Chapter 12

criteria: dysfunction

Degree to which behavior interferes with daily life and relationships

criteria: typicality

Degree to which behavior is atypical, meaning rarely seen or statistically abnormal

criteria: deviance

Degree to which behavior is considered outside the standards or rules of society

criteria: distress

Degree to which behavior or emotions cause an individual to feel upset or uncomfortable

Describe the "3 Ds" and give an example of each in relation to a psychological disorder.

Dysfunction is the degree to which a behavior interferes with one's life or ability to function (for example, washing one's hands to the point of making them raw, as in obsessive-compulsive disorder). Distress is feeling regularly upset or uncomfortable because of unwanted behaviors or emotions (for example, continually feeling sad and hopeless, as in major depressive disorder). Deviance is the degree to which a behavior is considered to be outside of the standards or rules of a society (for example, removing one's clothes in inappropriate settings, as in bipolar disorder).

Bipolar I disorder

Episodes of mania that include an "abnormally, persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and persistently increased activity or energy that is present for most of the day, nearly every day, for a period of at least 1 week" This may be preceded by hypomania or depression.

psychosis

Loss of contact with reality that is severe and chronic

hallucinations

Perceptual-like experiences that an individual believes are real, but that are not evident to others

positive symptoms

Perceptual-like experiences that an individual believes are real, but that are not evident to others

dissociative disorders

Psychological disorders distinguished by disturbances in normal psychological functioning; may include problems with memory, identity, consciousness, perception, and motor control.

Bipolar II disorder

Repeated major depressive episodes (lasting at least 2 weeks) and "at least one hypomanic episode," which must last for a minimum of 4 days

What are some biopsychosocial factors that contribute to the development of schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder that results from a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. This disorder springs from a complex interaction of genes and environment. The diathesis-stress model takes these factors into account, with diathesis referring to an inherited disposition (for example, to schizophrenia) and stress referring to the stressors in the environment (internal and external). Genes, neurotransmitters, differences in the brain, and exposure to a virus in utero are all possible influences in the development of schizophrenia. There are some sociocultural and environmental factors that may play a minor role in one's risk for developing the disorder, as well as the severity of symptoms. Evidence exists, for instance, that complications at birth, social stress, and cannabis abuse are related to a slightly increased risk of schizophrenia onset.

Briefly summarize the theories of the etiology of schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder that results from biological, psychological, and social factors. Because this disorder springs from a complex interaction of genes and environment, researchers have a hard time predicting who will be affected. The diathesis-stress model takes these factors into account, with diathesis referring to an inherited disposition (for example, to schizophrenia) and stress referring to the stressors in the environment (internal and external). Genes, neurotransmitters, differences in the brain, and exposure to a virus in utero are all possible biological factors. Neurotransmitters are also thought to play a role in schizophrenia. The dopamine hypothesis, for example, suggests that the synthesis, release, and concentrations of dopamine are all elevated in people who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia and are suffering from psychosis. There are several environmental triggers thought to be involved in one's risk for developing the disorder as well as the severity of symptoms (for example, complications at birth, social stress, and cannabis abuse are related to a slightly increased risk of schizophrenia onset).

Melissa experienced recurrent, all-consuming thoughts of disaster and death. These were accompanied by her, which included repeating certain behaviors, such as locking her car and entering a room, an even number of times. a. obsessions; compulsions b. compulsions; obsessions c. compulsions; contamination d. negative reinforcers; obsessions

a. obsessions; compulsions

psychological disorder

a set of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive symptoms that are significantly distressing and disabling in terms of social functioning, work endeavors, and other aspects of life

One of the major distinctions of bipolar II disorder is that, unlike bipolar I disorder, it involves: a. at least one major depressive episode as well as a hypomanic episode. b. at least one major depressive episode as well as a manic episode. c. at least one hypomanic episode and one manic episode. d. at least one episode of psychosis.

a. at least one major depressive episode as well as a hypomanic episode

A woman in your neighborhood develops a reputation for being emotionally unstable, intense, and extremely needy. She also doesn't seem to have a sense of herself and complains of feeling empty. She struggles with intimacy and her relationships are unstable. If these are long-standing traits, which of the following might she be evaluated for? a. borderline personality disorder b. antisocial personality disorder c. bipolar II disorder d. major depressive disorder

a. borderline personality disorder

Which of the following is a criterion used to define abnormal behavior? a. dysfunction b. psychopathology c. developmental processes d. stigma

a. dysfunction

A woman with schizophrenia reports hearing voices that tell her she is ugly and worthless. This is an example of a(n): a. hallucination. b. delusion. c. negative symptom. d. diathesis.

a. hallucination

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

an evidence-based classification system of mental disorders first developed and published by the American Psychiatric Association in 1952

A woman is extremely anxious when she is unaccompanied in public. She no longer uses public transportation, refuses to go to the mall, and does not like being away from home. Perhaps she should get evaluated to see if she has which of the following diagnoses? a. panic disorder b. agoraphobia c. social anxiety disorder d. specific phobia

b. agoraphobia

insanity

legal determination of the degree to which a person is responsible for his criminal behaviors

One common approach to explaining the etiology of psychological disorders is the __________, which suggests that psychological disorders have underlying biological causes, such as genes, neurochemical imbalances, and problems in the brain.

medical model

comorbidity

the fact that many people suffer from more than one psychological disorder at a time

bipolar disorder

A psychological disorder marked by dramatic swings in mood, ranging from manic episodes to depressive episodes

agoraphobia

A psychological disorder that includes a distinct fear or anxiety in relation to an object or situation

specific phobia

A psychological disorder that includes a distinct fear or anxiety in relation to an object or situation.

major depressive disorder

A psychological disorder that includes at least one major depressive episode, with symptoms such as depressed mood, problems with sleep, and loss of energy

learned helplessness

A tendency for people to believe they have no control over the consequences of their behaviors, resulting in passive behavior

dopamine hypothesis

A theory suggesting that the synthesis, release, and concentrations of the neurotransmitter dopamine play a role in schizophrenia

compulsion

A thought, an urge, or an image that happens repeatedly, is intrusive and unwelcome, and often causes anxiety and distress

obsession

A thought, an urge, or an image that happens repeatedly, is intrusive and unwelcome, and often causes anxiety and distress

panic attack

A ____ is a sudden, extreme fear or discomfort that escalates quickly, often with no evident cause, and includes symptoms such as increased heart rate, sweating, shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea, lightheadedness, and fear of dying, similar to a heart attack. person could have a smaller amygdala.

dissociative fugue

A condition in which a person with dissociative amnesia wanders about in a confused and unexpected manner.

Compare the symptoms of bipolar disorder with those of major depressive disorder.

A diagnosis of bipolar I disorder requires that a person experience at least one manic episode, substantial distress, and great impairment. Bipolar II disorder requires at least one major depressive episode as well as a hypomanic episode, which is associated with some of the same symptoms as a manic episode, but is not as severe and does not impair one's ability to function. People with bipolar disorder cycle between extreme highs and lows of emotion and energy that last for days, weeks, or even months. Individuals with major depressive disorder, on the other hand, tend to experience a persistent low mood, loss of energy, and feelings of worthlessness.

schizophrenia

A disabling psychological disorder that can include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and abnormal psychomotor behavior

dissociation

A disturbance in the normally integrated experience of psychological functions involved in memory, consciousness, perception, or identity.

personality disorders

A group of psychological disorders that can include impairments in cognition, emotional responses, interpersonal functioning, and impulse control

stigma

A negative attitude or opinion about a group of people based on certain traits or characteristics

generalized anxiety disorder

A psychological disorder characterized by an excessive amount of worry and anxiety about activities relating to family, health, school, and other aspects of daily life

obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

A psychological disorder characterized by an excessive amount of worry and anxiety about activities relating to family, health, school, and other aspects of daily life

borderline personality disorder

A psychological disorder distinguished by an incomplete sense of self, extreme selfcriticism, unstable emotions, and feelings of emptiness.

antisocial personality disorder

A psychological disorder distinguished by unethical behavior, deceitfulness, impulsivity, irritability, aggressiveness, disregard for others, and lack of remorse.

dissociative amnesia

A psychological disorder marked by difficulty remembering important personal information and life events.

abnormal behavior

Behavior that is atypical, dysfunctional, distressful, and/or deviant

maladaptive behavior

Behaviors or actions that run counter to what is in one's own best interest

negative symptoms

Behaviors or characteristics that are limited or absent; examples are social withdrawal, diminished speech, limited or no emotions, and loss of energy and follow-up

How can classical conditioning be used to explain the development of panic disorder?

Classical conditioning can play a role in the development of a panic disorder by pairing an initially neutral stimulus (for example, a mall) with an unexpected panic attack (the unconditioned stimulus). The panic attack location then becomes a conditioned stimulus. When the location is visited or even considered, a panic attack can ensue (now the conditioned response).

How does negative thinking lead to depression?

Cognitive therapist Aaron Beck suggested that depression is a product of a cognitive triad, which includes a negative view of experiences, self, and the future. Negative thinking may lead to self-defeating behaviors, which, in turn, reinforce the beliefs.

What is the difference between bipolar I disorder and bipolar II disorder?

In order to be diagnosed with bipolar I disorder, a person must experience at least one manic episode spanning a week or more. These periods of mania are characterized by increased energy and activity and unusual excitement and/or irritability. Depression and hypomania may also occur. To be diagnosed with bipolar II disorder, a person must experience recurrent episodes of major depression lasting 2 or more weeks and at least one episode of hypomania spanning 4 or more days. Hypomania is a mild version of mania; the symptoms are similar, but not disabling.

manic episodes

States of continuous elation that is out of proportion to the setting, and can include irritability, very high and sustained levels of energy, and an "expansive" mood

delusions

Strange or false beliefs that a person firmly maintains even when presented with evidence to the contrary

abnormal psychology

The academic field devoted to the study of psychological disorders

Describe the similarities and differences between dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder.

The commonality in this group of disorders is dissociation, or disturbance in the normally unified experience of psychological functions involved in memory, consciousness, perception, or identity. Dissociative identity disorder is a psychological disorder that involves the occurrence of two or more distinct personalities within one individual, whereas dissociative amnesia is a psychological disorder that includes a lack of ability to remember important personal information and memories. Both disorders interfere with relationships, memory, work, and other important areas of life.

norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine.

The three neurotransmitters that appear to be associated with the cause and course of major depressive disorder

What is wrong with the following statement: "My friend is schizophrenic"?

This statement does not follow the suggestion of using "people-first language." Instead, it is defining an individual by her disorder. People are much more than their diagnoses. The diagnosis does not describe who your friend is, but only what is causing her distress or discomfort.

A neighbor describes a newspaper article she read last night about a man in his twenties who has been known to lie and con others, be aggressive and impulsive, and show little empathy or remorse. These are long-standing traits of his, so it is possible that he has: a. borderline personality disorder. b. antisocial personality disorder. c. dissociative identity disorder. d. dissociative amnesia.

b. antisocial personality disorder

To help explain the causes of psychological disorders, researchers often use the perspective, which examines the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. a. medical model b. biopsychosocial c. etiological d. learning

b. biopsychosocial

Ross described going 4 days without sleeping, or 2 weeks sleeping only 1 hour per night. He was exploding with energy, and feeling on top of the world. It is likely that Ross was experiencing periods of euphoria and excitement known as: a. depression. b. manic episodes. c. panic attacks. d. anxiety.

b. manic episodes

Dissociative identity disorder (commonly called multiple personality disorder) involves two or more distinct within an individual. a. hypomanic episodes b. personalities c. panic disorders d. psychotic episodes

b. personalities

A man with schizophrenia has hallucinations and delusions, and seems to be out of touch with reality. A psychologist explains to his mother that her son is experiencing: a. mania. b. psychosis. c. dissociative identity disorder. d. hypomania.

b. psychosis

The classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders have been criticized for: a. using specific criteria to identify disorders. b. the creation of labeling and expectations. c. placing too much emphasis on sociocultural factors. d. their research base.

b. the creation of labeling and expectations

Individuals with ______ are likely to feel a sense of emptiness, become angry easily, and maintain intense but unstable relationships

borderline personality disorder

Although classifying mental disorders through the DSM is helpful to mental health professionals, its use has been criticized because the manual: a. cannot be used to develop treatment plans. b. is used to obtain insurance reimbursement. c. labels individuals, which only heightens problems with stigma.

c. labels individuals, which only heightens problems with stigma

While walking to class one day, you notice a woman who is short of breath, clutches her chest, and appears lightheaded. You are concerned she may be experiencing a heart attack. She tells you she knows it is not her heart, but that she suffers from, which involve sudden, extreme fear that escalates quickly. a. psychotic episodes b. manic episodes c. panic attacks d. hallucinations

c. panic attacks

One symptom that both major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder share is: a. hypomania. b. manic episodes. c. problems associated with sleep. d. extremely high self-esteem.

c. problems associated with sleep

A behaviorist might propose that you acquire a phobia through ________, but the maintenance of that phobia could be the result of ____________.

classical conditioning; operant conditioning

The biopsychosocial perspective

considers the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors that may contribute to a specific disorder

Melissa has demonstrated recurrent all-consuming thoughts and feelings of worry. She tries to stop unwanted thoughts and urges through a variety of behaviors that she repeats over and over. These behaviors are known as: a. obsessions. b. classical conditioning. c. panic attacks. d. compulsions

d. compulsions

Which of the following is a symptom of a manic episode? a. low energy level b. need for more sleep c. quiet or shy personality d. irritability

d. irritability

Which of the following plays a role in the etiology of major depressive disorder? a. manic episodes b. virus contracted by the mother c. classical conditioning d. serotonin

d. serotonin

The personality disorders include impairments concerning: a. contact with reality. b. manic episodes. c. developmental processes. d. the self and interpersonal relationships.

d. the self and interpersonal relationships

___________ is a disturbance in the normally integrated experiences of memory, consciousness, perception, or identity.

disassociation

The 3 Ds used to distinguish abnormal behavior are:

dysfunction, distress, deviance

medical model

explains psychological disorders from a biological standpoint, focusing on genes, neurochemical imbalances, and problems in the brain

Evidence suggests there is ______________ a basis for OCD. If a first-degree relative has an OCD diagnosis, a person's risk of developing the same disorder is twice as high as someone whose first-degree relatives do not have the disorder.

genetic

A loss of contact with reality is referred to as ________.

psychosis

A man with a diagnosis of exhibits a distinct fear or anxiety related to social situations, particularly the idea of being scrutinized by those around him. a. generalized anxiety disorder b. panic attack c. social anxiety disorder d. panic disorder

social anxiety disorder