotinamide.

reductionism

the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study

krebs cycle

the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP. The citric acid cycle (CAC) - also known as the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle[1][2] - is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and carbon dioxide. In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest established components of cellular metabolism and may have originated abiogenically.[3][4] Even though it is branded as a 'cycle', it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized. The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a type of tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH[6]) that is consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle. The cycle consumes acetate (in the form of acetyl-CoA) and water, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and produces carbon dioxide as a waste byproduct. The NADH generated by the citric acid cycle is fed into the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport) pathway. The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of nutrients to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP. In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, which lack mitochondria, the citric acid cycle reaction sequence is performed in the cytosol with the proton gradient for ATP production being across the cell's surface (plasma membrane) rather than the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. The overall yield of energy-containing compounds from the TCA cycle is three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP.

Phosphodiester bond

the type of bond that links the nucleotides in DNA or RNA. joins the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the hydroxyl group on the sugar of another nucleotide a chemical bond of the kind joining successive sugar molecules in a polynucleotide. A phosphodiester bond occurs when exactly two of the hydroxyl groups in phosphoric acid react with hydroxyl groups on other molecules to form two ester bonds. Phosphodiester bonds are central to all life on Earth as they make up the backbone of the strands of nucleic acid.

bioinformatics

use of computer databases to organize and analyze biological data The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological information from large data sets. application of mathematics and computer science to store, retrieve, and analyze biological data