Classics 211 - Greek History Midterm

Themistocles

Athenian Greek leader who was prominent in the later Greco-Persian conflicts fought at the battle of Marathon Advocated for strong Athenian navy, led to ultimate Persian defeat at Salamis and later Plataea Helped strategize for Themistocles

Ionia/Ionians

eastern division of ancient Greek people; revolted against Persian rule and were crushed

Tyrtaeus

Spartan elegaic poet, political and military

Oligarchy

A government ruled by a few powerful people extremely common form of government in ancient Greece, often occurred in instances of failed democracies

Mycenae/Mycenaean age

1. 1600-1200 BCE 2. Hall 3. Ended as the Late Bronze Age/Dark Age began. Mycenae Grave Circle A was a large grave circle with 19 people buried in it with gold items (such as the mask of Agamemnon). The people in the grave must have been very rich/powerful. Mycenaean cities were fortified with large walls. As the Late Bronze Age begins, there appears to be a continuation of the presence of bronze tools and weapons. There is a destruction of Mycenaean palaces and cities but the cause is unknown. There is a reduction in population and a reduction in trade with Mediterranean cultures. There is a loss of technology and writing (hence the name Dark Age). There are several possible causes for the Mycenaean collapse - perhaps the Dorian migration, internal disturbances, or natural disaster. indications that an impending disaster was anticipated - second half of 13th century, the fortifications at both Mycenae and Tiryns were strengthened and extended, and provisions were taken to safeguard the water supply through the construction of concealed passageways to underground cisterns

Tyranny

1. A common mode of government in many Greek cities, particularly in the Archaic period 2. Herodotus; ex: Pisistratus of Athens, Polycrates of Samos 3. In these cases, it is often apparent that the tyrant seize their power by a mixture of violence and (some) popular support. Once in power, tyrants would exert power by a variety of means, for example by exiling their aristocratic enemies, expanding the territories of their cities, but also by instituting populist measures such as instituting festivals or importing cult sanctuaries. 4. Tyranny is an important example of the manner in which tensions in ancient Greek cities often become so extreme that the ultimate resolution was to bring in a single, autocratic leader

Debt bondage (indentured servitude)

1. A contract between two members of ancient Greek society in which one (in debt) would agree to work for/provide traded goods for the other person (wealthy, possibly aristocratic) 2. Solon 3. When members of ancient Greece got into debt, they would make contracts with elite members of society. For an agreed upon amount of time, the indentured servant would work for the elite member - usually they would work on their own farm and give a portion of their produce/product to the elite member. However, if the indentured person was in debt before, giving portions of their product away for free created an inescapable cycle of debt bondage. 4. This was common in ancient Athens. This type of 'slavery' allowed indentured servants to maintain their citizenship and remain Athenians, unlike other types of servitude.

Solon

1. A member of a distinguished family in Athens; relatives with Pisistratus, an Athenian lawmaker, statesman, and poet 2. Selections from Solon, Plutarch, Herodotus 3. Helped create a constitution for Athens where all citizens are made equal before the law and reduces the influence of Athenian aristocracy before leaving for 10 years following (so he couldn't be pressured to make any further changes to the laws). During this time, he meets Croesus in Sardis who asks him about the happiest man he has ever met. Solon says that he can't say whether Croesus is the happiest man until his death because "for the man of great wealth is not at all more fortunate than the man who has enough for his daily wants, unless good fortune attends him and he ends his life in possession of all that is good' Believed that Athenians were subservient to money and immoral. Believed that the city was declining and the population was leaving Athens. Solon attempts to teach the Athenians that 'lawlessness' brings a city countless ills and 'lawfullness' puts an end to strife and cleans up a city. He abolished debt bondage, set down laws in writing, established laws on agriculture/imports/exports, and rearranged social structure 4. His reforms failed in the short term (because Peisistratus took over as tyrant) but he is credited with laying the foundation for Athenian democracy

Alcmeonids

1. A noble family from ancient Athens; Notable Alcmeonids - Megacles and Cleisthenes; the most important/controversial political family in 5th century BC 2. Herodotus, Constitution of the Athenians, Plutarch 3. The Alcmeonids were banished by the Peisistratids; the Athenians thought the Alcmeonids were cursed because they killed someone under a truce 4. Alcmeonids had vacillated between holding power in Athens and being exiled from the city. Eventually, they were instrumental in laying the foundation for Athenian democracy. They also negotiated with the Persians for an alliance during the Greco-Persian War but the family disappeared after the Athenians lost the war.

Attica

1. A peninsula, district of east/central Greece, bordered sea on south and east 3. Athens is the capital of Attica. Attica consisted of 12 independent communities that were constantly at was with each other. Theseus united these communities into one single state with Athens as its power base (around 700 BCE). They organized themselves into 4 tribes each with an aristocratic family (to be eventually changed under Cleisthenes)

Cleisthenes

1. A prominent Athenian living at the end of the sixth century. he was an Alcmeonid 2. Herodotus and Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians 3. While living in exile from Athens, he helped orchestrate the overthrow of the Peisistratids. After the fall of the tyranny in Athens, Cleisthenes competed with another elite Athenian (Isagoras) for power in Athens. 4. When he emerged the victor, he became the politician who was responsible for beginning the transition into democracy in Athens. He is said to have enacted numerous refurms, including the division of Athenians into different groups; re-organizing the boule and possible the assembly; and inventing the institution of ostracism

Aegina

1. An island near Athens 2. Herodotus 3. An archaic war with Athens, a sense of deep seated hostilities between Athens and Aegina. There were no Attic items allowed in Aeginetan temples. Strong dislike for each other. In Herodotus, the oral sources from different sides tell different accounts of the events that occurred (Athenian sources say an earthquake wiped out all their soldiers except 1; Aeginetan/Argive sources say the Athenians came and fought and the Aeginetan soldiers killed all but 1 of the Athenian soldiers - Athenian soldiers had arrived in Aegina to take statues back) 4. Hostilities between Greek city-states, emerging ideas about Dorian and Ionian identities, connection between emerging identities and inter-state hostilities

Sappho

1. Aristocrat from Lesbos in the late 7th century BC, poet 2. Sappho 3. Very aware of local politics, talked smack; regarding initial trade networks, she was well aware of what her familiy's/brother's trade meant for her, names stuff like purple 'headbinders', and handcloths traded from a good distance away (eg Phocaea, Sardis) 4. An example of early trading networks among Greek and non-Greek groups

Dorian migration

1. Arrival of Greek Dorians in Mycenaean Greece 2. Archaeology 3. One possible explanation for the destruction of Mycenaean palaces/cities, reduction in population/trade of Mycenaean Greece, loss of tech like writing (but if this were the case, we would expect to see replacement of population, new tech/culture, instead we see reduction in population and continuity in tech/culture); 80y after supposed Trojan War, Dorians/Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese 4. Possibility of different ethnic groups interacting, not yet "Greeks," so before a common identity was formed

Battle of Salamis

1. Battle during the Greco-Persian War; Salamis is an island near Athens 2. Herodotus 3. A naval battle fought between Greek city-states under Themistocles and the Persian Empire under Xerxes in 480 BC. The Greeks clearly won the battle even though they were outnumbered 4. This was a turning point in the Greco-Persian wars. After Salamis, the Peloponnese and Greece were safe from conquest and the Persians suffered a major blow to their prestige and morale

Hoplite

1. Citizen-soldiers of ancient Greece 2. Herodotus 3. Had to provide their own armor, which tended to comprise of a bronze shield, corselet, helmet, greaves, a spear and shortsword, all of which together weighed roughly 65+ lbs 4. Greek soldiers outstripped the Persians in armor and weapons by far, lending to much of their success; like their ships, Greek armor was heavy and not as easily maneuverable as that of the Persians, but it was very durable and protected the wearer significantly better; main point: their superior battle technology helped them win key battles against the Persians and maintain their freedom, which allowed democracy to further develop in certain areas (such as Athens) in later years

Sparta

1. City in southern Peloponnesus 2. Xenophon Spartan Society, excerpts from Tyrtaeus and Alcman, Herodotus, Pseudo-Xenophon, Pomeroy 3. Sparta is a 'collective society' raising/disciplining each others' children, obedience, soldiers, physical strength and fighting is valued, wealth is not money, wealth is respect and strength; provisions are divided equally; communist in nature; appearance of women's rights (held wealth, inherited estates, dowries, active), 2 kings, one of the largest cities on the Greek mainland, no coins, major center of poetic production, warrior ideology developed, belief in descent from Heracles, Sparta gets super involved in Athenian affairs, kick Cleisthenes out then try reinstate him when they saw how successful/powerful Athens would become as a democracy 4. Sparta was weird to other Greek communities - accounts of specific harsh living conditions may be exaggerated but the point was how different Spartan culture was

Athenian assembly (ekklesia)

1. Council in ancient Athens made up of adult male Athenian citizens 2. Solon? 3. Any Athenian male citizen could participate, would receive bills from boule to vote on, constant active role in politics 4. Government, democratic path

Athenian council (boule)

1. Council in ancient Athens, members selected by lot from the 10 different tribes 2. Solon? 3. Members had to be over 30 and citizens could serve on it twice, which was more than other elected offices. Cleisthenes changed the number of members from 400 to 500 when he changed the number of tribes, appointed by lottery per year, meet every day, put together bills, members could come from any of the top three classes 4. government, democracy

Polycrates of Samos

1. Tyrant of the island of Samos (~540 BC) after period of civil war 2. Herodotus 3. The Spartans aided the rebels from Samos in attempting to overthrow Polycrates, but eventually backed out of the fight, he expanded Samos' power in the eastern Mediterranean area, may have commissioned the Delian Hymn to Apollo, there was a story that he was friends with Amasis, king of Egypt, expanded Samos rule and changed his alliance to Cambyses after Amasis said 'you're too lucky that's gonna be rough later bye' 4. Example of a tyrant, story of Polycrates/Amasis friendship suggests a Samos/Egypt alliance

Cyrus

1. Founder/King of the Achaemenid (first Persian) Empire for 30 years, son of Cambyses I, father to Cambyses II 2. Herodotus 3. Under Cyrus's rule, Persia conquered lots of land (Median empire, Lydian empire) and created the largest empire the world had seen yet. Cyrus respected the customs and religions of the lands he conquered. The Cyrus Cylinder is the oldest known declaration of human rights. The Cyrus Cylinder describes the tyranny of the ruler before Cyrus. Says how Marduk (God) searched for a new and righteous king and found Cyrus. Explains how Cyrus has improved the lives of the citizens of Persia and how he restored temples (take this with a grain of salt because he wants to portray himself as the good guy). Cylinder is also important because it makes information widespread and laws more concrete/uniform for all literate people. 4. Cyrus is recognized for his achievements in human rights, politics, and military strategy. He also had influence on both Eastern and Western civilizations. However, while the Cyrus Cylinder states many great ideas, it is also clearly propaganda aimed at gaining support for Cyrus, targeting the literate Babylonians

Samos

1. Island in ancient Greece (eastern side) Polycrates of Samos is a well-known tyrant of Samos

Xerxes

1. King of Persia, member of the Achaemenid Dynasty, son of Darius 2. Herodotus, the Daiva Inscription 3. Xerxes I is notable in Western history for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. He lost the battles of Salamis and Plataea. At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians had abandoned the city and fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the destruction of Athens and burnt the city. After losing at Plataea, he and his army retreated to Persia and ended the Persian offensive on Greece for good.

Darius

1. King of the Persian Empire sometime after Cyrus, part of the Achaemenid family 2. Herodotus, Darius Inscription of Behistun 3. Cambyses and Smerdis were brothers of the ruling family in Persia. Cambyses killed Smerdis in secret, leaving Gaumata to pretend to be Smerdis and seize the kingdom when Cambyses leaves to go to Egypt. Smerdis killed many people who knew the real Smerdis, causing terror. Darius kills the fake king Gaumata and restores the Persian Kingdom and becomes king of Persia. Many rebellions occur during Darius' reign but Darius squashes all rebellions (this information is from Darius Inscription of Behistun so it may be a little biased). Herodotus tells us the story of how Darius became king after killing Gaumata. Basically, Darius and a few of his alliances (Otanes, Megabyzus) killed Gaumata together leaving Persia without a leader. These conspirators had to decide. One suggested monarchy, one sugested oligarchy. Decided to have a contest - they would meet the next morning with their horses and the first horse to neigh at sunrise would win. Darius cheated by having his servant rub the genitals of a mare and letting his horse smell it. Since this was such a random way to pick the next ruler, many of Persia's lands saw an opportunity for freedom and revolted. Not actually a descendent of Cyrus, traced lineage to Achaemenes instead of Cyrus. 4. Darius solidified his hold in Ionia and the Aegean Islands by appointing Greek natives as city rulers or tyrants who were loyal to him (good strategy). Darius' military conquest expanded the boundaries of Persia and interally his reforms improved the vitality of the empire. Additionally, Darius was the king at the beginning of the Greco-Persian wars, during the battle of Marathon, but ultimately died leaving the kingdom to his son Xerxes.

Miletus

1. Miletus was a city in Ionia (in the East, between Greece and Persia) 2. Herodotus 3. In particular, Herodotus tells us that the people of Miletus were planning a revolt of all the Ionians against the Persian empire around 500 BCE (during the Greco-Persian war). The leader of Miletus (Aristagoras) went to both Sparta and Athens to ask for help. Only the Athenians agreed to send military assistance, and Herodotus gestures at the Ionian bond that the two cities share as one reason that the Athenians did intercede 4. Miletus is an example of an Ionian city with connections to various Greek city-states, and also to Persia (by default of location), but in particular we see how they privilege their networks with other Ionian cities

Barbarian

1. Non-Greek, brutal, rude (connotation of inferiority) 2. Aeschylus' Persians, Herodotus 3. The term was initially used to describe all non-Greek speaking people, including Persians 4. The use of this term in language helps to create a strong Greek identity; forms an 'us' vs 'them'

Helots/Messenians

1. People from Messene, those Sparta enslaved 2. Herodotus 3. Sparta conquered Messene and made the Messenians bring 1/2 their produce to Sparta 4. Sparta ownership of slaves freed Spartans from the task of farming and gave Spartan women the free time which allowed them to remain both physically active and in the social sphere; Spartans claimed to be fighting for freedom in the Greco-Persian wars they actually participated in (like Thermopylae), but they were specifically fighting for their own freedom, since they owned slaves

Pythian priestess

1. Priestess of the Oracle of Delphi 2. Herodotus, Aeschylus, Pindar 3. Women over 50 from local village families, could be married and with children and hold post, but had to remain chaste during service, served for life, missing from Hymn to Demeter (position either did not exist when composed or intentionally written out), likely had a hand in Athenian resistance to Spartan intervention 4. Myth, religion, and politics: the Pythian priestess was as much a political figure as she was religious, given that her prophecies had such strong influence on the decisions of leaders

Persia

1. Region of southwestern Asia, originally the Achaemenid Empire (founded by Cyrus), later the Persian Empire 2. Cyrus Cylinder, Behistun Inscription, Herodotus 3. 550ish was a vassal state, over time became a dominant imperial force, dynasty Achaemenes, Cambyses I, Cyrus II, Cambyses II, Bardiya/Gaumata, Darius I; attempted to conquer Greek territories but after faing difficulties in battles such as the Battle of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea they pulled back with a damaged reputation 4. Examples of expanding empire, tyrant-ruled kingdom, interactions with groups like the Argives and Alcmeonid family showed networks that stretched outside of a "Greek" identity that either of the two (and others) may have had

Ostracism

1. Voting and expelling someone from the city for 10 years 2. Plutarch 3. Was used to neutralize someone thought to be a threat to the state, used in ancient Athens

Eleusinian mysteries

1. Secret cult celebrating the story of Demeter and Persephone, linked "human and agricultural revival" 2. Hymn to Demeter, Nonnius Tablet 3. Initiation required, until 480 BC all could participate, after that non-Greek were banned, under Athenian control for about a decade a little before then, guaranteed afterlife to initiates; ritual - procession from Athens to Eleusis, led by male priest, new initiates got hazed, descent into darkness, 'revelation' of light (reenactment of Persephone's journey) 4. Example of an intra/inter Hellenic network, although different ethnic groups still prominent, the exclusion of non-Greeks shows some development of the concept of Greek vs. 'other'; religious ceremonies could bring groups together under a goddess familiar among them

Thesmophoria

1. Secret women-exclusive cult to honor Demeter and Persephone, a festival that lasted 3 days in late fall, prominent in Athens 2. Stehle, Plutarch 3. Ritual - processions, fasting/sitting/lamenting and obscene jokes (aischrologia), dig up pig corpses and feast/celebration, likely occurred before Hymn to Demeter, so possible that female poets had a hand in the poem 4. Women (both and free slave) used the festival to maintain bonds and networks despite the distances that existed between them in daily life

Peisistratus

1. Son of Hippocrates, relative of Solon, tyrant ruler of ancient Athens, instituted the Panathenaic Games 2. Plutarch, Solon, Herodotus 3. Peisistratus pretended to be injured to gain a number of Athenian bodyguards. With their help, he seized the Acropolis and power. Megacles and Lycurgus drove him out soon thereafter but his enemies began fighting amongst themselves. Megacles (one of the enemies in the fight) reached out to Peisistratus offering to restore him to power if he would marry Megacles' daughter (an alliance). Peisistratus accepted and regained his tyranny. Megacles later found out that Peisistratus wouldn't sleep with his daughter and create an heir, so he plotted to exile Peisistratus. After about a decade, he returned home and took over Athens for a third time. During his role as tyrant, Peisistratus reduced power of aristocracy by seizing their lands and giving them to the poor. He wanted to improve the economy and distribute wealth more equally among Athenians. 4. He overthrew the Athenian democracy and reinstated himself as a benevolent tyrant. He encouraged the growth of more profitable crops (olives) and redistributed wealth/land to the poor. The Panathenaic Festival he established was unifying for all Attica.

Leonidas

1. Spartan king during the Greco-Persian War 2. Herodotus 3. Battle of Thermopylae 4. cool guy

Democracy

1. System of government in which citizens participate through voting and representation 2. Plutarch's Solon 3. Athenian democratic ideology - who has a proposal and wants to set it before the city?; powerless/rich had equal access to justice when laws written given they were literate, people rule, offices held yearly in turns by lottery 4. Government tensions - movement away from tyranny towards democracy; Solon - arguments are made against it that the mob is stupid and corruption is inevitable.

Cult of Dionysus Eleuthereus

1. The Dionysian Mysteries were a ritual of ancient Greece and Rome 2. Herodotus 3. The Dionysian Mysteries; used trance-inducing techniques (dance, music, wine, etc.) to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. The intoxicating and disinhibiting effects of wine were regarded as due to possession by the god's spirit. 4. Provided some liberation for those marginalized by Greek society: women, slaves, outlaws, and non-citizens

Areopagus

1. The earliest aristocratic council of ancient Athens. The name was taken from Areopagus, a low hill northwest of the acropolis, which was its meeting place 2. Solon 3. Only elites allowed; Influence fluctuated, originally began as king's advisors of sorts, but gradually lost power to people 4. Government system/councils, shows later transition of power from elites to the people

Medizing

1. To become a Mede/side with the Persians 2. Herodotus 3. Some Greek city-states sided with Persia, some were confident they wouldn't suffer when Persia passed through, most just refused to take part in the war; Argive/Persian interaction in which Persia cited common descent and claimed they would not attack the Argives, Argives agreed to stay out of it 4. The concept of "Medizing" again shows the 'us vs them' sentiment that was developing most quickly during the Greco-Persian wars, though the Argives agreement with the Persians suggests that for them, their 'Greekness' was still up in the air

Marathon

1. Town in Greece, north of Athens, site of the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC 2. Herodotus' Histories 3. 5,000-10,000 Athenians, Palataeans led by Miltiades vs 20,000-100,000 Persians; Athenians/Palataeans were almost entirely hoplites and had advantage of fighting at home; Persians had light infantry, archers, their cavalry was rendered ineffective; Greek formation was weak in the middle, intentionally allowing Persian forces to break through and the Greeks surrounded them, massacre followed 4. The first of the major battles we covered (but after the sack of Miletus), encouraged the Greeks and surprised the Persians, the expansion of the Persian empire had met strong resistance and the reputation of the Persians was challenged by this encounter, different Greek ethnic groups worked together to defend a Greek world, finding a sense of 'us/our land' vs 'the barbarians/Persians'

Delphi

1. Town of Boeotia, sanctuary of the famous Oracle of Delphi, home of the Pythian priestess who was believed to receive and transmit prophecies directly from Apollo 2. Herodotus (Histories), Aeschylus (Furies), Plutarch (Solon) 3. Open 9 times out of the year, consulted by men who entered with offerings, gathered wealth from visitors, the priestesses could be bribed for certain prophecies, priestess' word held strong sway in the political sphere, being consulted when the Persians were headed to attack Athens - although initial message of 'run' was rejected, the prophecy of 'wooden walls' was eventually interpreted as ships and the Athenians fled the city, Sparta based their meddling in Athens on the oracle 4. Religion and politics: faith in gods/prophecies from gods informed political and martial decisions, intra/inter Hellenic networks, individuals and representatives sent by rulers would travel great distances for an audience, meeting at the oracle as a cross-cultural center while seeking answers to their questions

Thermopylae

1. mountain pass in ancient Greece 2. Herodotus 3. Held off Persians for a ridiculously long amount of time but they all died; 300 Spartans Lots of Persian casualties

Dorians

People of ancient Greece, said to be descendants of Dorus (son of Hellen); possible cause for the end of Mycenaean civilization