Consumer Behavior Midterm 01
Brand Image
A market segment or individual consumer's schematic memory of a brand
Script
A memory of how an action sequence should occur
Self-Referencing
A message involvement strategy used to highlight a brand's personal relevance to the consumer
Reinforcement
Anything that increases the likelihood that a response will be repeated in the future
Psychographics
Assessing such lifestyle dimensions as activities, interests, opinions, values, and demographics
Value-Expressive Appeals
Attempt to build a personality for the product or create an image of the product user
Manifest Motives
Can be appealed to directly
Successive Word Association
Consumers give the series of words that come to mind after hearing each word on the list`
Esteem Needs
Desire for status, self-respect, and prestige
Inferences
Go beyond what is directly stated or presented and help explain consumer use of quality signals, their interpretation of images, and how they deal with missing information
Consumer inference
Goes beyond what is directly stated or presented
VALS
Innovators, thinkers, believers, achievers, strivers, experiencers, makers, and survivors
Comparative Ads
Most effective for unknown brands having a strong functional advantage
Perception
Occurs in three stages: exposure, attention, and interpretation
Safety Needs
Physical security and protection from bodily harm
Left Side of the Brain
Side of the brain concerned primarily with those activities typically called rational though and the ability to be conscious and report what is happening
Affective Interpretation
The emotional or feeling response triggered by the stimulus
Independent Self-COncept
The individual is the critical component
Need for Identification
These theories view the consumer as a role player. One gains pleasure from adding new, satisfying roles and by increasing the significance of roles already adopted
Information Overload
When there is too much information available to be dealt with effectively
Values
Widely held beliefs about that is acceptable and/or desirable
Career and Family (9%)
"Second City" and wealthy; younger people, married and with young children, enjoying good careers in technology, and living in new, modern-decorated private estates. Family members are early adopters of technology. Hong Kong, Norway, and the U.S. are over-represented in this group.
Coping Mechanisms
(1) Active coping (2) Expressive support seeking (3) Avoidance
Brand Image
A ________ that matches a target market's needs and desires will be valued by that market segment
Need for Consistency
A basic desire to have all facets or parts of oneself consistent with each other. These facets include attitudes, behaviors, opinions, self-images, views of others, and so forth
Schematic Memory
A complex web of associations linking a variety of concepts and episodes to a particular object or event
Gratitude
A consumer context is the emotional appreciation for benefits received
Product Positioning
A decision by a marketer to attempt to attain a defined and differentiated brand image
Product Positioning
A decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to competition within a market segment
Product Repositioning
A deliberate decision to significantly alter the way the market views a product
Subliminal Message
A message presented so fast or so masked by other messages that one is not aware of seeing or hearing it
Involvement
A motivational state caused by consumer perceptions that a product, brand, or ad is relevant or interesting
Involvement
A motivational state caused by consumer perceptions that a product, brand, or advertisement is relevant or interesting
Cognitive Interpretation
A process whereby new stimuli are placed into existing categories of meaning
Benefit Segment
A segment based on need or sough benefits
Information Processing
A series of activities by which stimuli are perceived, transformed into information, and stored
Attribute Framing
A single attribute is the focus of the frame (positive message is more effective)
Elaboration Likelihood Model
A theory about how attitudes are formed and changed under varying conditions of involvement, suggests different communication strategies depending on involvement
Infomercial
A thirty-minute or longer commercial that frequently has an 800 number and/or web address through which to order or request additional information
Perception
Activities by which an individual acquires and assigns meaning to stimuli
Hemispheric Lateralization
Activities that take place on each side of the brain
Four Types of Self-Concept
Actual self-concept, social self-concept, private self-concept, and ideal self-concept
Format
Ads that lack a clear visual point of reference or have inappropriate movement increase the processing effort and decrease attention. Likewise, audio messages that are difficult to understand due to foreign accents, inadequate volume, or a speech rate which too fast also reduce attention.
Demographics
Age, education, income, occupation, family structure, ethnic background, gender, and geographic location
Attitude
An enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of our environment
Learning
Any change in the content or organization of long-term memory or behavior and is the result of information processing
Ambush Marketing
Any communication or activity that implies, or from which one could reasonably infer that an organization is associated with an event, when in fact it is not
Repetition
Appears to be particularly important in low-involvement situations (iconic rote learning)
Experiencers
Appreciate the unconventional. They are active and impulsive, seeking stimulation from the new, offbeat, and risky. They spend a comparatively high proportion of their income on fashion, socializing, and entertainment
Trait Theories of Personality
Assume that (1) all individuals have internal characteristics or traits related to action tendencies, and (2) there are consistent and measurable differences between individuals on those characteristics
Operant Conditioning
Attempts to create an association between a response and some outcome that serves to reinforce the response and is generally high involvement in nature
Classical Conditioning
Attempts to create an association between a stimulus and some response and is generally low involvement in nature
Smart Banner
Banner ads that are activated based on terms used in search engines
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Based on four premises: (1) all humans acquire a similar set of motives through genetic endowment and social interaction, (2) some motives are more basic or critical than others, (3) the basic motives must be satisfied to a minimum level before other motives are activated, and (4) after basic motives are satisfied, more advanced motives come into play
Geo-demographic Analysis
Based on the premise that individuals within similar lifestyles tend to live near each other
Semantic Memory
Basic knowledge and feelings we have about an object or event
Maslow's Need Hierarchy
Basic motives must be minimally satisfies before more advanced motives are activated
Match Retrieval and Learning Environments
Better able to recall learned material if the situation in which they need to recall it is similar to the situation in which they learned it
Emotions
Can be categorized by the environmental events or internal processes that trigger them, the cognitive thoughts, physiological changes, subjective feelings and unique behaviors that are associated with them
Brand Personality
Can be communicated in a number of ways, including celebrity endorsers, user imagery, and executional ad elements such as tone and pace
Attitude Change Strategies
Can focus on affect, behavior, cognition, or some combination
Individual Factors
Characteristics of the individual, such as motivation and ability
Cognitive Strategy
Cognitive learning including, iconic rote learning
Components of Attitude
Cognitive, affective, and behavioral
How are marketers dealing with increased ad avoidance?
Companies can utilize various strategies in a DVR context including compressed ads, still-frame ads, hybrid ads, interactive ads, and dynamic ad placement. In addition, marketers are increasingly using nontraditional media to gain exposure for their messages.
Source Credibility
Composed of two dimensions: trustworthiness and expertise
Cognitive Component
Consists of the individual's beliefs or knowledge about the object
Basis for Market Segmentation Strategies
Consumer evaluations, feelings, and beliefs
Manifest Motives
Consumers are often aware of and will admit to the motives causing their behavior
Latent Motives
Consumers are unable or unwilling to admit to the motives that are influencing them
Story Completion
Consumers complete a partial story
Sentence Completion
Consumers complete a sentence such as "People who by Cadillacs _____"
Cartoon Techniques
Consumers fill in the words and/or thoughts of one of the characters in a cartoon drawing
Interestingness
Consumers find unentertaining ads to be uninteresting
Contrast and Expectations
Consumers pay less attention to stimuli that blend in with their background. Packaging, in-store displays, and ad that coincide with our expectations tent to be unnoticed.
Word Association
Consumers respond to a list of words with the first word that comes to mind
Permission-Based Marketing
Consumers seek out some marketing stimuli voluntarily
Salient Prevention-Focused Motives
Consumers seek to avoid negative outcomes, think in more concrete terms, make decisions based more on factual substantive information, and prefer accuracy over speed in their decision making
Salient Promotion-Focused Motives
Consumers seek to gain positive outcomes, think in more abstract terms, make decisions based more on affect and emotion, and prefer speed versus accuracy in their decision making
Attitude Ambivalence
Consumers sometimes hold mixed beliefs and/or feelings about an attitude object
Picture Response
Consumers tell a story about a person shown buying or using a product in a picture or line drawing
Third-Person Techniques
Consumers tell why "an average woman," "most doctors," or "people in general" purchase or use a certain product
Brand Personality
Consumers tend to prefer products with ______ that are pleasing to them
Brand Image
Contains the target market's interpretation of the product's attributes, benefits, usage situations, users, and manufacturer/marketer characteristics
Dual Coding
Creating multiple complimentary pathways to a concept in long-term memory
Strength of Learning
Depends on six basic factors: importance, message involvement, reinforcement, mood, repetition, and dual coding
Lifestyle
Determined by our past experiences, innate characteristics, and current situation
Attention
Determined by three factors: (1) the stimulus, (2) the individual, and (3) the situation.
Strategies to Resist Persuasion
Discrediting, discounting, and containment
Attractive Visuals
Drawing attention to one element of an ad can detract from others, resulting in drawing attention from the brand and its selling points
Color and Movement
Dull color and stagnant items are less noticeable
Cognitive Learning
Encompasses all the mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems or cope with situations
Cognitive Approach to Learning
Encompasses the mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems, cope with complex situations, or function effectively in their environment
Consumer Motivations
Energizing forces that activate behavior and provide purpose and direction to that behavior
Marketing Use of Perception Knowledge
Enhance Strategies in a number of areas including retailing, branding, advertising, and packaging
Celebrity Sources
Enhances its ability to draw one's attention, increases message believability, may share his or her image with the product, and fans may buy the product to emulate the celebrity
Emotional Content in Advertisements
Enhances their attention-attraction and maintenance capabilities. Emotional messages are processed more thoroughly and trigger greater liking of the as itself
Attitudes
Evaluative statements about other people, places, ideas, products, and so forth
PRIZM
Examines demographic and consumption data down to the individual household with 68 lifestyle segments organized around social groupings and life stage
Retrieval Failures
Extinction of a learned response represents a reduction in marketing effectiveness
Affective Component
Feelings or emotional reactions to an object
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Five levels of motivation: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization
Lifestyle
Function of a person's inherent individual characteristics that have been shaped through social interaction as the person moves through his or her life cycle
Attempts to Change Affect
Generally rely on classical conditioning
Attempts to Change Behavior
Generally rely on operant conditioning
How is DVR affecting ad avoidance?
Giving consumers more control over exposure to television commercials
Achievers
Goal-oriented lifestyles that center on family and career. They avoid situations that encourage a high degree of stimulation or change. They prefer premium products that demonstrate success to their peers
Personality of a Consumer
Guides and directs the behavior chosen to accomplish goals in different situaitons
Short-Term Memory
Has a limited capacity to store information and sensations and is short lived in nature
Emotional Appeales
Have a strong effect on attitudes toward both the ad and the product
Modeling
How consumers do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly to learn. Instead, they can observe the outcomes of others' behaviors and adjust their own accordingly
Schemas
How information is stored in long term memory
Lifestyle
How one lives
Primary Motivation
Ideals, achievement, and self-expression
Imagery in Working Memory
Imagery processing involves the recall and mental manipulation of sensory images, including sight, smell, taste, and tactile sensations
Isolation
In the extreme, can limit the amount of information presented.
Multiattribute Attitude Model
Include beliefs about an object's attributes, ideal or desired levels of performance for each attribute, and the relative importance attached to each attribute
Cognitive Learning
Includes iconic rote learning (low involvement), vicarious learning/modeling (low or high involvement), and analytical reasoning (high involvement)
Perceptual Defenses
Individuals are not passive recipients of marketing messages
Long-Term Memory
Information from previous information processing that has been stored for future use
Information Quantity
Information overload causes consumers to pay less attention—they simply cannot attention to too much information
Utilitarian Appeals
Informing the consumer of one or more functional benefits that are important to the target market
What determines how an individual will interpret a given stimulus?
Interpretation is a function of the gestalt, or pattern, formed by the characteristics of the stimulus, the individual, and the situation
Brand Extension
Introducing new products under the same name as an existing product
Brand Leverage
Introducing new products under the same name as an existing product
Imagery in Working Mamory
Involves concrete sensory representations of ideas, feelings, and objects
Coping
Involves consumer thoughts and behaviors in reaction to a stress-inducing situation, designed to reduce stress and achieve more desired positive emotions
Attempts to Change Cognition
Involves information processing and cognitive learning
Cognitive Learning
Involves learning ideas, concepts, attitudes, and facts that contribute to our ability to reason, solve problems, and learn relationships without direct experience or reinforcement
Position
Items difficult to find and/or out of the visual field in a store will most likely lack attention. Print ads on the left-hand page receive less attention. It is also important not to place content within low impact zones.
Six Factors to Reduce Apparent Consistency Among Attitude Components
Lack of need, lack of ability, failure to consider relative attitudes, attitude ambivalence, weakly held beliefs and affect, and failure to consider interpersonal and situational influences
Survivors
Lead narrowly focused lives. Because they have the fewest resources, they do not exhibit a primary motivation and often feel powerless. They are primarily concerned about safety and security, so they tend to be brand loyal and buy discounted merchandise
Discounting
Loyal consumers will often result to discounting, whereby the consumers protect their brand by decreasing the importance they put on the attribute in question
Discrediting
Loyal consumers' first strategy is to discredit negative information through counter arguments, whereby the consumers look for weaknesses in competitor attacks
Thinkers
Mature, satisfied, comfortable, and reflective. They tend to be well educated and actively seek out information in the decision-making process. They favor durability, functionality, and value in products
Usage Rates
Measurements of consumption within a specified product category. Often consumers are categorized as heavy, medium, light, or nonusers
Motivational Conflict
Most behaviors, including purchase and use, are subject to multiple motives, and there are many situations where these motives come in conflict with each other
What determines which stimuli an individual will be exposed to?
Most exposure is self-selected and we tend to expose ourselves to information we think will help us achieve our goals
Latent Motives
Must often be appealed to indirectly via symbolism
Humorous Appeals
Must remain focused on the brand or main selling point to be maximally effective
Belongingness Needs
Needs for acceptance, love, and friendship
Activities and Interests
Nonoccupational behaviors to which consumers devote time and effort, such as hobbies, sports, public service, and church
Perceptual Mapping
Offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a product's position
Stimulus Generalization
Once we have learned a particular response that works for us, we are able to capitalize on that learning by transferring it to similar learning situations or stimuli
Source Credibility
One that the target marker believes will provide accurate information
Stimulus Generalization
One way of transferring learning by generalizing from one stimulus situation to other, similar ones
Self-Concept
One's beliefs and feelings about oneself
One Versus Two-Sided Message
One-sided message, only a positive point of view is expressed. In a two-sided message, both good and bad points are expressed which can enhance effectiveness
Behavioral Strategy
Operant conditioning
Adaptation Level Theory
Over time we adjust to (and no longer pay attention to) the level and type of stimulus to which we are consistently exposed
Behavioral Component
Overt actions and statements of behavioral intentions with respect to specific attributes of the object or the overall object
Stimulus Factors
Physical characteristics of the stimulus itself, such as contrast, size, intensity, attractiveness, color, movement, position, isolation, format, and information quantity
Secondary Motivation
Physical, mental, and material resources to pursue one's dominant motivation
Nonverbal Components
Pictures, music, surrealism, and other nonverbal cues
Cross-promotion
Placing signage in one area of the store to promote complementary products in one area
Three Dimensions of Emotions
Pleasure, arousal, and dominance
Smart Banner
Present consumers with information they are more likely interested in, the sub-conscious filters are likely to pick up on that information and direct conscious attention toward those banners
Contextual Cues
Present in a situation, such as the background color on a web page or the nature of the programming surrounding a brand's ad, play a role in the consumer's interpretation independent of the actual stimulus
Message Framing
Presenting one of two equivalent value outcomes in either a positive or gain terms OR in negative or loss terms
Figure-ground
Presenting the stimulus in such a way that is perceived as the focal object to be attended to and all other stimuli are perceived as the background
Brand Leverage
Refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity
Stimulus Discrimination
Refers to the opposite process of learning: responding differently to somewhat similar stimuli
Importance
Refers to the value that the consumer places on the information to be learned: greater importance increases learning and retrieval
Consumer Ethnocentrism
Reflects and individual difference in consumers' propensity to be biased against the purchase of foreign products
Attribution Theory
Relates to consumers having a need to attribute an underlying cause to a given outcome
Interdependent Self-Concept
Relationships are of primary importance
Promotion-Focused Motives
Revolve around a desire for growth and development and are related to consumers' hopes and aspirations
Prevention-Focused Motives
Revolve around a desire for safety and security and are related to consumers' sense of duties and obligations
Comfortable Retirement (3%)
Rural and wealthy; people who are retired or close to retirement, with a significant nest egg, living in communities with others in similar life stage but looften away from their grown children. Leisure activities include gardening and supporting the arts. Europeans, especially from The Netherlands, are over-represented in this group.
Rural Inheritance (15%)
Rural with average to low income; people who live far away from big cities, are self-employed, and working in agriculture and tourism, They do not regularly eat in restaurants, have their clothes dry cleaned, or their children tutored. Greece and Ireland are over-represented in this group.
Product Placement
Shows how and when to use the product and enhances the product's image
Right Side of the Brain
Side of the brain that deals with pictorial, geometric, timeless, and nonverbal information without the individual's being able to verbally report it
Size
Smaller stimuli are more likely to be unnoticed
Communication Characteristics
Source characteristics, message appeal characteristics, and message structure characteristics
Two Characteristics of the Source of a Message
Source credibility and celebrity sources
Situational Factors
Stimuli in the environment other that the focal stimulus and temporary characteristics of the individual that are induced by the environment
Goal Framing
Stress either the positive consequences of performing an act or the negative consequences of not performing the act (negative message is more effective)
Emotions
Strong, relatively uncontrollable feelings that affect our behavior
Believers
Strongly traditional and respect rules and authority. Because the are fundamentally conservative, they are slow to change and technology averse. They choose familiar products and established brands
Bourgeois Prosperity (9%)
Suburban and wealthy; middle to late middle-aged people, who are well-educated, married and with older children, and living in big houses in traditional, quiet suburban locations. Many have worked their way up to leadership positions in their companies. Australia and the U.K. are over-represented in this group.
Hard Working Blue Collar (11%)
Suburban with average to low income/wealth; people with families, employed in craft or manual skill positions. Leisure time spent on home improvement and outdoor activities. New Zealand leads the group in over-representation.
Routine Service Workers (9%)
Suburban with average wealth; people at various stages in their life cycle, living in older houses, and working in white-collar service jobs. They are relatively well informed about social trends but not quick to innovate. Asians and the Irish are over- represented in this group.
Innovators
Successful, sophisticated, take-charge people with high self-esteem. They are change leaders and are the most receptive to new ideas and technologies. Their purchases reflect cultivated tastes for upscale, niche products and services
Regulatory Focus Theory
Suggests that consumers react differently depending on whether promotion-focused or prevention-focused motives are most salient
Regulatory Focus Theory
Suggests that consumers will react differently depending on which broad set of motives (promotion-focused or prevention-focused) is most salient
Zapping
Switching channels when a commercial appears
Product Placement and Hybrid Ads
Tactics in which marketers attempt to overcome avoidance
Sensory Discrimination
The ability of an individual to distinguish between similar stimuli
Interpretation
The assignment of meaning to stimuli that have been attended to
Physiological Needs
The basic requirements for existence such as food, water, and shelter
Personality
The characteristic and relatively enduring ways that people have of responding to the situations they face
Ethical concerns in applying knowledge of the perceptual process
The conflict between presenting one's brand in a favorable light and presenting it completely accurately
Approach-Approach Conflict
The consumer faces a choice between two attractive alternatives
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
The consumer faces both positive and negative consequences in the purchase of a particular product
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
The consumer faces two undesirable alternatives
Maintenance Rehearsal
The continual repetition of a piece of information in order to hold it in current memory
Semantic Meaning
The conventional meaning assigned to a word
Message Involvement
The degree to which the consumer is interested in the message itself
Self-Actualization Needs
The desire for self-fulfillment, to reach one's potential
Brand Engagement
The extent to which an individual includes important brands as part of their self-concepts
Information Processing
The four activities in the series are exposure, attention, interpretation, and memory
Operant Conditioning
The learner must first engage in the desired behavior and then receive an appropriate reward
Iconic Rote Learning
The learning of an association between two concepts in the absence of conditioning
Psychological Meaning
The meaning assigned to a word based on experiences and the context or situation in which the word or other symbol is used
Perception
The meaning derived from a stimulus is typically transferred to memory where it is stored and can be later retrieved when consumers are making purchase decisions
Episodic Memory
The memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated
Just Noticeable Difference
The minimum amount that one brand can differ from another with the difference still being noticed
Analytical Reasoning
The most complex form of cognitive learning, involving individuals' engaging in creative thinking to restructure and recombine existing information as well as new information to form new associations and concepts
Need for Assertion
The need for assertion reflects a consumer's need for engaging in those types of activities that will bring about an increase in self-esteem, as well as esteem in the eyes of others
Need for Autonomy
The need for independence and of self-government is a characteristic of the American culture
Need for Modeling
The need for modeling reflects a tendency to base behavior on that of others
Need for Affiliation
The need to develop mutually helpful and satisfying relationships with others. The need here is to share and to be accepted by others
McGuire's Psychological Motives
The needs for consistency, attribution, categorization, objectification, autonomy, stimulation, desired outcomes (teleological), utility, tension reduction, expression, ego defense, reinforcement, assertion, affiliation, identification, and modeling
Repetition
The number of times that we are exposed to the information or that we engage in a behavior
Stimulus Organization
The physical arrangement of the stimulus objects and relates to the perceptual principles of proximity, closure, and figure-ground
Psychographics
The primary way that lifestyle is made operationally useful to marketing managegers
Stimulus Discrimination
The process of learning to respond differently to somewhat similar stimuli
Memory
The result of learning, which involves information processing
Brand Image
The schematic memory of a brand
Extended Self
The self-concept including the possessions one uses to define oneself
Mood
The temporary mental state or feeling of the consumer
Ad Avoidance
The term for selective exposure within the advertising area
Self-Concept
The totality of the one's thoughts and feelings toward one's self
Elaborative Activities
The use of stored experiences, values, attitudes, and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in current memory
Brand Equity
The value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond any specific functional characteristics of the product
Attitudes
The way people think, feel, and act toward some aspect of their environment
Mere Exposure
Theory that simply presenting a brand to an individual on a large number of occasions might make the individual's attitude toward the brand more positive
Need for Objectification
These motives reflect needs for observable cues or symbols which enable us to infer what we feel and know
Utilitarian Need
These theories view the consumer as a problem solver who approaches situations as opportunities to acquire useful information or new skills
Need for Expression
This motive deals with the need to express one's identity to others
Teleological Need
This motive propels us to prefer mass media such as movies, television programs, and books with outcomes that match our view of how the world should work
Need for Attribution
This set of motives deals with our need to determine who or what causes the things that happen to us
Post Industrial Survivors (12%)
Town & Rural with low income; people living in older, single family houses in towns traditionally dependent on coal, steel and chemicals, and working as manual laborers. They are slow to adopt innovative products and take few vacations. European countries are over-represented in this group.
Strivers
Trendy and fun loving. They have little discretionary income and tend to have narrow interests. They favor stylish products that emulate the purchases of people with greater material wealth. Many Strivers believe that life isn't fair
Muting
Turning the sound off during commercial breaks
Sophisticated Singles (8%)
Urban and wealthy: young and social people, mostly single and well educated, who enjoy life in large cities, are international in their outlook, and innovative in their lifestyle and purchases
Low Income Elders (6%)
Urban to suburban with low-income; people who are retired or close to retirement, rely on the government for their income, rent small houses or apartments, and live modest lifestyles. They enjoy watching TV and visiting their grown children. Spain, and other European countries, are over-represented in this group.
Metropolitan Strugglers (19%)
Urban with low income; people who live in rental units in transient areas with high levels of crime and drug addiction, are employed in low skill jobs, and have limited to no access to a car or consumer credit. Retail options are limited to discount stores. Hong Kong, Sweden and the U.S. are over-represented in this group.
Rhetorical Figures
Use of an unexpected twist or artful deviation in how a message is communicated either visually in the ad's picture or verbally in the ad's text or headline
Fear Appeals
Use threat of negative consequences if attitudes or behaviors are not altered
General Lifestyle Typloogies
VALS and PRIZM
Makers
Value practicality and self-sufficiency. They chose hands-on constructive activities and spend leisure time with family and close friends. Because they prefer value to luxury, they buy basic products. They prefer to "buy American."
Affective Strategy
Various forms of classical conditioning
Flashbulb Memory
Vividly detailed and highly enduring over time; they contain specific situational detail; they are held with a high degree of confidence, and are perceived as special and different from other ordinary or mundane experiences
Need for Tension-Reduction
We encounter situations in our daily lives that create uncomfortable levels of stress
Need to Categorize
We have a need to be able to categorize and organize information and experiences in some meaningful yet manageable way
Need for Stimulation
We often seek variety and difference simply out of a need for novelty
Need for Reinfocement
We quite often are motivated to act in certain ways because we are rewarded for doing so
Nonfocused Attention
When a person takes in information without deliberate effort
Exposure
When a stimulus comes within range of one of an individual's primary sensory receptors
High-Involvement Learning
When an individual is motivated to acquire the information
Low-Involvement Learning
When an individual is paying only limited or indirect attention to an advertisement or other message
Containment
When consumers "seal off" the negative information as a way to quarantine it and avoid having it spill over and spoil their existing positive attitude
Selective Exposure
When consumers actively avoid certain marketing stimuli
Memory Interference
When consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information because other related information in memory gets in the way
Zipping
When one fast-forwards through a commercial on a prerecorded program
Need for Ego-Defense
When our identity is threatened, we are motivated to protect our self-concept and utilize defensive behaviors and attitudes
Attention
When the stimulus activates one or more of the sensory receptors and the resulting sensations go into the brain for processing
Co-branding
When two brands are given to a single product
Intensity
When using repetition, attention generally decreases across repeated exposures— attention reallocation can occur
Short-Term Memory
Where information goes for processing and two basic activities occur: maintenance rehearsal and elaborative activities
Media Patterns
Which specific media the consumers utilize