Chapter 6 - Operant Conditioning: Introduction - Quiz
7. How does immediacy affect the strength of a reinforcer? How does this often lead to difficulties for students in their academic studies?
The more immediate the reinforcer is, the stronger its effect is on the behaviour. This often lead to difficulties for students in their academic studies because the results are delayed to several months. It would take a lot of time and effort to produce the results whereas the enjoyable effects of alternate activities are much more powerful since they are immediate. Therefore, the behaviour of the students to engage in their academic studies weakens.
Negative reinforcement is similar to positive punishment because people often use negative reinforcement to refer to aversive stimuli and positive punishment to refer to appetitive stimulus. People often think that the presentation/addition of a negative reinforcer refers to negative reinforcement when it really should refer to the positive reinforcement because the negative reinforcer is added (positive) to reduce (punishment) the occurrence of the behaviour.
6. How is negative reinforcement similar to positive punishment? Why are the two terms so often confused with each other?
3. What is a discriminative stimulus? How does it differ from a conditioned stimulus? Define the three-term contingency and diagram an example. Be sure to include the appropriate symbols for each component.
A discriminative stimulus (SD) is said to set the occasion for the behaviour. It is a stimulus that indicates that a response will be followed by a reinforcer. For example: Susan (SD) : Telling her jokes (R) --> She laughs (SR) If Susan is more likely to laugh at the jokes I make, I will more likely to tell her a joke when I see her. It differs from conditioned stimulus because it does not elicit the behaviour like how a conditioned stimulus (CS) would. It simply indicates that the consequence is likely to occur in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. In other words, the discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for the organism to emit the behaviour. The three-term contingency are the discriminative stimulus, the operant behaviour and the reinforcer or the punisher. For example: Tone (SD) : Lever press (R) --> Food (SR) Police car (SD) : Speeding (R) --> Receive fine (SP)
8. Distinguish between primary reinforcers, secondary reinforcers, and generalized reinforcers, and give an example of each. Why are generalized reinforcers often quite powerful?
A primary reinforcer is an event that is innately reinforcing. In other words, that are things we are born to like rather than learn to like. For example, things like food, water, etc... A secondary reinforcer is an event that is reinforcing because it has been associated with some other reinforcer. In other words, things that we learnt to like because it had been associated with other things that we already like. For example, good marks, nice car, etc... Generalized reinforcers are events that are reinforcing because it has been associated with several other reinforcers. For example, money is a powerful generalized reinforcer because it can get you other reinforcers, including food, clothing, house, entertainment, etc... Generalized reinforcers are often quite powerful because it can become a huge part of a person's life. Things like having lots of money or even lots of social attention are powerful reinforcers that will influence the individual to behave a certain way. It may even go to the point where the individual cannot live without it.
2. Define the terms reinforcer and punisher. How do those terms differ from the terms reinforcement and punishment?
Consequences that strengthens a behaviour are called reinforcers. Consequences that weakens a behaviour are called punishers. The terms reinforcement and punishment refers to the procedure by which a certain consequence is applied to either strengthen or weaken the behaviour. It is broader than reinforcers and punishers. For example: Lever press (R) --> Food Pellet (SR) In this case, the use of food to increase the lever presses is an example of reinforcement because the food (consequence) is used to increase the behaviour (lever press). Within this example, the food is noted as the "reinforcer" because it reinforced/strengthened the lever press behaviour.
9. Define intrinsic and extrinsic reinforcement, and give an example of each. Under what conditions does extrinsic reinforcement undermine versus enhance intrinsic interest?
Intrinsic reinforcement is reinforcement provided by the mere act of the behaviour. For example, we go to a party because we like the company of other people. Extrinsic reinforcement is reinforcement that is provided by some consequence that is external to the behaviour. For example, you are working for money because money can get you a lot of reinforcing things. The extrinsic reinforcer is the fact that money can get you lots of other things. Therefore, it motivates you to work for money. Think of this as "does the behaviour affect me?" or "does the behaviour affect some other external reasons?" Only when the reward is expected (the person will be told that they will be given the reward), tangible (consists of an object like money and not something internal) and given for simply performing the activity (not how well it was performed) does the extrinsic reinforcement undermine intrinsic interest.
10. Define natural and contrived reinforcers, and give an example of each. What type of reinforcer is commonly used in the initial stages of behaviour modification, and what is the hoped-for result in the long run?
Natural reinforcers are reinforcers that are typically provided for a certain behaviour. They are expected consequence of the behaviour within that setting. For example, money is a natural consequence of selling a merchandise. Contrived reinforcers are reinforcers that have been deliberately arranged to modify a behaviour. For example, getting to watch TV or play games after accomplishing an amount of studying. Contrived reinforcers are used in the initial stages of behaviour modification. Natural reinforcers are hoped-for in the results.
5. Define positive punishment and negative punishment and diagram an example of each. Be sure to include the appropriate symbols for each component.
Positive punishment is the addition of something following a response that reduces the future occurrence of a behaviour. For example: Lever Press (R) --> Shock (SP) Decreased Lever Press (R) --> Shock (SP) The lever presses would decreases to try to avoid getting shocked. The behaviour decreases with the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Negative punishment is the removal of something following a response that reduces the occurrence of a behaviour. For example: Bullying sister (R) --> No TV (SP) Decreased bullying sister (R) --> No TV (SP) If the kid bullies his sister, he will not get to watch TV. So the behaviour would decrease if the consequence involves the removal of an appetitive stimulus.
4. Define positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement and diagram an example of each. Be sure to include the appropriate symbols for each component.
Positive reinforcement is the addition of something (consequence) following a response that increases the future occurrence of the behaviour. For example: Lever Press (R) --> Food (SR) Increases Lever Press (R) --> Food (SR) The lever press would increase to get more food. The behaviour would increase with the presentation of an appetitive stimulus. Negative reinforcement is the removal of something following a response that increases the future occurrence of the behaviour. For example: Increased Lever Press (R) --> Escape Shock (SR) Open umbrella (R) --> Escape rain (SR) The lever press or opening umbrella would increase to escape the shock or the rain. The behaviour would increase with the removal of an aversive stimulus.
11. Define shaping and give an example. What are two advantages of using a secondary reinforcer, such as a sound, as an aid to shaping?
Shaping is the gradual creation of new behaviour through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behaviour. For example, giving the food to the rat whenever it stands near the lever, then giving the food whenever it faces the lever, then ultimately giving the food when the rat presses the lever. The first advantage is that the secondary reinforcer can be presented immediately upon the occurrence of the behaviour. For example, clicking when the behaviour occurs then immediately rewards the dog with food. The second advantage is that with the use of the secondary reinforcer, the food/consequence is delivered at an irregular interval. For example, the click can mean food is coming, but the person can use it to indicate that the dog did the correct thing. Satiation would take longer to occur, and allows the training sessions to be longer.
1. State Thorndike's law of effect. What is operant conditioning law of effect. What is operant conditioning (as defined by Skinner), and how does this definition differ from Thorndike's law of effect?
Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviours leading to a satisfying state of affairs are strengthened, while behaviours leading to an unsatisfying state are weakened. Operant conditioning law of effect is the extent to which the consequences of a behaviour are satisfying or unsatisfying (annoying) determine whether the behaviour is strengthened or weakened. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the occurrences of the behaviour is affected by its consequences. This is essentially a restatement of Thorndike's law of effect, however, Skinner was dissatisfied with the consequences as being either satisfying or annoying.