BMSP 2145 Exam 1

Glial cell

CNS: astrocyte (most abundant. star-shaped for structural support, helps form blood-brain barrier, regulate chemical environment, promote CNS development, capable of division, form glial scar), ependymal cell (epithelial cells, line ventricles and central canal, CSF production and circulation), microglia (small cell with irregular processes, respond to infection, phagocytic when activated, secrete immunoregulatory substances), oligodendrocyte (large cell, thin, flat processes, forms myelin sheath, myelinates may axons) PNS: schwann cell (myelinate PNS axons, forms myelin sheath, myelinates single axon), satellite cell (small, flat cell in PNS, physical and chemical support for neurons in ganglia)

Abdominal region lines

delineated by the midclavicular planes (sagittal planes that pass through the midpoint of the clavicles and the midinguinal points) and the subcostal and transtubercular planes

Fluid connective tissue

blood. formed elements of blood: erythrocytes (rbc), leukocytes (wbc), platelets. ground substance contains dissolved protein fibers

Diaphragm

action: dome of diaphragm flattens during inspiration. contraction increases vertical dimension of thoracic cavity origin: sternal part (not always present): xiphoid process costal part: ribs 5-10 and their costal cartiliges lumbar part: arcuate ligaments and L1-3 vertebral bodies insertion: central tendon innervation: phrenic nerve comment: primary muscle of respiration. contraction (flattening) decreases intrathoracic pressure and increases intra-abdominal pressure.

Anatomical position

an individual in anatomical position is standing erect with arms at sides, palms facing forward with fingers pointing downward, feet parallel to each other and flat on the floor, and eyes directed forward

Lateral

away from the midline of the body

Deep

away from the surface of the body

Inferior

downward or below (synonymous to caudal)

Supporting connective tissue

cartilage: semisolid extracellular matrix that allows flexibility subtypes: hyaline (most common type.on articular surfaces of synovial joints. forms cartilage of larynx, trachea, and nose. chondrocytes in lacunae scattered in matrix, collagen fibrils in matrix, has perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue sheath)), elastic (in external ear and epiglottis, abundant elastic fibers around lacunae, chondrocyles in lacunae, perichondrium present), fibrocartilage (in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and menisci of knee. bundles of collagen fibers visable. chondrocytes in lacunae arranged in parallel rows, no perichondrium) bone: solid matrix is more rigid and provides greater support subtypes: compact (forms hard outer shell of bones, lamellae forms osteons. osteocytes (mature bone cells) occupy lacunae), spongy (located inside bones, does not contain osteons, trabeculae form lattice, bone marrow between trabeculae, oseocytes scattered in trabeculae)

Proximal

closer to the trunk or origin of a structure

Esophagus

location: cervical part: neck (inferior) thoracic part: thorax (posterior mediastinum) abdominal part: abdomen (left upper quadrant) description: muscular tube. superior third: striated muscle. middle third: striated and smooth muscle. inferior third: smooth muscle. passes through diaphragm (esophageal hiatus) function: conveys food from pharynx to stomach. peristaltic (wave-like) contractions during swallowing comment: "heartburn" (reflux esophagitis) results from regurgitation of stomach contents

Exocrine glands of skin

location: merorine sweat glands: most numerous (3-4 million in the adult) and widely distributed sweat gland apocrine sweat glands: hair follicles of axillae (armpits), areolae (nipples), and the public and anal regions sebaceous glands are associated with hair follicles description: merocrine sweat glands have coiled, tubular secretory part in dermis or subcutaneous tissue and a duct that carries secretion to epidermal surface. apocrine sweat glands have coiled, tubular secretory part in dermis or subuctaneous tissue and a duct that carries secretion into hair follicle. sebaceous glands are acinar ("grape-shaped") and have short ducts that open into hair follicle function: merocrine sweat gland secretion (99% water) functions in thermoregulation, secretion (excecss water and electrolytes) and protection. apocrine sweat glands secretion is a viscous, cloudy liquid that contains protein and lipids; when secretion acted upon by bacteria, it produces distinct odor that may function in signaling and communication. sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance that waterproofs and lubricates hair shaft comment: other integumentary glands: ceruminous glands, in the external acoustic meatus that produce ear wax; and mammary glands, which are modified apocrine sweat glands that produce milk.

Greater omentum

location: abdomen description: double-layered fold of peritoneum. suspended ("apron-like") from greater curvature of stomach. attached to anterior surface of transverse colon function: capable of storing large amounts of fat. limits spread of peritoneal infection comment: highly mobile. contains gastro-omental vessels

Urinary system

location: abdomen (posterior wall), pelvis, perineum organs and tissues: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra function: kidneys filter blood to remove waste products and concentrate waste products in urine. ureters transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder. urinary bladder stores and, with urethra, expels urine from body

Kidney

location: abdomen (posterior wall), retroperitoneal, left kidney higher than right description: paired, bean-shaped organ. concave, medial border is point of entrance/exit of renal vessels and ureter. contains cortex, medulla, and renal sinus function: removes excess water, electrolytes, and wastes of protein metabolism from blood. urine formation. synthesizes calcitrol, a form of vitamin D, which stimulates uptake of calcium and phosphate by intestinal cells. releases erythropoietin (EPO) in response to low blood oxygen (EPO causes increased produciton and maturation of erythrocytes). produces renin, an enxyme that helps form angiotensis II, a hormone involved in blood pressure regulation and water (fluid) balance comment: surrounded and supported by layers of connective tissue and fat

Gallbladder

location: abdomen (right upper quadrant). inferior to liver in shallow fossa on quadrate lobe. in right upper abdominal quadrant; in epigastric and right hypochondriac regions description: pear shaped, hollow, muscular organ. cystic duct connects to neck of gallbladder function: storage, concentration, and release of bile comment: bile passes from the liver to gallbladder for storage and from the gallbladder to the duodenum for emulsification and digestion of lipids. precipitation of bile salts or cholesetoral forms gallstones (choleithiasis)

Suprarenal gland

location: abdomen (upper quadrants). adjacent to superior pole of kidney description: paired, pyramidal-shaped, endocrine gland. two parts: cortex (outer) and medulla (inner) function: cortex: secretes hormones (corticosteroids and androgen). medulla: chromaffin cells secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) (aka adrenal gland) comment: epinephrine and norepinephrine also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline

Large intestine

location: abdomen, pelvis, in all abdominal quadrants; in all abdominal regions description: part of gastrointestinal tract. composed of cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid), rectum, and anal canal. characteristic features include vermiform appendix, taeniae coli, haustra (sacculations), and omental appendices (epiploic appendages or appendices epipolicae). approximately 1.5 m in length function: water and electrolyte absorption. absorption of vitamin B and vitamin K produced by bacteria in colon (normal gut flora). storage of feces for defecation (sigmoid colon and rectum). defecation

Pancreas

location: abdomen, posterior to stomach, in upper quadrants; in epigastic region and left hypochondriac region (tail) description: accessory digestive organ. elongated nodular gland. divided into head, neck, body, and tail. head adjacent to duodenum function: endocrine (regulation of glucose metabolism): pancreatic islet cells release hormones (insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin) into blood. exocrine (digestion): acinar cells produce digestive enzymes (pancreatic juice) and pancreatic duct cells produce bicarbonate ions; these are released into duodenum via pancreatic ducts comment: reduction in insulin production or release by pancreatic islet cells can result in diabetes mellitus

Mesentery of small intestine

location: abdomen. between posterior abdominal wall (root) and small intestine (jejunum and ileum) description: double layer of peritoneum function: support for small intestine. contains blood, nerve, and lymphatic supply for small intestine

Lesser omentum

location: abdomen. between stomach (lesser curvature), duodenum, and liver description: double layer of peritoneum. two parts: hepatogastric and hepatoduodenal ligaments comment: hepatoduodenal ligament contains hepatic artery proper, bile duct, and hepatic portal vein

Liver

location: abdomen. immediately inferior to diaphragm. in upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric and right hypochondriac regions description: accessory digestive organ. four lobes: right, left, quadrate, and caudate. largest visceral organ. suspended from diaphragm by peritoneum function: produces and secretes bile and plasma proteins. stores glycogen, minerals, and vitamins. detoxifies drugs and alcohol. modifies hormones. removes (phagocytizes) bacteria comment: adult liver typically does not project inferior to costal margin. alcoholism, drug abuse, and liver disease can lead to destruction of hepatocytes (liver cells) resulting in cirrhosis

Small intestine

location: abdomen. in all abdominal quarters; in left and right flank, umbilical, left and right inguinal, and pubic regions description: coiled, thin-walled, muscular tube (approximately 6-7 meters long). three parts (proximal to distal): duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. continuous with pylorus of stomach (proximal) and cecum of large intestine (distal) function: receives bile and pancreatic secretions. primary site for digestion. primary site for absorption of nutrients comment: supported by double fold of peritoneum (mesentary)

Spleen

location: abdomen. in contact with diaphragm and lower ribs on left. in left upper abdominal quadrant; in left hypochondriac region description: largest lymphatic organ. highly vascular tissue surrounded by capsule function: initiates immune response to blood antigens. reservoir for red and white blood cells. phagocytoses (removes) old and damaged blood cells and bacteria and other foreign material comment: protected posteriorly by rib cage. spleen monitors blood for antigens whereas lymph nodes monitor lymph

Stomach

location: abdomen. in upper abdominal quadrants; in epigastric and left hypochondriac regions description: hollow, muscular organ. characteristic "J" shape. four parts (proximal to distal): cardial, fundus, body, and pyloric part. between esophagus and duodenum function: initiates digestion of protein. mixes gastic contents. peristaltic contractions move contents toward pyloric sphincter comment: concave superior border forms lesser curvature. convex inferior border forms greater curvature. pyloric part of stomach includes an antrum, canal, and pylorus (the latter includes a sphincter and orifice)

Ureter

location: abdominal cavity (posterior abdominal wall), lateral pelvis description: muscular tube, 25-30 cm in length, begins at hilum of kidney, enters base of urinary bladder as ureteric orifice function: transport urine from kidney to urinary bladder comment: lies anterior to bifurcation of common iliac artery. in female: passes inferior to uterine artery. in male: crossed by vas deferens. flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papiilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

Abdominal cavity region

location: abdominal region description: bound by abdominal walls, thoracic diaphragm (superior) and pelvic brim (inferior) major organs include: stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and ureters, suprarenal glands, aorta, inferior vena cava, and lumbar nerve plexus

Left inguinal region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. left lower lateral region. contents include parts of small and large intestines function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs (aka left groin or iliac region)

Left hypochondriac region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. left upper lateral region. contents include spleen and parts of stomach, large intestine, pancreas (tail), and left kidney function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs

Right flank region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. right lateral region. contents include parts of small and large intestine, and right kidney function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs (aka right lateral region, right lumbar region although this is a region of the back)

Right inguinal region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. right lower lateral region. contents include parts of small and large intestine (including cecum and vermiform appendix) function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs (aka right groin or iliac region)

Right hypochondriac region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. right upper lateral region. contents include parts of large intestine, liver and gallbladder, and right kidney function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs.

Epigastric region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. upper median region (flanked by right and left hypochondriac regions). contents include suprarenal glands and parts of stomach, large intestine, liver and gallbladder, and pancreas. function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs

Left flank region

location: abdominal wall (anterior). description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. left lateral region. contents include parts of small and large intestines, and left kidney function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs (aka left lateral region; sometimes referred to as left lumbar region, although this is a region of the back)

Lumbosacral plexus

location: abdominal wall (posterior). pelvic wall (posterior) contributions: ventral rami of L1-S4 spinal nerves branches: iliohypogastric, ilioinguinal, lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh, femoral, gentitofemoral, obturator, superior gluteal, inferior gluteal, pudendal, common fibular (part of sciatic), tibial (part of sciatic), posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh, muscular comment: innervates all muscles of pelvic floor, perineum, and lower limb. innervates skin on lower anterior abdominal wall, lower pack, perineum, and lower limb. a plexus is a network of blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

Visceral peritoneum

location: abdominopelvic cavity description: coats outer surface of many abdominal organs. single layer of serous membrane with surface epithelium (mesothelium) function: secretes and absorbs serous fluid within peritoneal cavity comment: peritoneal cavity is potential space between parietal peritoneum, greater and lesser omenta, mesenteries, ligaments, and mesocolons

Parietal peritoneum

location: abdominopelvic cavity description: lines wall of abdomen. single layer of serous membrane with surface epithelium (mesothelium) function: secretes and absorbs serous fluid within peritoneal cavity comment: peritoneal cavity is potential space between parietal and visceral parts of peritoneum. other parts of peritoneum include visceral peritoneum, greater and lesser omenta, mesentaries, ligaments, and mesocolons

Peritoneal cavity

location: abdominopelvic cavity description: potential space between parietal and visceral layers of peritoneum comment: visceral layer of peritoneum coats surface of some abdominal organs (eg stomach, spleen, liver, and parts of small and large intestines); parietal layer lines walls of abdominal cavity

Sympathetic trunk

location: adjacent to vertebral bodies, from base of skull to coccyx description: nerve trunk comprised of axons connecting sympathetic (paravertebral) ganglia. sympathetic ganglia contain postganglionic nerve cells bodies. branches include gray and white rami communicans, and splanchnic nerves (aka sympathetic chain, sympathetic chain ganglia) comment: ganglia give trunk a "beaded" appearance

Lymph nodes

location: along pathways of lymphatic vessels throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) description: small, round or oval (usually bean-shaped) lymphatic organ (1-25 mm in length). surrounded by connective tissue capsule. two regions: cortex (outer) that contains lymphoid nodules and medulla (inner) comprised of connective tissue cords lined by lymphatic cells. found in prominent clusters (eg in axillary, inguinal and cervical regions) function: production of new lymphocytes. filtration of antigens and other foreign matter from lymph. initiation of immune responses comment: can become enlarged when cancerous cells, white blood cells, or infectious agents become trapped. lymph nodes filter lymph, whereas the spleen filters blood

Thymus

location: anterior and superior mediastinum. thymus can extend into inferior neck description: large, bilobed gland in children. atrophies during adolescence. remnant in adults consists primarily of fibrous and adipose tissue function: secretes thymopoietin and thymosins that stimulate and promote differentiation, growth and maturation of T-lymphocytes. site for maturation and differentiation of T-lymphocytes (primarily in young individuals)

Breast

location: anterior thoracic wall. axilla description: pyramidal structure. composed of skin with areola and nipple; fat and connective tissue; mammary gland, and associated ducts. base located over pectoralis major muscle. extends into axilla (armpit) as "tail". divided into lobes by suspensory ligaments (connective tissue septae) function: milk production, fat storage (determines breast size and shape in non-lactating female) comment: amount of fat determined by genetics, hormones, and dietary habits. fat partially replaced by glandular tissue during pregnancy and lactation

Hair follicle

location: dermis, may extend into hypodermis description: tube that surrounds hair root. courses obliquely through dermis. two coats: epidermic (inner) and dermic (outer). characteristic parts include: dermal papilla bulb, hair shaft, cuticle layer, internal follicular sheath, and external follicular sheath. associated with hair receptors and arrector muscle of the hair function: hair formation and growth comment: hair follicle develops as invagination from epidermis. follicle associated with a sebaceous gland, an arrector muscle of the hair, and an apocrine gland (inaxilla and anogenital regions). apocrine glands release part of apical cytoplasm with secretion. arrector muscle of the hair also known as arrector pili (piloerector) muscle

Pineal gland

location: diencephalon (epithalamus) description: pea-sized endocrine gland, attached to roof of third ventricle function: secretes melatonin (involved in sleep/wake cycles), modified activity in endocrine organs (pituitary, pancreas, parathyroid, suprarenal, and gonads) (aka pineal body)

Cerebellum

location: dorsal to brainstem description: composed of many lobes with highly folded cortex. attached to pons via cerebellar peduncies function: coordinates complex movements, monitors muscles to ensure fluid movements comment: receives extensive sensory input from body and CNS. cerebellar cortex has folds knows as folia. white matter of cerebellar lobes resembles branching tree and is called arbor vitae. influences

Integumentary system

location: external surface of body organs and tissues: skin, hair, nails, exocrine glands (sweat, sebaceous, ceruminous, and mammary glands) description: skin has two distinct layers (superficial to deep): epidermis and dermis function: protection (eg prevents trauma), immune defense (eg prevents infection), barrier function (eg prevents water loss), secretion (eg sweat, sebum), thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, social functions (eg facial expression) comment: hypodermis (aka subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia) lies deep to skin

Outer leaflet of lipid bilayer

location: extracellular (outer) side of lipid bilayer description: outer part of lipid bilayer. comprised of polar (hydrophilic) heads and non-polar (hydrophobic) fatty acid tails function: interacts with extracellular environment comment: plasma membrane (aka plasmalemma) encloses cell; membranes of membrane-bound organelles, sometimes called "cell membranes" have structure similar to plasma membrane

Lateral nail fold

location: fingers and toes, dorsal aspect of distal phalanx description: epidermal fold along lateral edges of nail plate (aka nail fold)

Nail matrix

location: fingers and toes, dorsal aspect of distal phalanx, at proximal edge of nail root description: contains mitotic cells. corresponds to stratum basale of epidermis function: growth zone of nail comment: normal nail growth is 0.1-1.2 mm/day. fingernails grow faster than toenails

Eponychium

location: fingers and toes, dorsal aspect of distal phalanx, overlies nail root description: stratum corneum of proximal nail fold (aka cuticle)

Cilium

location: apical surface of some epithelia. evident in epithelia lining respiratory system, uterine (fallopian) tube, and ependymal cells description: motile, hair-like projection from apical cell surface (0.2 um in diameter; 7-10 um in length). core comprised of a complex of parallel microtubules called the axoneme. axoneme arises from a basal body (equivalent to centriole) in cytoplasm function: oscillations (bending to-and-fro) of cillia move substances (eg mucus, cells, and debris) over cell surfae. ciliary motion (bending) created by axoneme microtubules sliding past one another comment: plural is cilia. axoneme has 9+2 organization of longitudinally arranged microtubules: two central microtubules ("singlets") course through center of axoneme; surrounded by nine microtubule pairs ("doublets"). microvilli have actin corea dn are not motile; cilia and falgella hav microtubule core and are motile. micrometer (um), also known as a micron, is 1/1000 of a millimeter

Free edge of nail

location: fingers and toes, nail plate description: distal edge of nail plate function: protection for tip of finger and toe, aids in grasping function of finger comment: nails are scale-like modifications of epidermis

Nail root

location: fingers and toes, nail plate, deep to eponychium description: proximal part of nail plate. contains cells of nail matrix function: growth of nail

Nail bed

location: fingers and toes. dorsal aspect of distal phalanx description: epidermal layers deep to nail plate

Ankle region

location: foot description: subdivision of foot; skin, muscles and tendons, nerves, and vessels around distal ends of tibia and fibula, and talus (also known as talocrural region)

Digits of foot

location: foot (distal end) description: distal subdivision of foot. includes great (digit 1 or hallux), second (digit 2), third (digit 3), fourth (digit 4), and fifth or little (digit 5) toes. skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around phalanges of toes (aka toes)

Dorsum of foot

location: foot (dorsal) description: dorsal aspect of foot (ie directed superiorly in anatomical position). skin, muscle tendons, nerves and vessels on dorsal aspect of foot

Sole of foot

location: foot (interior) description: plantar surface of foot (ie directed inferiorly in anatomical position). skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels on sole of foot. (aka plantar region of foot)

Heel region

location: foot (proximal) description: subdivision of foot. skin, muscle tendons, nerves and vessels around hindfoot (talus and calcaneus) (aka calcaneal region)

Carpal region

location: hand description: proximal subdivision of hand. skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around carpal bones and distal ends of radius and ulna (aka wrist region)

Digits of hand

location: hand (distal end) description: distal subdivision of hand. includes thumb (digit 1 or pollex), index (digit 2), middle (digit 3), ring (digit 4), little (digit 5) fingers. skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around phalanges of fingers (aka fingers)

Dorsum of hand

location: hand (proximal) description: subdivision of hand. subdivisions include carpal and metacarpal regions, and digits. skin, muscles and tendons, nerves, and vessels on posterior aspect of carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges

Palmar region

location: hand (proximal) description: subdivision of hand. subdivisions include: carpal and metacarpal regions, and thenar and hypothenar regions. skin, muscles and tendons, nerves, and vessels on anterior aspect of carpal bones and metacarpals

Skull

location: head description: paired and unpaired bones divided into cranial and facial groups. cranial group: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal (2), occipital, and temporal bones (2). facial group: maxilla, mandible, vomer, nasal (2), lacrimal (2), and zygomatic bones (2)

Mental region

location: head (anterior inferior part of facial region) description: region of chin. related to anterior aspect of mandible

Facial region

location: head (anterior inferior part) description: region of face, including eyes, nose, mouth, cheeks, and chin. includes buccal, nasal, mental, oral, orbital, and parotid regions. ears are part of auricular region

Frontal region

location: head (anterior superior part of cranial region). description: region of forehead, related to frontal bone

Nasal region

location: head (anterior) description: part of facial region that includes nose

Orbital region

location: head (anterior) description: region of eye. related to the orbits, the bony cavity that contain the eyes and accessory structures

Cranial region

location: head (superior part) description: region of cranial cavity (ie surrounding brain) --> cranial cavity is part of skull that contains the brain

Tonsils

location: head (tongue and wall of pharynx) description: lingual, palatine, and pharyngeal tonsils. collections of lymphoid nodules in submucosal connective tissue. not surrounded by connective tissue capsule function: trap foreign material and facilitate identification by lymphocytes. produce lymphocytes. comment: pharyngeal tonsils also known as "adenoids" when infected or inflamed

Accessory digestive organs

location: head, abdomen. description: teeth, tongue, salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), liver, gallbladder, pancreas. function: ingestion, digestion, propulsion, secretion, storage of bile

Upper respiratory tract

location: head, neck description: external nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses (paried frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses). pharynx naso-, oro-, and laryngopharynx) function: air passed through nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. air is cleaned, warmed, and humidified. phonation comment: oro- and laryngopharynx shared by respiratory and digestive systems

Pharynx

location: head, neck description: muscular tube continuous with nasal cavity, oral cavity, and larynx. three subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx comment: nasopharynx: part of respiratory tract. oropharynx: part of respiratory and digestive tracts. laryngopharynx: part of digestive tract. latin: pharynx = throat

Cranial nerves

location: head, neck, and thoracic and abdominal cavities description: part of peripheral nervous system (PNS). twelve pairs of nerves: most connected to brainstem and pass through foramina in skull. designed by Roman numeral and common name: I - olfactory; II - optic; III - oculomotor; IV - trochlear; V - trigeminal; VI - abducens; VII - facial; VIII - vestibulocochlear; IX - glossopharyngeal; X - vagus; XI - accessory; XII - hypoglossal function: sensory - general: CN V, IX, and X. sensory - special: CN I, II, VII, VIII, IX, and X. sensory - visceral: IX and X. visceral (autonomic) motor: CN III, VII, IX, and X comment: general sensation includes temperature, pain, touch, stretch, and pressure. special sensation includes olfaction, vision, gustation, equilibrium, and hearing. somatic motor refers to innervaiton of skeletal (voluntary) muscle. visceral motor refers to innervation of cardiac or smooth muscle, and glands.

Respiratory system

location: head, neck, thorax organs and tissues: nose, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs description: upper respiratory tract: nose (external nose and nasal cavity), paranasal sinuses, and pharynx. lower respiratory tract: larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs function: air passes through nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. air is cleaned, warmed, humidified. phonation. lungs are primary organs of respiration (gas exchange). acid-base balance

Gastrointestinal tract

location: head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis description: oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodemun, ileum, and jejunum), large intestine function: ingestion, digestion, propulsion, secretion, absorption, elimination of waste comment: GI tract also known as alimentary tract or canal. the colon is part of large intestine from the cecum to the sigmoid colon

Digestive system

location: head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis organs and tissues: oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas description: muscular tube lined by epithelium. gastrointestinal (GI) tract: oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. accessory digestive organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), liver, gallbladder and pancreas function: ingestion, digestion, propulsion, secretion, absorption, elimination of wastes comment: GI tract also known as alimentary tract. the colon is part of large intestine from the cecum to the sigmoid colon

Endocrine system

location: head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, scrotum organs and tissues: head: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland neck: thyroid and parathyroid glands thorax: thymus and heart abdomen: pancreas, suprarenal glands, gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and kidneys pelvis: ovaries scrotum: testes description: collection of organs (glands) and cells that secrete hormones. endocrine glands are ductless function: regulate body functions, secrete hormones into bloodstream

Axial skeleton

location: head, neck, trunk description: skull-cranial cavity bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal (2), occipital, and temporal (2) skull-facial bones: maxilla (2), mandible, vomer, inferior nasal concha (2), nasal (2), lacrimal (2), palatine (2), and zygomatic (2) vertebral column bones: vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx) thoracic cage bones: ribs and sternum

Salivary glands

location: head, oral cavity description: parotid gland. submandibular gland. sublingual gland function: salivary glands produce and secrete components of saliva. parotid gland produces 25-30% of saliva (serous secretions only). submandibular gland produces 60-70% of saliva (primarily serous secretions; some mucous secretions). sublingual gland produces 3-5% of saliva (primarily mucous secretions; some serous secretions) comment: functions of salivary glands and saliva include: moistening and lubrication of food before swallowing; secretion of amylase for initial digestion of polysaccharides; dissolving some food molecules to aid in taste; and secretion of lysozyme, which has antibacterial activity

Polar heads of lipid bilayer

location: hydrophilic region of lipid bilayer of plasma membrane description: hydrophilic part of membrane phospholipids. comprised of a head group (choline or charged amino acid, eg serine or ethanolamine), phosphate, and glycerol function: membrane surface charge. intracellular signaling comment: plasma membrane phospholipid molecules are amphipathic

Fatty acid tails of lipid bilayer

location: hydrophobic region of lipid bilayer of plasma membrane description: non-polar (hydrophobic) tails of phospholipid molecule. comprised of two long-chain fatty acids (14-24 carbon atoms in length). in most mammalian cells, one fatty acid chain is saturated, the other is unsaturated function: length and saturation of fatty acid tails influences fluidity and flexibility of membrane (presence of unsaturated fatty acids increases fluidity and flexibility) comment: unsaturated means fatty acid has one or more cis double bonds, which introduce "kinks" into the fatty acid and prevent close packing of the hydrophobic tails

Cholesterol molecules in lipid bilayer

location: hydrophobic region of lipid bilayer of plasma membrane description: steroid molecules (a type of lipid). accounts for approximately 20% of plasma membrane lipids function: strengthens membrane and stabilizes it at extreme temperatures. prevent over-dense packing of fatty acid tails by filling gaps between fatty acid tails comment: hydrophilic refers to an affinity for water; hydrophobic refers to a lack of affinity for water

Popliteal fossa

location: knee region (posterior) description: subdivision of posterior knee region. skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels associated with diamond-shaped region on posterior aspect of knee region. bounded by biceps femoris, semimembranosus and memitendinosus, gastrocnemius, skin and popliteal fascia (roof), and posterior capsule of knee joint (floor). important structures include: small saphenous vein, popliteal artery and vein, tibial and common fibular nerves, posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh, and popliteal lymph nodes

Left lower quadrant

location: left of midline, inferior to transverse plane through umbilicus description: lower left lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity. contents include parts of small intestine, large intestine, urinary bladder (when distended), and left uterine tube and ovary. function: used in clinical practice to describe location of lower organs and abdominal pain (abbreviation = LLQ)

Left upper quadrant

location: left of midline, superior to transverse plane through umbilicus description: upper left lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity. contents include spleen, left kidney and suprarenal gland, and parts of liver, stomach, pancreas, and small and large intestines. function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs and abdominal pain (abbreviation = LUQ)

Anterior leg region

location: leg (anterior) description: subdivision of leg. includes anterior and lateral muscular compartments. anterior border of shaft of tibia (shin) is subcutaneous. skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, and vessels anterior to intermuscular septum of leg and interosseous membrane of leg.

Posterior leg region

location: leg (posterior) description: subdivision of leg. includes posterior muscular compartment. skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels posterior to posterior intermuscular septum of leg and interosseous membrane of leg (aka sural or calf region)

Lower limb

location: limb that, in anatomical position, extends inferiorly from trunk description: subdivisions: gluteal region (buttock), femoral region (thigh), leg, and foot (including ankle) function: locomotion, balance, and support of body

Upper limb

location: limb that, in anatomical position, is suspended from the shoulder and lies along lateral aspect of trunk and superior aspect of lower limb description: consists of deltoid, brachial (arm), antebrachial (forearm), and hand regions function: non-weightbearing limb used primarily to position the hand for manipulation (eg grasping) and fine motor skills

Appendicular skeleton

location: limbs, shoulder, pelvis description: upper limb includes humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges of fingers. pectoral girdle includes scapula and clavicle. lower limb includes hip bone, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges of toes. pelvic girdle includes hip bones and sacrum

Foot region

location: lower limb (distal end) description: subdivision of lower limb. subdivisions include ankle, heel, dorsum, sole, metatarsal, and digits (toes). anatomical and functional subdivision: hindfoot (talus an dcalcaneus), midfoot (navicular, cuboid, and cuneiforms), and forefoot (metatarsals and phalanges of toes). includes skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, and vessels around tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges of toes.

Hip region

location: lower limb (lateral proximal) description: lateral subdivision of lower limb from iliac crest ("waist") to proximal thigh. skin, muscle tendons, nerves and vessels around ilium, ischium, and proximal end of femur (especially head, neck, and greater trochanter)

Knee region

location: lower limb (middle) description: subdivision of lower limb. skin, muscles, nerves and vessels around knee joint. includes popliteal fossa on posterior aspect. (knee joint formed by femur (condyles), tibia (condyles), patella, and menisci (within joint))

Gluteal region

location: lower limb (proximal end) description: subdivision of lower limb. skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels associated with posterior aspect of hip joint (aka hip and buttock)

Femoral region

location: lower limb (proximal) description: subdivision of lower limb. skin, muscle tendons, nerves, and vessels around femur (aka thigh region)

Membrane channel pore

location: membrane channel protein description: narrow pore function: permits selective passage of water and hyrdophillic solutes (eg inorganic ions)

Pituitary gland

location: midline of middle cranial fossa. rests in hypophysial fossa of sphenoid bone description: small, oval bilobed endocrine gland. two functional lobes: anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis). connected by infundibulum to hypothalamus function: anterior pituitary produces the following hormones: thyroid-stimulating (TSH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorcicotropic (ACTH), growth (GH), lutenizing (LH), melanocyte-stimulating (MSH), and follicle-stimulating (FSH). posterior pituitary stores and releasesantidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT) (aka hypophysial gland or hypophysis) comment: posterior pituitary does not produce any hormones; ADH and OT produced in hypothalamus

Thyroid gland

location: neck (anterior inferior) description: bilobed endocrine gland. normally composed of left and right lateral lobes connected across midline by isthmus of gland. an additional, superiorly-directed, conical pyramidal lobe present 50% of the time function: follicular cells: synthesize and secrete thyroid hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine). parafollicular cells: synthesize and secrete calcitonin comment: lobes lie lateral to trachea and larynx. enlarged thyroid gland known as a goiter, typically due to insufficient dietary iodine

Brachial plexus

location: neck (inferior), axilla, shoulder, upper limb contributions: ventral rami of C5-T1 spinal nerves composition: motor, general sensation motor: nerves derived from brachial plexus distribute to muscles of upper limb general sensation: nerves derived from brachial plexus distribute to skin of upper limb comment: divided into roots (C5-T1), trunks (upper, middle, lower), divisions (anterior, posterior), and cords (medial, lateral, posterior). 5 terminal branches (musculocutaneous, median, ulnar, radial, and axillary nerves). 11 other branches. a plexus is a network of nerves, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

Anterior cervical region

location: neck, anterior to sternocleidomastoid region description: anterior subdivision of neck. anterior boundary is midline of neck. posterior boundary is anterior edge of sternocleidomastoid. superior boundary is inferior edge of mandible. apex is jugular notch. roof is subcutaneous tissue (with platysma muscle) and investing layer of deep cervical fascia. floor is pharynx, larynx, and thyroid gland. (aka anterior cervical triangle)

Larynx

location: neck, between pharynx and trachea description: skeleton formed by nine cartilages. contains vocal cords. mucous membrane-lined cavity. superior end of lower respiratory tract function: conducts air to and from lower respiratory tract. sound production ("voice box"). prevents swallowed food from entering lower respiratory tract comment: laryngeal cartilages include paired arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages, and unpaired thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottic cartilages

Lateral cervical region

location: neck, between posterior cervical and sternocleidomastoid (SCM) regions. descrption: lateral subdivision of neck. anterior boundary: posterior edge of SCM. posterior boundary: anterior edge of trapezius. inferior boundary: middle third of clavicle. apex: superior nuchal line at junction of SCM and trapezius. roof: subcutaneous tissue (with platysma muscle) and investing layer of deep cervical fascia. floor: cervical muscles covered by prevertebral layer of deep cervical fascia. (aka posterior cervicle triangle)

Lower respiratory tract

location: neck, thorax description: larynx is a mucous membrane-lined cartilagenous passageway between pharynx and trachea. trachea is a tube with C-shaped cartilagenous plates. bronchi are contiuations from trachea to lungs. lungs in right and left pulmonary cavities function: larynx conducts air between pharynx and trachea; it is also involved in sound production (phonation). trachea conducts air to and from bronchi, which enter the lungs. lungs are primary organs of respiration. acid-base balance comment: larynx also known as "voice box"

Sternocleidomastoid region

location: neck. between anterior and lateral cervical regions description: subdivision of neck related to sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle. SCM divides anterior and lateral cervical regions

Nuclear pore

location: nuclear envelope description: opening in nuclear envelope (30-100 nm in diameter). formed by ring of protein function: allows for, and regulates, passage of material between cytoplasm and nucleus

Nucleolus

location: nucleus description: dark staining, granular region of nucleus (1-3 um in diameter). usually spherical in shape. 1-3 present depending on synthetic activity of cell function: ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome assembly comment: stains darkly with basic histological dyes like hematoxylin

Eye

location: orbit of skull description: globe-like structure. composed of three tunics (layer): fibrous, vascular, and neural. fibrous tunic composed of cornea and sclera. vascular tunic composed of choroid, ciliary body, and iris. neural tunic composed of retina and pigment epithelium function: optical components collect and focus light. neural components process and transmit light-driven signals to brain (aka eyeball or globe)

Membrane-bound ribosome

location: outer aspect of rough ER. outer aspect of nuclear envelope description: ribosomes attached to membrane-bound organelles (ie outer side of RER and nuclear envelope) function: membrane-bound ribosomes involved in translating protein destined for secretory vesicles, lysosomes, or insertion into membranes

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

location: outside cranial cavity and vertebral canal description: cranial nerves, spinal nerves and their branches, autonomic nerves (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and their plexuses. ganglia, including sympathetic, parasympathetic, and sensory (dorsal root) function: transmits information to, and received information from, central nervous system. functional divisions: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent). mediates some reflexes comment: a spinal nerve is the junction in the intervertebral foramen between dorsal and ventral roots and the dorsal and ventral rami; however, some use this term to describe all nerves derived from the spinal cord

Pelvic cavity

location: pelvic region description: bounded by pelvic inlet (superiorly) and pelvic outlet (inferiorly). major organs include urinary bladder, loops of small intestine, inferior part of sigmoid colon, rectum, and reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, vagina in female; prostate and seminal glands in male). continuous superiorly with abdominal cavity. (aka lesser (or true) pelvis

Uterus

location: pelvis description: part of female reproductive tract. pear-shaped organ with narrow cavity. divided into body and cervix. body has thick, smooth muscle layer (myometrium). cervix pierces superior, anterior wall of vagina function: conducts sperm. implantation site for blastocyst. supplies nutrients and oxygen, via placents, to embryo and fetus. contacts to expel fetus and placenta during parturition (childbirth) comment: position varies with fullness of urinary bladder and rectum. contacts diaphragm in late pregnancy. hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus) performed for treatment of cancer, fibroids, or endometriosis

Ovary

location: pelvis (lateral wall), near distal end of uterine tube, extend into lower abdominal quadrants description: paired, female gonad. almond shape and size. contains oocytes (egg) function: maturation (oogenesis) and release (ovulation) of oocytes. produces the female sex hormones progesterone, estrogen, and inhibin comment: suspended by mesovarium of broad ligament (a peritoneal fold). suspensory ligament of ovary (a peritoneal fold) contains ovarian vessels and nerves. size decreases after menopause

Urethra

location: pelvis, perineum description: fibromuscular tube. proximal end: internal urethral orifice of urinary bladder. distal end: external urethral orifice in perineum. male (18-20 cm in length): preprostatic, prostatic, mebranous, and spongy (penile) parts. female (4 cm in length) not subdivided function: male: transports semen and urine. female: transports urine comment: flow of urine from kidney: collecting duct > renal papilla > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra. urinary tract infection (UTI) more frequent in females due to shorter urethra and proximity to anus

Male reproductive system

location: pelvis, perineum organs and tissues: sperm, testis, epididymis, vas (ductus) deferens, spermatic cord, ejaculatory duct, accessory glands, external genitalia description: gonads (testes), accessory glands (eg prostate, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands), external genitalia (penis and scrotum) function: testis produces sperm (gametes or male sex cells) and components of semen. produces testosterone (androgen or male sex hormone). transfers semen to external urethral orifice of male comment: plural = epididymides. perineum in male is area between thighs that includes anus, distal urethra, penis, scrotum, and perineal muscles. perineum in female is area between thighs that inludes anus, external urethral and vaginal orifices, clitoris, labia minora and majora, and perineal muscles

Microvillus

location: apical surface of some epithelia. most developed on absorptive cell in small intestine and kidney proximal convoluted tubule description: non-motile, finger-like projection from cell surface (0.1 um in diameter; 1-2 um in length). core comprised 25-30 microfilaments (ie actin filaments). actin filament core anchored to terminal web (a complex of micro- and intermediate filaments) located immediately beneath apical plasma membrane. visible as "brush border" in light microscope; individual microvilli distinguished only in electron microscope function: increase cell surface area, facilitate transport and absorption (eg nutrients) across membrane comment: plural is microvilli. microvilli have actin core, lack a basal body, and are not motile; cilia and flagella have microtubule core and are motiel. stereocilia are long microvilli (not cilia) found only on epithelium lining epididymis and on choclear hair cells. villi are finger-like protrusions of lamina ropria (eg in small intestine) covered with microvilli

Skeletal muscle

location: axial and appendicular muscles description: skeletal muscles composed of multiple muscle fascicles (bundles). muscle fascicles formed by multiple muscle fibers. muscle fibers are elongated, unbranched, cylindrical contractile cells. each skeletal muscle cell contains multiple nuclei located at regular intervals. arrangement of contractile elements gives appearance of cross-striations (stripes) function: movement (eg walking), maintenance of posture, communication (eg facial expression). body functions, including respiration, circulation, digestion, defecation, urination, and childbirth. temperature regulation (eg up to 85% of body heat from skeletal muscle) (aka striated or voluntary muscle) comment: approximately 600 muscles formed by skeletal muscle in body

Triangle of auscultation

location: back description: small, triangular gap between trapezius and latissimus dorsi muscles and inferior part of medial scapular border. floor of triangle formed by rhomboid major muscle and thoracolumbar fascia

Lumbar region

location: back (inferior) description: subdivision of back, includes lumber vertebrae and attacked muscles (aka lower back) --> common site of back pain and interverterbral disc herniation

Scapular region

location: back (superolateral) description: subdivision of back over scapula (scapula aka shoulder blade)

Neck

location: between head (superiorly) and thorax and shoulders (inferiorly) description: connects head with upper limb and trunk. skeleton formed cervical vertebrae. contains larynx and trachea, cervical part of spinal cord, parts pharynx and esophagus, and thyroid and parathyroid glands. subdivided into anterior cervical, lateral cervical, posterior cervical, and sternocleidomastoid regions

Perineal region

location: between proximal thighs, from coccyx to public symphysis. inferior to pelvic diaphragm description: subdivision of trunk. forms diamond-shaped area when thighs abducted. anterior boundary: mons pubis. lateral boundary: medial surface of thigh. posterior boundary: gluteal folds and superior end of intergluteal (natal) cleft. subdivided into anal and urogenital triangles. contents of anal triangle: anus. contents of urogenital triangle: clitoris, external urethral and vaginal orifices (female); penis, scrotum and its contents (male)

Secretory vesicle of Golgi apparatus

location: between trans-face of golgi apparatus and plasma membrane description: membrane-bound organelle function: carries protein products from golgi apparatus to cell surface for exocytosis

Brainstem

location: caudal portion of brain description: vertical, stalk-like portion of brain. includes midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Plasma membrane

location: cell surface description: phosopholipid bilayer that contains cholesterol and proteins. outer surface has attached coat of carbohydrates known as glycocalyx function: encloses cell contents. communication (receptors). intracelluar connections. regulates movement of materials into and out of cell (aka plasmalemma or cell membrane. phospholipid bilayer also known as "unit membrane") comment: membranes of membrane-bound organelles have structure similar to plasma membrane

Bone marrow

location: central (marrow or medullary) cavities of all bones description: soft pulpy tissue. two forms (red and yellow) function: red marrow, found throughout fetal and postnatal skeleton, is site of hemopoeisis. yellow marrow contains predominantly adipose tissue and blood vessels comment: after about 5 years of age, red marrow gradually replaced by yellow marrow. in early twenties, red marrow found only in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicles, scapulae, pelvis, cranial bones, and proximal end of femur and humerus

Nervous system

location: central nervous system (CNS) - within cranial cavity and vertebral cavity. peripheral nervous system (PNS) - throughout body organs and tissues: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia description: structural divisions: CNS and PNS. CNS includes brain and spinal cord. PNS includes nerves that extend from brain and spinal cord, and ganglia. functional divisions: afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) function: primary communication and control system for body. afferent division receives sensory information from receptors and transmits to CNS. efferent division transmits motor impulses from CNS to muscles or glands. afferent and efferent divisions have somatic (related to structures of the body wall such as skeletal muscle, skin, and mucous membranes) and visceral or autonomic (related to smooth muscle, glands of internal organs, and blood vessels) parts comment: in Latin, afferens = to bring to; efferens = to bring out

Microfilament

location: cortex of cell (terminal web, immediately under plasma membrane). microvilli and stereocilia (core). muscle cells description: cytoskeletal filaments (6 nm in diameter). composed of actin monomers (G-actin): two actin chains coil around each other to form a thin filament (known as F-actin) function: mechanical strength of cell (contributes to terminal web). forms core of microvilli. interacts with myosin to produce muscle contraction. during mitosis, anchors cetnrosomes at opposite poles of cell (aka thin filament or actin filament) comment: terminal web is a complex of micro- and intermediate filaments located in cortex of cell (ie immediately subjacent to plasma membrane). cytoskeleton composed of three types of filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

Brain

location: cranial cavity description: major organ of central nervous system (CNS). composed of neurons and glia comment: considered the seat of consciousness, intelligence, learning, emotion, and memory

Central nervous system (CNS)

location: cranial cavity (brain), vertebral canal (spinal cord) description: division of nervous system. includes brain and spinal cord function: integrates and processes nervous information. brain considered the seat of consciousness, intelligence, learning, emotion, and memory. control center (ie hypothalamus) for endocrine system. spinal cord provides a pathway for sensory and motor impulses, and mediates some reflexes

Lysosome

location: cytoplasm description: membrane-bound organelle (0.3-0.8 um in diameter). contains acidic hydrolytic ezymes (which are mostly glycoproteins). formation: (1) acidic hydrolytic enzymes synthesized in rough endoplasmic reticulum, (2) transported through golgi apparatus, (3) packaged into vesicles released from trans-face of golgi apparatus as (primary) lysosomes, and finally (4) fuse with vesicle containing material to be degraded to form secondary lysosome (also called a phagolysosome). primary lysosomes: moderately electron-dense in transmission electro micrographs (TEMs). seconary lysosomes (phagolysosomes): moderately electron-dense in TEM but contain extremely electron-dense material function: digests macromolecules, microorganisms, old or damaged organelles comment: lysosomes and peroxisomes structurally similar but contain different enzymes: lysosomes - acidic hydrolases; peroxisomes - oxidases.

Peroxisome

location: cytoplasm description: membrane-bound organelle (<1.0 um in diameter). contains oxidative enzymes (eg catalase). has dense core, called a nucleoid, composed of urate oxidase function: formation and breakdown of intracellular hydrogen peroxide (which can be used to oxidize alcohol, formaldehyde, and phenols). breakdown of fatty acids. involved in bile acid synthesis in liver comment: peroxisomes an dlysosomes are structurally similar but contain different enzymes: peroxisomes contain oxidases whereas lysosomes contain acidic hydrolyases

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

location: cytoplasm description: membrane-bound organelle. subdivision of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), an interconnected system of tubules and flattened sacs (cisternae). lacks attached ribosomes. continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). special name in skeletal muscle: sarcoplasmic reticulum function: synthesizes lipids (especially membrane phospholipids). detoxifies drugs and alcohol. metabolizes carbohydrates. stores calcium (ie in sarcoplasmic reticulum)

Mitochondrion

location: cytoplasm description: rod-shaped, membrane-bound organelle (0.5-1.0 um in diameter; up to 7 um in length). has double membrane (ie two lipid bilayers): outer membrane is smooth, inner membrane has complex folds called cristae. intermembrane space between outer and inner membrane. matrix space enclosed by inner membrane function: "powerhouse" of cell (most cells contain numerous mitochondria). synthesizes adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which provides chemical energy for cellular respiration (through oxidative phosphorlyation comment: contains mitochondrial DNA that codes for 13 mitochondrial proteins, 16S and 12S rRNA, and 22tRNAs. origin of mitochondria as an organelle: thought to be prokaryotic organisms (like bacteria) that formed symbiotic relationship with anaerobic eukaryotic cells: "mitochondria" received protection and nutrients, the cell received a chemical energy source

Golgi apparatus

location: cytoplasm. adjacent to rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) description: membrane-bound organelle. series of flattened sacs (cisternae). three subdivisions: (1) cis-face (closest to, and contiguous with RER), (2) intermediate face, and (3) trans-face (farthest from RER) function: transport vesicles, containing newly synthesized proteins from RER, fuse with cis-face. modifies, packages, and sorts newly synthesized proteins. modified proteins packaged at trans-face into vesicles that become lysosomes (contain hydrolytic enzymes), secretory vesicles (undergo exocytosis), or vesicles that add new plasma membrane comment: golgi apparatus also called golgi network or stack. cis-face also known as receiving region. trans-face also known as "transport" or "shipping" region

Distal

farther from trunk or origin of a structure

Nervous tissue

function: monitor internal and external environment, process information, initiate commands types: neuron, glial cell

Muscle tissue

functions: produce body movement, body and organ movement, maintenance of posture, communication, control of body openings, heat production composed of muscle fibers (cells), fibers contain contractile proteins properties: excitability, conductivity, contractility, elasticity, extensibility types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth

Connective tissue

functions: structural support, binds organs of the body, fat storage, exchange of nutrients and metabolic waste, defense and protection components: cells, protein fibers, ground substance, proportions and types of components define connective tissue categories. protein fibers + ground substance = extracellular matrix

Smooth muscle tissue

in wall of blood vessels, ducts, organs. involuntary. elongated body with tapered ends (fusiform-shaped), one centrally located nucleus, myofilaments arranged randomly, no striations or sarcomeres, contains dense bodies for thin filament attachment characteristics: tightly packed, arranged in sheets, slow to contract, resistant to fatigue, contraction coordinated through gap junctions

Cardiac muscle tissue

involuntary. short branched cells, one or two centrally located nuclei, numerous mitochondria, striations intercalated disc: junction between cardiac muscle cells. gap junction form electrical connection. desmosomes form mechanical junction

Intermediate filament

location: cytoplasm. nuclear envelope description: cytoskeletal filaments (8-12 nm in diameter). more than 50 different intermediate filaments (IFs) in human cells, including cytokeratins (epithelial cells), desmin (muscle), vimentin (mesodermal cells), neurofilaments and peripherins (neurons), glial fibrillary acidic protein (glial cells), and nuclear lamins (nuclear envelope) function: maintain cell shape and rigidity. anchor organelles. structural support for nuclear envelope (nuclear lamins). structural support for apical cytoplasm (terminal web, immediately subjacent ot plasma membrane). cytoplasmic IFs connected to plasma membrane at cell junctions (eg tonofilaments associated with desmosomes and hemidesmosomes) by IF-associated proteins comment: epidermolysis bullosa simplex (EBS) a disorder associated with mutations in some keratin genes can result in blister formation in epidermis. cytoskeleton composed of three types of filament: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

Female reproductive system

location: pelvis, perineum, anterior thoracic wall organs and tissues: oocytes, ovaries, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands description: gonads (ovaries), accessary glands (greater vestibular glands), uterus, external genitalia (mons pubis, labia majora and minora, vestinule (between labia minora), bulb of vestibule, greater vestibular glands, vaginal and external utrethral orifices, hymen, and clitoris), mammary glands (in breast on anterior thoracic wall) function: produces oocytes (gametes or female sex cells), produces estrogen and progeterone, and inhibin (female sex hormones), receives sperm from male, site of fertilization of oocyte, site of growth of embryo and fetus, lactation comment: perineum in female is area between thighs that includes anus, external urethral and vaginal orifices, clitoris, labia minora and majora, and perineal muscles. perineum in males is are between thighs that includes anus, distal urethra, penis, scrotum, and perineal muscles

Urinary bladder

location: pelvis. when distended, extends into lower abdominal quadrants; in pubic region description: hollow organ with smooth muscle wall (detrusor muscle). three openings define trigone of bladder: two ureteric and one urethral. superior aspect covered by peritoneum function: storage of urine. micturition (urination) comment: size and position varies with volume of urine. volume of urine affects position of surrounding organs, especially uterus.

Centrosome

location: perinuclear cytoplasm (ie, near nucleus) description: includes pair of centrioles arranged at right angles to one another. also includes centrosome matrix (pericentriolar material), whose texture is different from surrounding cytoplasm function: assists in formation and organization of microtubules. responsible for spindle formation during mitosis comment: (aka microtubule organizing center - MTOC.) pair of centrioles also known as diplosome

Peripheral membrane protein

location: plasma membrane description: protein molecule associated with either intracellular (cytoplasmic) or extracellular surface of membrane and does not extend into lipid bilayer. usually associated with transmembrane protein and anchored to cytoskeleton (if on intracellular surface) function: cell signaling. regulation of transmembrane proteins (eg ion channels). enzyme activity

Integral membrane protein

location: plasma membrane description: protein that is partially or completely embedded within plasma membrane. transmembrane proteins, a subclass of integral membrane proteins, traverse both sides of lipid bilayer. hydrophobic regions of integral membrane protein interact with interior (ie hydrophobic region) of lipid bilayer. hydrophilic regions of integral membrane protein exposed to hydrophilic regions on either side of lipid bilayer function: receptors for specific molecules. enzyme activity. membrane channel (for water or hydrophilic solutes). cell-identity marker. cell adhesion (aka intrinsic membrane protein) comment: integral membrane protein distinguished from peripheral membrane protein (attached to inner or outer surface by weak electrostatic forces)

Glycoprotein

location: plasma membrane description: sugar-containing membrane protein; specifically, membrane protein conugated with (ie covalently bound to) carbohydrate molecules. accounts for >90% of membrane molecules conjugated with carbohydrate molecules. function: cell-cell interactions (eg immune reaction, hormone-cell, sperm-oocyte, developemental interactions) comment: carbohydrate molecules attached to glycoproteins and glycolipids contribute to glycocalyx

Membrane channel

location: plasma membrane description: transmembrane protein (a subclass of integral membrane proteins) that forms narrow pore function: permits selective passage of water and hydrophillic solutes (eg inorganic ions). some channels constantly open. other channels open and close with specific stimulus: ligand-gated channels respond to chemical messengers; voltage-gated channels respond to changes in electrical potential of membrane; mechanically regulated channels respond to membrane distention

Endocytic vesicle

location: plasma membrane and cytoplasm description: membrane-bound vesicle. two types of endycytic vesicle: phagosome (>250 nm in diameter) and pinocytic vesicle (<150 nm in diameter). phagosome engulfs relatively large particles (eg bacteria, dust, cellular debris). pinocytic vesicle engulfs extracellular fluid; also used to recycle plasma membrane. receptor-mediated endocytic vesicle, a specialized pinocytic vesicle, involved in uptake of specific molecules (eg low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors or insulin receptors regulate, respectively, uptake of LDL and insulin across endothelial membrane in blood vessels) function: moves large particles, fluid, or molecules through plasma membrane and into cell comment: endocytosis is a process by which plasma membrane surrounds extracellular substances and internalizes (ie, brings substance into cell) material within a membrane-bound vesicle

Lipid bilayer

location: plasma membrane. membrane-bound organelles (ER, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, nucleus, and plasmids) description: 75% of lipids in plasma membrane are phospholipids. double layer of phospholipids with a polar (hydrophilic) head and two non-polar (hydrophobic) tails. polar (hydrophilic) head comprised of a head group (cholien or charged amino acid, eg serine or ethanolamine), phosphate, and glycerol. non-polar tails comprised of fatty acids function: forms semipermeable membrane around cell and membrane-bound organelles. separates aqueous intracellular and extracellular compartments. membrane surface charge comment: lipid bilayer also known as "unit membrane"

Vertebral region

location: posterior cervical and back regions (midline) description: subdivision of neck and back over vertebral column. includes cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and cocygeal vertebrae

Vertebral column

location: posterior midline of axial skeleton description: composed on 33 vertebrae and intervertebral disks (C2-S1), distributed in five regions. 7 cervical (C) vertebrae. 12 thoracic (T) vertebrae. 5 lumbar (L) vertebrae. 5 sacral (S) vertebrae, fused into single bone (sacrum). 3-5 coccygeal (Co) vertebrae, variably fused. has series of curvatures along length (aka spinal column, spine, or backbone)

Lungs

location: pulmonary cavity (in lateral thoracic cavity). surrounded by pleural cavity description: cone shape with dome-shaped apex and convex base (rests on diaphragm). left lung has two lobes: upper (or superior) and lower (or inferior), separated by oblique fissure. right lung has three lobes: upper (or superior), middle, and lower (inferior), separated by two fissures - oblique and horizontal. two lung surfaces: costal (anterior, lateral, and poseterior) and mediastinal (medial). medial surface has hilum with airway and pulmonary vessels. surface of lung covered with visceral pleura function: primary organ of respiration comment: thoracic cavity divided into three parts: mediastinum, and right and left pulmonary cavities

Right lower quadrant

location: right of midline, inferior to transverse plane through umbilicus description: lower right lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity. contents include parts of small intestine, large intestine (including cecum and vermiform appendix), urinary bladder (when distended), and right uterine tube and ovary. function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs and abdominal pain function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs and abdominal pain (abbreviation - RLQ)

Right upper quadrant

location: right of midline, superior to transverse plane through umbilicus description: upper right lateral area of abdominopelvic cavity. contents include right kidney and suprarenal gland, gallbladder, and parts of liver, stomach, pancreas, and small and large intestines. function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs and abdominal pain (abbreviation = RUQ)

Cerebrum

location: rostral portion of brain description: includes two large cerebral hemispheres separated by longitudinal fissure. hemispheres connected by corpus callosum. surface gray matter of each hemisphere is known as cerebral cortex. within each hemisphere there is a core of white matter. additional masses of gray matter location within cerebrum include basal nuclei. comment: rostral = toward the nose (latin: rostrum = beak)

Epididymis

location: scrotum description: convoluted muscluar tube along posterolateral surface of testis. between efferent ducts of testis and vas deferens. divided into head, body, and tail function: site for maturation and storage of sperm comment: plural of epididymis is epididymides. sperm can be stored in epididymis for 5-6 weeks

Testis

location: scrotum description: paired, oval, male gonad. dense outer capsule (tinica albuginea testis). interior divided into 200-300 lobules. each lobule contains up to three seminiferous tubules function: produces sperm cells. produces androgens (male sex hormones) such as testosterone comment: plural: testes. the testis begins development near the kidney, and later descends along the posterior abdominal wall to the scrotum. development of sperm cells is temperature dependent (scrotal temperature ~3 deg lower than body cavity). temperature of testis regulated by: (1) distance from body cavity, and (2) heat exchange between testicular artery and pampiniform venous plexus. testosterone regulates hair pattern, sperm production, skeletomuscular growth, and libido

Vas deferens

location: scrotum, inguinal canal, pelvis description: muscular tube between epididymis and ejaculatory duct function: transport sperm and fluid from epididymis during emission (aka ductus deferens) comment: emission is stage of male sexual response when components of semen are brought together in prostatic urethra. scrotal part bisected during vasectomy (voluntary sterilization)

Skeleton of upper limb

location: shoulder, arm, forearm, hand (including wrist) description: includes clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges of fingers

Dermis

location: skin (between epidermis and hypodermis) description: two layers: papillary (superficial), composed of areolar connective tissue; and reticular (deep), composed of dense irregular connective tissue. contains appendages of skin: hair follicles and glands (sweat and sebaceous). contains sensory nerve endings and dense network of blood and lymphatic vessels. includes part of hair follicle (which develops as invagination from epidermis) function: supports epidermis. dense concentration of collagen and elastin gives skin strength. receives general sensory stimuli (pain, touch, and temperature) via nerve endings and specialized receptors. regulates body temperature comment: muscles of facial expression insert on dermis

Epidermis

location: skin (superficial to dermis) description: keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of variable thickness, avascular, major cell type is keratinocyte. thick skin has five layers (superficial to deep): stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. thin skin has four layers (stratum lucidum is missing). cells of stratum lucidum and stratum corneum lack nuclei function: physical barrier, protection of underlying structures comment: also contains stem cells, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and dendritic cells. depends on underlying dermis for nutrients (ie vascular supply)

Thoracic region

location: superior part of trunk. between neck and abdomen description: topographic (surface) subdivision of trunk (aka chest region) --> thoracic cavity contains heart and great vessels, lungs, thymus, distal part of trachea, most of esophagus, and thoracic duct

Head

location: superior to neck region. description: skeleton includes skull and associated bones (hyoid and auditory ossicles). soft tissues and bones form cranial cavity, oral cavity, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses, orbits, and ears. contains brain and organs of special sense (vision, hearing and equilibrium, smell, and taste)

Mediastinum

location: thoracic cavity description: middle region of thorax, lies between sternum and thoracic vertebral bodies, separates right and left pulmonary cavities, divided into superior and inferior parts, inferior mediastinum subdivided into middle, posterior, and anterior parts comment: superior mediastinum includes great vessels, thymus (remnant in adult), thoracic duct, and parts of trachea and esophagus. middle mediastinum includes heart, pericardium, and roots of great vessels. posterior mediastinum contains thoracic aorta, esophagus, and thoracic duct. anterior mediastinum contains: loose connective tissue (may include thymic remnant in adult). thoracic cavity divided into three parts: mediastinum and right and left pulmonary cavities. latin: mediastinum = middle septum

Visceral pleura

location: thoracic cavity description: thin, serous membrane. fused to surface of lung. continuous with parietal pleura at root of lung. separated from parietal pleura by pleural cavity comment: thoracic cavity divided into midline mediastinum and right and left pulmonary cavities

Presternal region

location: thoracic region (anterior midline) description: subdivision of thoracic region over sternum

Pectoral region

location: thoracic region (anterior) description: subdivision of thoracic region over pectoralis major muscle

Axillary region

location: thoracic region (inferior to shoulder joint). between upper arm and lateral thoracic wall description: subdivision of thoracic region that includes axila. axilla is a pyramidal space. anterior boundary: pectoralis muscles and clavipectoral fascia. posterior boundary: scapula and subscapularis, teres major, and latissimus dorsi muscles. medial boundary: serratus anterior and upper lateral thoracic wall (ribs 1-4 and intercostal muscles). lateral boundary: humerus (intertubercular sulcus). base: skin, subcutaneous tissue, and axillary (deep) fascia. apex: passage between neck and upper limb (cervicoaxillary canal) formed by rib 1, clavicle, and superior border of scapula. contents of axilla: axillary artery, vein, and lymph nodes; infraclavicular part of brachial plexus; and areolar tissue. (axilla also known as armpit)

Pulmonary cavity

location: thorax description: bilateral subdivision of thoracic cavity (separated by mediastinum), contains lungs and pleurae, lined by parietal pleura comment: thoracic cavity has three subdivisions -- a central mediastinum (contains heart and thoracic parts of great vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus) and bilateral pulmonary cavities (contains lungs and pleurae)

Thoracic cavity

location: thorax description: cavity of the chest. bounded by sternum, ribs and costal cartilages, intercostal muscles, thoracic vertebrae, and diaphragm. three subdivisions: a central mediastinum (contains heart and thoracic parts of great vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus) and bilateral pulmonary cavities (contains lungs and plurae)

Thoracic cage

location: thorax description: skeletal framework of chest. twelve pairs of ribs and sternum. all ribs: articulate with thoracic vertebra. true ribs (ribs 1-7): attached directly to sternum by costal cartilages. false ribs (ribs 8-10): attach indirectly to sternum via shared costal cartilages. floating ribs (ribs 11-12): not associated with costal cartilages and thus not attached to sternum. alternate definition: some include the floating ribs (11-12) as a subcategory of false ribs

Parietal pleura

location: thorax description: thin, serous membrane. lines pulmonary cavity. fused to internal walls of thoracic cavity and lateral surface of mediastinum. continuous with visceral pleura at root of lung. regions include mediastinal, cervical, diaphragmatic, and costal comment: pleural cavity created by narrow space between parietal and visceral layers of pleura. thorax has three subdivisions: mediastinum and right and left pulmonary cavities. costal and peripheral diaphragmatic pleura innervated by intercostal nerves.

Parietal layer of serous pericardium

location: thorax (mediastinum) description: thin, serous membrane fused to inner surface of fibrous pericardium. outer limit of pericardial cavity. continuous with visceral layer of serous pericardium (pericardial cavity created by narrow space between parietal and visceral layers of serous pericardium)

Visceral layer of serous pericardium

location: thorax (mediastinum) description: thin, serous membrane fused to surface of heart (myocardium). inner limit of pericardial cavity. continuous with parietal layer of serous pericardium (aka epicardium -- outer layer of muscular wall of heart)

Bronchi

location: thorax (mediastinum), lung description: continuation of trachea into right and left lungs. bifurcation from trachea called main bronchi. each main bronchus branches sequentially into lobar (secondary), and segmental (tertiary) bronchi, followed by smaller branches that end in bronchioles. terminal bronchioles form respiratory bronchioles that lead eventually to alveoli function: conduct air between trachea and lungs comment: gas exchange occurs along airway between respiratory bronchiole and alveoli

Heart

location: thorax (middle mediastinum) description: conical, muscular organ with four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. function: pumps blood into body. modified cardiac muscle cells in right atrium secrete the hormone atripeptin (atrial natriuretic peptide) in response to distension (stretching) of the atrial wall. atriopeptin reduces blood volume by causing water loss and sodium excretion into urine (with less blood volume, blood pressure is reduced)

Pleural cavity

location: thorax (pulmonary cavity), around lung description: bilateral potential spaces between parietal and visceral layers of pleura comment: visceral pleura on surface of lung; parietal pleura (costal, diaphragmatic, mediastinal, and cervical parts) lines pulmonary cavity

Pericardial cavity

location: thorax, around heart description: potential space between parietal and visceral layers of serous pericardium comment: visceral layer of serous pericardium is on surface of heart; parietal layer fused to inner aspect of fibrous pericardium

Cardiovascular system

location: throughout body (blood and blood vessels), thorax (heart) organs and tissues: blood, blood vessels (arteries and veins), heart description: two circulatory divisions: pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation function: heart moves blood through blood vessels. blood and blood vessels distribute hormones, nutrients, and gases, and transport waste products. pulmonary circulation: movement of blood between heart and lungs. systemic circulation: movement of blood between heart and peripheral tissues

Oblique plane

slanted plane that passes through the body

Superficial

toward the surface of the body

Posterior

towards the back of the body or relating to the back (dorsal relates to the back)

Anterior

towards the front of the body (ventral relates to the belly)

Medial

towards the midline of the body

Connective tissue proper

loose: abundant ground substance, scattered cells and loosely arranged protein fibers. subcategories: areolar (in subcutaneous layer and around organs, gel-like ground substance, numerous blood vessels, scattered fibroblasts), adipose (in subcutaneous tissue and around some organs, composed of adipocytes (fat cells), reticular (forms stroma of lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow. network of reticular (collagen) fibers. scattered fibroblasts and leukocytes (wbc), gel-like ground substance) dense: abundant, tightly packed fibers with few cells, less ground substance subtypes: regular (forms tendons and most ligaments, densely-packed, parallel collagen fibers, fibroblasts between layers, little ground substance), irregular (in dermis, periosteum and perichondrium, and capsule of organs. randomly arranged collagen fibers, fibroblasts between layers, more ground substance than dense regular connective tissue), elastic (in walls of elastic arteries, trachea and bronchi and vocal cords. branching elastic fibers. fibroblasts between layers)

Prone

lying face down

Supine

lying face up

Classification of epithelial tissue

number of cell layers: simple = one layer stratified = multiple layers apical cell shape: squamous = flat, round cuboidal = square columnar = longer than it is wide other epithelia: transitional = stratified epithelium, transforms between cuboidal and squamous pseudostratified = simple epithelium, all cells contact basal lamina, not all cells reach apical surface apical cell membrane specializations: cilia = fingerlilke, motile projections simple columnar epithelium may be ciliated or nonciliated microvilli = nonmotile, increase surface area, form brush border keratin -- stratified squamous epithelium may be keratinized or nonkeratinized

Sagittal plane

plane that passes from front to back through the body, dividing it into left and right portions (sometimes called parasagittal plane) (not through midline)

Midsagittal plane

plane that passes from front to back through the midline of the body, dividing it into left and right halves (also called median plane)

Transverse plane

plane that passes perpendicular to the long axis of the body, dividing it into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) positions (also called horizontal plane or cross-section)

Coronal plane

plane that passes side-to-side through the body, dividing it into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions (also called frontal plane)

Neuron

properties: basic functional unit of the nervous system, specialized to conduct electrical impulses, high metabolic rate, nonmiotic, long-lived cells neuronal cell body: receives, integrates, and sends nerve impulses. large nucleus, prominent nucleolus, chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies) axon: direct information away from cell body. single, long, thin axon. connected to soma at axon hillock. does not branch; may have collaterals. telodendria at terminal with synaptic knobs dendrite: directs information towards cell body, short and branched, may have dendritic spines (where axons can synapse)

Skeletal muscle tissue

under voluntary control, usually attached to bones via tendons or other connective tissues. long, thin cylindrical cells. many nuclei just deep to sarcolemma (plasma membrane) connective tissue coverings: endomysium covers muscle fibers. perimysium (contains nerves and blood vessels that supply muscle fibers) covers muscle fascicle. epimysium covers muscle sarcoplasm: cytoplasm of skeletal muscle fiber myofibril: composed of myofilaments (contains thick and thin filaments) thin filament: actin, tropomoysin, troponin thick filament: myosin

Superior

upward or above (cranial relates to the head)

Pubic region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. lower median region (flanked by right and left inguinal regions). contents include urinary bladder (when distended), and parts of small and large intestines. function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs (aka hypogastric region)

Umbilical region

location: abdominal wall (anterior) description: one of nine regions of abdominal cavity. median region (flanked by right and left flank regions). contents include parts of small and large intestines function: used in clinical practice to describe location of abdominal organs

Deltopectoral triangle

location: anterior shoulder description: narrow, triangular groove bordered by clavicle, deltoid, and pectoralis major muscles (aka clavipectoral triangle) --> contains cephalic vein

Sacral region

location: back (inferior) description: subdivision of back. includes sacrum and attached muscles

Nasal cavity

location: between hard palate and base of skull description: paired cavities separated by nasal septum. irregular space with mucous membrane lining. anterior openings (nares). posterior openings (choanae). conchae on lateral wall function: warm, filter, and humidify inhaled air. olfaction (smell) comment: part of upper respiratory tract. mucosa has respiratory and olfactory parts. communicates with paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal duct

Free ribosome

location: cytoplasm description: not attached to rough endophasmic reticulum or outer aspect of nuclear envelope. multiple, free ribosomes attached to mRNA are called polyribosomes function: polyribosomes represent sites of cytoplasmic protein synthesis

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

location: cytoplasm (perinuclear). between nucleus and golgi apparatus description: membrane-bound organelle. subdivision of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), an interconnected system of tubules and flattened sacs (cisternae). has attached ribosomes. continuous with smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) function: synthesizes protein for secretion, insertion into plasma membrane, and lysosomal enzymes and other proteins packaged in vesicles comment: ER, which comprises approximately half the total membrane of the cell, has two subdivisions: (1) RER, which has attached ribosomes, and (2) SER, which lacks attached ribosomes

Microtubule

location: cytoplasm. cilia and flagella. centromere (in the centrosome) description: cytoskeletal filament (25 nm in diameter). composed of tubulin protein monomers that polymerize to form tubule function: mechanical strength. organelle movement (eg microtubules act like railroad track). chromosome movement (microtubules form spindle during cell division)

Inner leaflet of lipid bilayer

location: cytoplasmic (inner) side of lipid bilayer description: inner part of lipid bilayer. comprised of polar (hydrophilic) heads and non-polar (hydrophobic) fatty acid tails function: interacts with cytoplasmic compartment of cell comment: "plasma" membrane (also known as plasmalemma) encloses cell; "cell" membranes of membrane-bound organelles have similar structure.

Subcutaneous tissue

location: deep to integument (skin) description: composed of loose connective tissue and fat. contains sweat glands, superficial blood and lymphatic vessels, and cutaneous nerves function: fat storage, thermoregulation (insulation), protection (padding) comment: also called superficial fascia or hypodermis

Hypodermis

location: deep to skin description: layer of loose areolar connective and adipose tissue. contains cutaneous nerves and blood vessels, and glands (sweat and sebaceous). contains lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscle (pressure receptor). contains portions of hair follicles associated with thin skin function: fat storage, thermal regulation, permits movement of skin (aka subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia)

Nail body

location: fingers and toes, nail plate description: part of nail plate. layers of compacted, highly keratinized epithelial cells. corresponds to stratum corneum of epidermis function: protection for tip of finger and toe. aids in grasping function of finger

Nucleus

location: generally centrally located in cell; sometimes eccentric (ie off to one side) description: largest organelle (5-10 um in diameter. spherical or ovoid structure. nuclear envelope has double membrane (ie two lipid bilayers). contains cellular DNA and nucleolus function: DNA replication. DNA transcription into mRNA. ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly (in nucleolus) comment: cells that lack a nucleus (eg red blood cells) termed anulcleate; cells that have multiple nuclei (eg skeletal muscle cells) termed multinucleate. staining of DNA with basic histological dyes like hematoxylin depends on transcriptional ctivity: DNA undergoing active transcription, called euchromatin, stains lightly because it is less folded and, therefore, less dense; transcriptionally inactive DNA, or heterochromatin, is tightly packed an dcondensed and, therefore, stains more darkly

Oral region

location: head (anterior inferior facial region) description: region of mouth

Paranasal sinuses

location: head (around nasal cavity) description: hollow cavities within some skull bones. paired frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses. communicate with nasal cavity via ducts function: warm and humidify air, decrease weight of anterior skull, contribute to voice resonance comment: sinuses named for bones in which they are found

Auricular region

location: head (lateral cranial region) description: region of external ear

Buccal region

location: head (lateral face) description: region of cheek

Parietal region

location: head (lateral superior) description: part of cranial cavity related to parietal bone

Parotid region

location: head (lateral). inferior to auricular region description: part of facial region related to parotid salivary gland and ramus of mandible

Zygomatic region

location: head (lateral). inferior to orbital region. superior to buccal region description: part of cranial region related to zygomatic bone

Temporal region

location: head (lateral). superior to zygomatic arch and auricular region description: part of cranial region related to temporal bone

Occipital region

location: head (posterior) description: part of cranial cavity related to occipital bone

Skeleton of lower limb

location: hip, thigh, leg, foot description: includes hip bone, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges of toes

Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)

location: lamina propria of mucosa of gastrointestinal, respiratory, genital, and urinary tracts description: large collections of lymphatic nodules, collectively called mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT). MALT prominent in ileum of small intestine, where they are known as Peyer patches function: detect antigens and intiate immune response

Cervical plexus

location: neck contribution: ventral rami of C1-4 spinal nerves composition: motor, general sensation motor: phrentic n. (c3-5) supplies diaphragm. ansa cervicalis (c1-3) supplies infrahyoid mm. (sternohyoid, omohoyoid, and sternothyroid). other nerves supply rhomboids (dorsal scapular n.), serratus anterior (long thoracic n.), and prevertebral mm. general sensation: nerves derived from cervical plexus (esp. c2-4) distribute to skin over shoulder, anterior and lateral neck, and parts of head (auricle and posterior scalp) comment: a plexus is a network of nerves, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels

Posterior cervical region

location: neck (posterior aspect) description: subdivision of neck. deep to trapezius. contents include: greater occipital n., occipital a., and sucoccipital muscles

Parathyroid glands

location: neck, posterior surface of thyroid gland description: small nodules, partially embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland. usually four in number. contains two cell types: cheif cells and oxyphil cells function: cheif cells: synthesize and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH stimulates release of calcium into blood stream. oxyphil cells: secretion unknown comment: parathyroid glands lie external to capsule of thyroid gland

Trachea

location: neck, thoracic cavity (mediastinum), between larynx and tracheal bifuraction description: rigid tube held open by a series of "c-shaped" cartilaginous rings (open end of rings directed posteriorly). cartilaginous rings connected by anular ligaments of trachea. posterior aspect of tracheal rings closed by fibroelastic trachealis muscle (aka windpipe)

Glycocalyx

location: outer surface of plasma membrane description: "fuzzy coat" on extracellular (outer) surface of plasma membrane. comprised of carbohydrates attached to membrane glycolipids and glycoproteins function: protection against mechanical and chemical damage. immunity to infection. defense against cancer. transplant compatibility. cell adhesion. embryonic development (aka cell "coat") comment: glycocalyx visible in light microscope using histological stains (eg ruthenium red)

Glycolipid

location: outer surface of plasma membrane description: sugar-containing lipid molecule; specifically, membrane lipids conjugated with (covalently bound to) carbohydrate molecules. may account for 5% of lipid molecules in outer membrane layer function: protect membrane from harsh extracellular conditions (eg low pH and degradative enzymes). contribute to electrical properties of cell. cell-cell recognition. binding of cell to extracellular matrix and other cells comment: carbohydrate molecules attached to glycoproteins and glycolipids contribute to glycocalyx

Seminal vesicle

location: pelvis (between bladder and rectum) description: paired, sacculated, contorted muscular tube. duct connects to vas deferens function: accessory reproductive gland, contributes 60% of semen volume. secretes thick, alkaline fluid that contains fructose and prostoglandins (aka seminal gland) comment: duct of seminal vesicle and vas deferens unite to form ejaculatory duct

Prostate

location: pelvis (posterior to public symphysis) description: glandular and muscular regions. contains prostatic urethra, ejaculatory ducts, and 15-20 prostatic ducts. dense outer capsule function: accessory reproductive gland. contributes 30% of semen volume. secretes thin, milk, slightly acidic fluid that contains citric acid, seminal plasmin, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) comment: benign enlargement of prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia, or BPH) is common from middle age

Penis

location: perineum (urogenital triangle) description: attached part composed of erectile bodies (paired crura and unpaired bulb) covered by muscle. unattached part (body of penis) composed of erectile bodies (paired corpora cavernosa and unpaired corpus spongiosum). expanded distal end (tip) of corpus spongiosum forms glans function: male organ of copulation. body of penis contains dense network of sensory nerve endings important in sexual response. transmits urine and semen

Vagina

location: perineum (urogenital triangle), pelvis description: smooth muscle sheath (anterior and posterior walls in contact). about 9 cm in length. receives cervix of uterus (superiorly) and opens into vestibule (inferiorly). has annular fornix at upper end function: female organ of copulation. lower birth canal. duct for menstrual fluid comment: vaginal walls contain no glands

Cranial cavity

location: skull description: space in skull that contains brain, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). formed by frontal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid bones, parietal, and temoral bones

Hair

location: thin skin description: accessory organ of skin. fine, keratinized filament. grows from oblique tube in skin called hair follicle. each hair has three zones: bulb, root, and shaft. projects from epidermal surface (length varies by body region). usually pigmented (hair color due to melanin pigment granules in hair cortex) function: protection (eg from sunburn), heat retention (esp on scalp), cutaneous sensation, dispersion of chemical signals, facial recognition/visual identification comment: hair not found in thick skin of palms (hands) or soles (feet). genetic and hormonal factors determine body hair distribution. single hair also known as pilus (plural: pili)

Skeletal system

organs and tissues: bone, cartilage, ligament, tendon description: comprised of axial and appendicular skeleton. axial skeleton formed by skull and associated bones (eg hyoid bone), vertebral column, and thoracic cage. appendicular skeleton formed by bones of upper limb and pectoral girdle, and lower limb and pelvic girdle function: support for, and protection of body. provides site of attachment for muscles. movement of body via joints. hemopoiesis. storage of calcium and phosphorus

Epithelium

- form surface layer of body - line body cavities and hollow organs - constitute gland tissue - substances entering or leaving body cross an epithelia features: composed of cells in one or more layers, tightly packed cells, little or no extracellular matrix. free apical surface, fixed basal suface, specialized intercellular junctions, basement membrane, avascular, many sensory nerve endings, fast regeneration functions: resist dehydration and injury, regulate permeability, secretion, monitor environment through sensory input to nervous system (eg touch, pain, vision)

Intercellular junctions

- tight junctions: bands of fused, adjacent cell membranes, near free surface, encircle entire cell, seal space between adjacent cells - adhering junctions: band-like arrangement, encircle entire cell, depe to tight junctions, microfilaments anchor adjacent cells, small gap between cells - desmosomes: button or snap-like junction, form at points of mechanical stress, do not encircle entire cell - gap junctions: small pores, form cytoplasmic bridge between cells, comprised of connexons (hollow bridging structures), allows passage of small molecules

Lymphatic system

location: throughout body (except brain and spinal cord) organs and tissues: lymph, lymphatic cells, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic nodules, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen description: lymphatic system cells: macrophages, T- and B-lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells. red bone marrow is site of origin of lymphocyte precursors; their site of maturation differs. lymph vasculature (smallest to largest diameter): lymphatic capillaries, lymph vessels, lymphatic trunks and ducts. lymphatic nodules: clusters of lymphatic cells (usually not surrounded by connective tissue capsule), mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), and tonsils (palatine tonsils have a capsule). lymphatic organs: lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen (lymphatic cells surrounded by connective tissue capsule) function: produces lymphocytes. transports and filters lymph (lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes). filters blood (spleen). initiates immune responses comment: lymph is fluid within lymphatic vessels; it originates as fluid that leaves capillaries and enters interstitial spaces between cells. lymph is returned to venous system at junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins

Lymphatic vessels

location: throughout body (except brain and spinal cord). typically follow veins description: lymph vasculature (smallest to largest diameter): lymphatic capillaries, lymph vessels, lymphatic trunks and ducts. thoracic duct is the longest (38-45 cm) lymphatic vessel, extending from L2 vertebral level to base of neck function: transports lymph comment: lymph is fluid forced from blood into interstitial spaces between cells. lymph returned to venous system at junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins

Back

location: trunk (posterior), between neck region and tip of coccyx description: formed by skin and subcutaneous tissue, muscles, vertebral column (inferior to cervical region), ribs (thoracic region), and spinal cord and meninges

Abdominopelvic cavity

location: trunk, between thoracic and pelvic diaphragms description: continuous cavity formed by abdominal and pelvic cavities. major abdominal organs include stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and uterus, suprarenal glands, aorta, inferior vena cava, and lumbar nerve plexus. major pelvic organs include urinary bladder, loops of small intestine, inferior part of sigmoid colon, rectum, and reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, vagina in female; prostate and seminal glands in male)

Abdominopelvic region

location: trunk, inferior to thoracic region description: topographic (surface) subdivision of trunk

Hand region

location: upper limb (distal end) description: subdivision of upper limb. subdivisions include carpal (wrist), palmar, dorsum, and digits (fingers). includes skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, and vessles around carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges of fingers

Antebrachial region

location: upper limb (distal), between elbow and wrist joints description: subdivision of upper limb. skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around radius and ulna (aka forearm region)

Deltoid region

location: upper limb (proximal end) description: subdivision of upper limb over deltoid muscle. skin, muscles, nerves and vessels around glenohumeral joint (aka shoulder)

Brachial region

location: upper limb (proximal), between glenohumeral (shoulder) and elbow joints description: subdivision of upper limb. skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around humerus. (aka arm region)

Cubital region

location: upper limb. anterior and posterior aspects of elbow description: subdivision of upper limb. skin, muscles, nerves, and vessels around distal end of humerus and proximal ends of radius and ulna. includes cubital fossa, a shallow triangular depression on anterior aspect of elbow. important structures related to cubital fossa include: median cubital vein, brachial artery and its primary branches (eg radial and ulnar arteries), median and radial nerves, and biceps brachii tendon

Hypothalamus

location: ventral diencephalon description: collection of nuclei located inferior to thalamus. includes infundibulum and mammillary bodies function: considered master control center for endocrine system. secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones that control anterior pituitary gland. produces hormones that are transported to and stored in posterior pituitary gland. controls autonomic nervous system. regulates body temperature, food, and water intake. regulates emotional behavior, maintains sleep/wake cycle

Spinal cord

location: vertebral canal description: long, cylindrical portion of central nervous system. ends at level of L2 vertebra in adults. composed of inner core of gray matter and outer coat of white matter (opposite of brain). divided, from superior to inferior, into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and cocygeal regions comment: continuous with brain at foramen magnum. gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves

Vertebral cavity

location: vertebral column description: canal formed by combined vertebral foramina comment: contains spinal cord, meninges, spinal nerve roots, blood vessels, and fat