Final Exam Prep

*What were Mikhail Gorbachev's reasoning for pursuing Perestroika and Glasnost?

"Perestroika" = restructuring, "glasnost" = openness. - He pursued these in order to revitalize communism. Restructuring was to restructure and partially dismantle the command economy that had dominated the soviet union since the Bolshevik revolution. - Glasnost permitted frank commentary and the exposure of incompetence and cover-ups by the soviet leadership. This had a more wide-range consequence for the soviet union.

*What was Gandhi's attitude towards the whites of Durban? What decision did he make about the incident in Durban?

- A HUNDRED years ago an incident took place in Durban that demonstrated tangibly for the first time in all its ugliness the racialism of the white colonist against the Indians. -Returning to Durban with his family from India in January 1897, Gandhi and the Indian passengers aboard the Courtland and Naderi met with a hostile reception. - The white agitators alleged that Gandhi had, whilst abroad, maligned and lowered the fair name of the whites in Natal through calumny. - He promoted nonvoilence.

*Describe how the 1990s was a "roaring" economic period for the United States. Which of the positive economic features of the U.S. economy were potential problems for the decades after the 1990s?

- After the oil crisis of 1985-1986 and after the collapse of communism in 1991, the US advocated for free trade, fiscal discipline, and international economic integration as the proper course for world development. - Most economically and politically powerful country. - Became a superpower by 1) dominating the dollar regime (dollars functioned as the currency for all oil and sales purchases), making the dollar the world's currency. a]And 2) With its giant consumer economy, the US functioned as the world's favorite destination for manufactured goods, particularly from east asia. - This leverage was boosted by overwhelming military force, making the US a primary enforcer of peace. - Tech boom of the 90s lead to the dot com crisis of 2002-2003, having roots in the uncontrolled speculation about the expansion of the internet. - The recession of 2008-2009 began when the U.S. housing market had a domino that, when it fell, toppled many of the world's major economies and led the world into recession. For the first half of the decade, aggressive investing by homebuyers, mortgage lenders, Wall Street investment houses, and insurers had driven up the median price of a single-family home by almost 10% a year, with housing in some parts of the country escalating even faster. The success of the 90s is what drove people to make all these investments. - Altogether, 176 banks in the U.S. failed in 2009, many of them small and local. Even financially secure banks, not trusting potential borrowers to pay them back, stopped lending. Businesses—especially small and new businesses—could not find the credit that they needed to pay creditors or buy inventory or to pay their own workers, much less to hire new ones.

*Why did Brazil continue to import and have African slaves longer than any other nation in the Western Hemisphere?

- Because like Cuba, Brazil benefited from the collapse of the sugar production of Haiti after its slave revolt. It benefitted from 1790s- mid 1800s. - Brazil expanded its plantation sector, especially in the province of Bahia, and imported large numbers of slaves from Africa.

*According to Simone de Beauvoir in The Second Sex why do women internalize feelings of inferiority?

- Because they do not feel responsible for their own future. She says that society teaches girls to have self control and a lack of fun so that they don't attract attention. They end up all becoming the same person and grow so bored of each other that they look to boys for fulfillment. -" It is because she is destined for him that, in accepting the idea of inferiority, she constitutes it." - Trained to believe that "brilliant triumphs are reserved for men"

*Compare the increased popularity of the BJP party in India, and its conservative pro-Hindu political identity, with the rise of Islamism in the Middle East.

- Both were critical of secular ideologies. - BJP was against the secular policies of the Indian National Congress. - Islamists were against the rise of secular Arab nationalism and socialism during 1952-1970.

*What is significant about the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China?

- Boxer Rebellion, officially supported peasant uprising of 1900 that attempted to drive all foreigners from China. "Boxers" was a name that foreigners gave to a Chinese secret society known as the Yihequan ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists"). - Foreign governments assembled and put together a multinational relief force led by the Germans and British and largely manned by the Japanese but including units of all the countries with interests in China. - They had fought their way to the capital and chased the imperial court nearly to Xi'an. Foreign governments were able to impose the most severe "unequal treaty" yet: they extracted the right to post troops in major Chinese cities, demanded the total suppression of any anti-foreign movements, and received such a huge indemnity that China had to borrow money from foreign banks in order to service the interest of the loan. - One positive outcome of the Boxer protocols of 1902 was that the US agreed to return its share of the indemnity money to China on the condidion that it would be used to send Chinese students to study in the US.

*How did Olympe de Gouges challenge the French revolutionaries?

- By publishing a meditation on what the National Assembly would should declare concerning "the rights of women" - At the time, women were not included among the new office holders of revolutionary France, nor were they members of the country's Third Estate. - She created the Cercle Social (Social Circle), a group of female activists who coordianted their publishing activities on behalf of women and their revolutionary goals.

**What were the strengths and flaws of each of the three visions of modernity?

- Capitalist democracy was a modernity that upheld free enterprise, the market, and consumerism. It succeeded in providing the modern items of daily life, but it suffered a major in the Depression and had to be reined in through tightened political controls. - It also withheld freedom, equality and the staples of daily life from minorities and the colonized. - Communism succeeded in an industrializing and underdeveloped empire and proving the bare necessities for modern life; it did so with untold human sacrifices. - Supremacist nationalism was attractive to nationalists who were not workers and therefore afraid of communism. - Supremacist nationalists held democracies in disdain because they considered constitutions meaningless pieces of paper.

**Which policies did China and India pursue so that they became the fastest industrializing countries in the early twenty-first century?

- China and India accelerated their industrialization by systematically encouraging the expansion of their middle classes at the engines of investment and innovation. - China, however, did not allow the development of a multiparty system, fearing the chaos of popular agitation. - India, by contrast, possessed constitutional traditions reaching back to the nineteenth century that included constraints against populism and allowed for peaceful democratic competition.

*What happened to Mohamed Bouazizi and what role did he have in the Arab Spring?

- December 17th, 2010. He was a 26 year old in Tunisia who set himself on fire in an act of despair. - His act of defiance, and the reactions to it led to the ouster of Tunisia's dictator Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, and once this revolt had spread to Egypt, of Hosni Mubarak.

*What Cold War concerns led the Soviets to invade Afghanistan in 1979, and what was the result for the Soviets?

- During the SALT II talks of 77-79 an agreement was reached in 79 that would require the US and SU to limit certain types of nuclear weapons and begin a process of reducing them, later known as START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks/Treaty). - The SU invaded Afghanistan in the December of 1979. - The Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty of 1979 and and the tilting of Saudi Arabia and Iraq toward the US had altered the Middle Eastern landscape radically in favor for the west. - Fearful of a weak, nominally communist Afghan government on its flank, adjacent to pro-American Pakistan and a China that had appeared to have shifted towards the US, the Soviets launched a swift coup in Afghanistan and installed a communist leader with a massive military force to back him up. - The soviets were immediately subjected to international condemnation, and the US boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics. - The new admin under Ronald Reagan ( 1981-1989) sought a more assertive policy towards the SU. - The US developed the Strategic Defense Initiative nicknamed "star wars" that broke SALT I accords.

*How does Coketown in Charles Dickens, Hard Times represent the industrialization?

- During this era, in 1854, Charles Dickens (1812-1870) wrote Hard Times to comment upon the change within society and its effect on its people. Dickens points out the flaws and limitations of this new society in his eloquent and passionate plea on behalf of the working poor (Charles Dickens Hard Times, 2000). The novel shows presents to readers the authors perspective of life during the nineteenth century and makes comments on the central theme of fact versus fancy. Due to this theme, the novel ends with many characters realising that a person needs more than just fact in their life. The novel examines the utilitarian system through various characters such as Tom. - In Hard Times, Dickens attacks the industrial evils practiced during his days. Coketown represents all industrial towns of red bricks and black soot; there are full of streets and lanes which are monotonously similar; the towns have houses of the same kind, so there is hardly any difference between the jail and the hospital and between the hospital and the town hall. - The novel sets up a general comparison of three different kinds of home life - the rich middle-class households of the Bounderbys and the Gradgrinds, the poor home of the Blackpools, and the nomadic community of Sleary's circus.

*How was foreign economic investment used, at different times, by the Ottoman Empire to improve conditions and preserve the empire?

- Economic situation improved while empire declined; main factor at the end of the depression of 1873-1896, and a renewed interest among European investors in creating industrial enterprises in the agrarian but export-oriented independent and colonial countries of the ME, Asia, and South America. - When Abdulhamit II was at the peak of his power in the 1890s and early 1900s, investors perceived the Ottoman Empire as sufficiently stable for the creation of industrial enterprises. - A recovery took place in the second half of the 1800s, both in the crafts sector and in the newly mechanized small factory sector of textile manufacturing, produced cottons, woolens, silks, and rugs, which previously suffered. - Operating with low wages and even more low-paid female labor, domestic small-scale manufacturing was able to hold foreign factory-produced goods at bay. - Throughout the 1800's, the empire was also an exporter of agricultural commodities. - When foreign investments resumed in the 1890s and 1900s, there was a base on which industrialization could build, similar to conditions in the Netherlands, France, and Latin America when they industrialized.

*Why did the women's movement of the 1960s, in America and Europe, focus on birth control and sexual freedom?

- Encouraged by antiwar and cival rights movements. - Leading voice was Simone de Beauvoir who encouraged women to become more self-assertive in order to gain full equality. - She and others contributed to the sexual revolution of the 60s where American and European women demanded an end to restrictions on reproductive and sexual freedoms. - Laws prohibiting contraception and abortion were overturned in several western countries in the 60s and 70s. Roe v Wade - Loosening of post-war moral standards, relaxed censorship of the media, and increased emphasis on sex and eroticism in pop culture played a part in new attitudes towards female sexuality.

*What were the legal and social aspects of American society that the African-American Civil Rights movement of the 1960s sought to change?

- End to segregation (Jim Crow Laws) of public places as well as desegregation of schools (Brown v. Board of Education which turned over Plessy v. Fergeson). - End to police brutality - End to voter disenfranchisement (Lead to Voting Rights Act of 1965).

*What were the "Four Modernizations" of Deng Xiaoping, and how did this policy differ from the kinds of policies of Mao Zedong?

- Fundemental policies that are still in place. It relied on upgrading the quality of agriculture, industry, science, technology, and the military. - Pursue "open door" policies to allow students to study abroad and allow market forces of capitalism to create incentives for innovation in all sectors. - "Responsability system" introduces a special economic zone set up in south China to take advantage of capital and expertise of Hong Kong. - One child policy - Their differences can be seen both before and after Mao's death. In the early 60's Mao took a back seat and Deng was one of the communist leaders to initiate some economic reforms. Mao considered this a betrayal of Maoism and unleashed the Cultural Revolution which resulted in 10 years of chaos. Deng was humiliated and imprisoned. -Unlike Mao he embraced foreign trade and expertise needed to modernise the archaic Chinese economy.

* What arguments about his nation and foreign capital did Salvador Allende give in his Last Words? What was his fate, and why did it occur?

- He said that the soldiers of Chile betrayed the country and that he refused to resign. - He thanks his people and says that only the people/workers can determine history. - Says that foreign capital, imperialism, together with the reaction, created the climate in which the armed forces broke their tradition. - He led a coalition of socialists, communists, and christian liberal democrats to a plurality win as president of Chile in 1970. His policies met opposition within Chile, while his ideology and nationalization of American interests in the country's mines prompted the admin of President Nixon (1969-1974) to back Allende's opposition. With American blessings and CIA's help, Allende was overthrown and murdered in 1973.

*What role did nuclear technology play in the Cold War?

- IT heightened tensions between the US and the SU, especially during the Bay of Pigs scare. - The reason that the cold war never went hot, in other words all out fighting between Russia and the West was because both sides had loads of nuclear weapons of all kinds pointed at each other. This was known as "mutually assured destruction".

*What were Indira Gandhi's views about educated women in the context of Indian culture in a modern society?

- If a home cannot flourish without a woman, neither can a society. - This is why the education of woman is is almost more important than the education of boys and men. - Education for women is necessary if India wants to become a modern, rational society. - Everything has a purpose. She was the only female PM of India and was assassinated in 1984

*How did the lives of Islamic women under Mughal authority compare with the lives of Hindu women outside of Mughal rule?

- Islamic Timurid women under Mughal authority had more freedoms and had more power and influence than that of Hindu women outside of Mughal rule, who were limited to the home. - They were devoid of education because of this social-custom. However, they were better placed in certain respects as compared to Hindu women. They could divorce their husbands, remarry and could claim their share in the property of their parents. There was no practice of sati among Muslim women. - Sati: when the woman is burned after her husband dies. - Islamic system of women being isolated from men in the household

*Why was the victory of Hamas in 2006 Palestinian elections so problematic for Israel, and how did Israel handle that situation?

- Islamic guerrilla organization founded in 1988 won elections in Gaza rather than secular ethnic-nationalist PLO. - PLO refused to recognize the elections and a civil war broke out in which Hamas was victorious, forcing PLO to retreat to West Bank. - Israel imposed a complete embargo on Hamas-ruled Gaza in an attempt to bring the organization down. - PLO-Hamas split was a disaster for Israel because it threw away the possibility of a two-state solution - Hamas lauched rockets and Israel invaded in retaliation in December- January 2008-2009. Not able to defeat Hamas.

*How does the Copenhagen United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change address the issues of national sovereignty and unequal economic development?

- It saw 194 countries sign on to an agreement regarding climate change. - Aiming to keep the global temperature below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. - Appropriates financial flows, a new tech framework, and enhanced capacity building framework to be put into place, thus supporting action by developing countries and the most vulnerable countries in line with their own national objectives.

*In what ways were Mao, and policies such as the Great Leap Forward, influenced by the policies of the Soviet Union?

- Like Stalin's efforts in industrializing Russia, Mao's Great Leap Forward sought to industrialize China, even if at the expense of agriculture. - The Great Leap Forwards is a Mobilization project led by Mao Zedong that aimed to transform China from an agrarian economy to a socialist society through rapid industrialization and collectivization. - Like the USSR, China faced mass starvation under these policies.

*What arguments did Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. make in his "I Have a Dream" speech?

- March on Washington August 1963. Marchers explicitly demanded "jobs and freedom". - Argued that Black people are still not free because of segregation, poverty, "exile in his own land." - He says that the Constitution and Declaration of Independence meant to give all people freedom and their unalienable rights, but Black citizens has been excluded from this. He argues that America had given Black people " a bad check" marked with "insufficient funds". - He argues that this issue needs urgency and that the nation needs to become steady in the "solid rock of brotherhood". - He argues that 1963 is only the beginning, and that in this process, everyone should avoid bitterness and hatred and should instead meet physical force with soul force, and embrace their white allies. - He says that no one should be satisfied until they are no longer victim to police brutality, no longer tuned away from motels and other public places. Until everyone can vote and everyone has the freedom to live where they want.

*How did the crisis unfold at Tiananmen Square, according to eyewitness accounts?

- May 1989 a protest movement made up of mostly students took place in Beijing as students convened and constructed a large statue called the goddess of democracy. - Zhang Boli: Says they were making preperations as news from all sides came in saying that the troops had started to open fire. Many students ran into the square with blood running down their faces. - In some places, the troops were shooting and in some there were clashes. When he and Yan Jiaqi started to speak, the troops arrived and were moving into Tainanmen Square. - He told the students not to fight back or talk back. - They moved towards the monument of heroes and as some removed white vests and used them as flags to negotiate with troops, they returned saying the troops will only give them a half hour to leave. - The students decided to leave and as they did, they saw tanks running over people and firing tear gas. 11 were killed.

*What kinds of conditions did young girls and women face in the coalmines and factories of the early industrial age?

- More jobs for women under industrialization. - Deplorable working conditions - Young women were less likely to be educated - Women often brought children to work with them as well.

*Discuss the arguments of the two sides, one in favor of and one opposing, the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. How was this invasion connected to the invasion of Iraq in 1991?

- Pro war: -Iraq as a Threat to the United States -Possible Ties Between Iraq, al-Qaeda, and 9/11 -Iraqi Weapons of Mass Destruction -United Nations Resolutions Violations -Safety of the United States - Anti war: -A War Against Iraq Would Be Illegal - Regional Allies Widely Oppose a U.S. Attack - There Is No Evidence of Iraqi Links to Al Qaeda or Other Anti-American Terrorists - There Is No Firm Proof that Iraq Is Developing Weapons of Mass Destruction - Iraq Is No Longer a Significant Military Threat to Its Neighbors - There Are Still Nonmilitary Options Available - Defeating Iraq Would Be Militarily Difficult Both invasions were to supress Iraqi influence of the region.

*What role did the Azamgarh Proclamation have in 1857?

- Published in the Delhi Gazette in the midst of the "Great Mutany" of 1857. - Author was Firoz Shah, a grandson of a Mughal Emperor. - It addressed Indian elites and artisans. - It rules in favor of Muslims in legal cases that also involve Hindus - The proclamation makes clear through its grievances that the British control the judicial, economic, and governmental institutions of India - The Azamgarh Proclamation identifies the British as the key problem holding India back

*What did Rudyard Kipling argue regarding colonialism in "The White Man's Burden"?

- Rudyard Kipling was a British writer - He was warning the US about taking over the Philippians. Although he encourages them to become and imperial power, he warns against taking over lands in the East, as he sees that as the Domain of the English. - White mans burden was to "help" and civilize people even if they do not want it.

**What categories determined social status in Spanish and Portuguese America, and how did this compare with the social classes in Europe?

- Spanish and Portuguese American social status was determined by race. This Caste (sociedad de castas) and class system showed Spaniards at the top, followed by creoles, then mixed people, Natives, and African slaves. - They support their view with reference to the continuing legal and economic disabilities of natives and descendants of African-born people. Furthermore, they point to well-known paintings commissioned in the eighteenth century by wealthy Spaniards showing a proliferation of racial categories. - In Europe, social class was not determined by race, but by other things. Nobility was at the top, followed by peasants.

*How multi-faceted was the African National Congress in its struggle against South African Apartheid, and why did its policy of changing tactics ultimately lead to success?

- The ANC was made up of of a multicultural, multi ideological base, including communism. It resisted any more narrowly defined black nationalist political orientation. - It held mass protests and acts of sabotage through a newly created armed wing 1961-1964 that was met with gov repression. - Protests by student and labor organizations, churches, and white liberals continued as did gov response. - The ANC was driven underground, where it sought to make townships ungovernable. - It also operated from abroad where it helped in the creation of the 1980s of a broad coalition of Western states and organizations which sought to force South Africa to abolish apartheid through sanctions and boycott. - The ANC eventually prevailed because of the collapse of the soviet bloc in 1989-1991; the apartheid regime could no longer claim that it was the final bulwark against world communism. In 1994, South Africa became a black-governed country under the rule of the ANC.

**Why were the Jesuits more successful in converting the Chinese than the Franciscans and Dominicans had been?

- The Franciscans and Dominicans had limited training in in the Chinese language and and culture so they made little progress. - Their efforts were largely aimed at seeking conversions among the poor, which won them scant respect and influence among Chinese elites. - The Jesuits were different. Lead by Matteo Ricci and his successors immersed themselves in the classical language and high culture of the empire and gained recognition through their expertise in math, astronomy, military science and other European learning sought by the imperial court. - Jesuit advisers served the last Ming emperors as court astronomers and military engineers and successfully transitioned into the new dynasty. - Emperor Kangxi even considered converting to Catholicism.

*What role did Britain play in the independence of the Indian subcontinent and the subsequent political developments in India and Pakistan?

- The Indian Independence Bill, which carves the independent nations of India and Pakistan out of the former Mogul Empire, comes into force at the stroke of midnight. The long-awaited agreement ended 200 years of British rule and was hailed by Indian independence leader Mohandas Gandhi as the "noblest act of the British nation." However, religious strife between Hindus and Muslims, which had delayed Britain's granting of Indian independence after World War II, soon marred Gandhi's exhilaration. In the northern province of Punjab, which was sharply divided between Hindu-dominated India and Muslim-dominated Pakistan, hundreds of people were killed in the first few days after independence.

**What new directions in science, philosophy, religion, and the arts did industrialization generate? What kind of responses did it provoke?

- The new society that industrialization was creating not surprisingly spawned entirely new directions in science, philosophy, religion, and the creative fields such as literature and art. - It generated new kinds of popular expression, from dime novels to photography. The advent of mass society also led to the beginnings of a mass culture, in which widespread literacy and public education allowed for a far greater percentage of the populace access to what had largely been the province of elites. Yet there was also a profound disquiet among scientists, intellectuals, and artists. - With so many of the old standards falling, tremendous uncertainty lay present just under the surface of material progress. This disquiet would come to the surface with a vengeance in the immediate years after World War I.

*What natural resources helped to prepare Britain to be the first nation to industrialize?

- They had large reserves of coal and iron coming from the colonies. - New food from the Americas which increased domestic population.

*Describe the relationship between the Mughals of India and the region of Afghanistan

- To check the power of the Afghan tribes, that lived in the mountain region between Punjab and Kabul. - Babur was from Kabul, Afghanistan

*How were the interests of the Cold War superpowers reflected in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

- USSR: Article 23, protection against unemployment, as well as equal pay for equal work, and social protection. - US: Freedom of speech and of thought.

*How has North Korea resisted global trends in the past 20 years, and what price has it paid for this resistance?

- Unlike Cuba, Vietnam, and China, North Korea did not enact many economic reforms. - Although it formally renounced marxism/Leninism kept its socialism, self-sufficiency, isolation, and militarism. - Disappearance of Soviet Bloc aid in 1991 plunged North Korea into hunger from which it barely reemerged after 2002. - Massive starvation and developmental stunt because of "self-sufficiency" in the 90s - A little economic reform after 2002 but hit with sanctions because of nuclear tests.

*What arguments about common ancestors does Charles Darwin make in The Origin of Species (1859)?

- We all have the same orgin, the human species migrated form the same place. - Because so many things - anatomical likenesses, skeletal similarities (the domestic dog, the farmyard animal and the garden vegetable, to name a few) - made it obvious that there had been some changes in species over time.

*How do the writings of Babur, Dara Shikuh, and Aurangzeb fit into the relationship between Muslims and Hindus in India?

-Babur wrote of jihad and massacring infidels in his autobiography, The Baburnama. - Edicts of Aurangzeb caused tension between Muslims and Hindus in India. - Dara Shikuh's relationship with the Sikh guru and his following of a Persian mystic lead him to be a supporter of harmonious coexistence. He translated texts from Sanskrit to Persian and wrote The Mingling of Two Oceans to address the overlapping ideas of Muslim mysticism and Hinduism.

**The British and other Europeans viewed the exportation of opium into China as a potential solution for trade problems. What were the problems the Europeans hoped to solve by selling opium to the Chinese?

-By the 1790s, with the China trade at record levels and the French Revolution making European trade increasingly problematic, the British Empire sought to establish diplomatic relations with the Qing. - After the empire sent representatives with gifts to the emperor to persuade the Qianlong emperor to allow the stationing of diplomatic personnel in the Chinese capital and create a system for the sperate handling of ordinary commercial matters and diplomacy along the lines of European practices. They were turned down multiple times. - There was a perception that China benefited from a huge trade imbalance so Europe wanted to bring the Chinese to their diplomatic system. - Opium became so popular that by 1794 Britain was buying nine million pounds each year. The big problem, for Britain, was that the Chinese would only sell tea for silver, and so large amounts of silver were leaving the country. In order to stop this imbalance, the East India Company began to smuggle opium into China illegally, for which they could demand payment in silver. This illicit traffic was fiercely resisted by the Chinese authorities and led to Britain declaring war in 1840 to force China to buy the drug By the late eighteenth-century tea purchases dominated the China trade and accounted for more than 60 percent of the East India Company's purchases. The Imperial Chinese authorities required all purchases to be made in silver. With English silver increasingly in short supply, European traders began to bring Indian opium to China, which they sold for Chinese silver dollars and then used the silver dollars to finance their purchases of tea. Meanwhile the English traders were becoming dissatisfied with the services available to them from Macao and the Ch'ing were becoming increasingly nervous about the growing European presence in Canton and the spiraling opium trade.

* What occurred in Salem in 1692?

A witch hunt started when Tituba, a Native slave from Barbados was accused of practicing voodoo in her pastor master's house. The child of the pastor started having convulsions and mass hysteria broke out. Over 20 witches were executed.

*During the period known as détente, the Soviet Union and United States turned to each other for assistance in what kinds of international issues?

Detente: "release of tensions" - direct hotline from whitehouse to kremlin to alert eachother over false attack signals. - On May 22 Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit Moscow. He and Brezhnev signed seven agreements covering the prevention of accidental military clashes; arms control, as recommended by the recent Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (salt); cooperative research in a variety of areas, including space exploration; and expanded commerce. The salt treaty was approved by Congress later that summer, as was a three-year agreement on the sale of grain to the Soviets. In June 1973, Brezhnev visited the United States for Summit II; this meeting added few new agreements, but did symbolize the two countries' continuing commitment to peace.

*How did the inventions and discoveries of the industrial revolution transform warfare in the late nineteenth century?

- Advances in chemistry and explosives, metallurgy, and machine tooling during the second half of the nineteenth century contributed to a vastly enhanced lethality among weapons. - Breech loading weapons, in their infancy during the early 1860s, rapidly came of age with the advent of the brass cartridge. By 1865, a number of manufacturers were marketing repeating rifles. - Bolt-action, magazine-fed, and clip-fed rifles that remained the staple of infantry weapons were used through two world wars. - Breech loading artillery made loading and firing guns more efficient. - Field artillery can be ainchored, aimed, and fired with enhanced accuracy, becoming "rapid fire artillery". - New explosives like guncotton, dynamite, and later TNT for use in shells. - Most lethal new weapon was the machine gun, the first fully automatic machine gun developed by Hiram Maxim. His lethal weapons were used during WW1.

*How did Tsar Alexander II's Abolition of Serfdom draw on religion and limit peasants' rights?

- Affecting 50 million serfs. - Tsar Nicholas I emphasized adherence to Orthodoxy. - Although serfs were emancipated, it took 2 years for the edict to be truly enacted. - Peasants were not given land titles directly; rather, the land was turned over to the control of land mirs, which then in turn allocated parcels to individual serfs. - Serfs had to redeem their new holdings by making annual payments to the state to pay back long term government loans, the proceeds from which were then used to compensate landowning nobility. These payments were much higher than the former dues that serfs owed the aristocracy.

**How did the newly independent countries of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa adapt to the divided world of the Cold War?

- After 1945 a number of nations on earth rose to a total of 196 today. The new nations, emerging from colonialism, were in theory, like the older nations of early modernity in the nineteenth century, countries with ethnic-linguistic-religious cores and functioning constitutional institutions. - In fact, many were not. Since most, furthermore, were still overwhelmingly agrarian , industrialism was beyond reach. - With great hope, the ruling elites in a number of large new nations embraced a mixed capitalist-democratic and socialist regime, with heavy state investments in basic industries. - However, in contrast to Stalin, who introduced these types of investments under the label of self-guided socialism, none of the elites in the new nations had the will to collect the money for these investments from their rural population. - Instead, they borrowed heavily from the capitalist-democratic countries. True independence remained elusive.

**In 1946, Winston Churchill coined the phrase "The Iron Curtain" to describe the divisions between Western and Eastern Europe after World War II. What actions by the various allied nations during the war helped to create the divisions, and what was the essential difference between the two regions of Europe?

- After the Potsdam conference, Germany was divided into four occupied zones: Great Britain in the northwest, France in the southwest, the United States in the south and the Soviet Union in the east. Berlin, the capital city situated in Soviet territory, was also divided into four occupied zones. - West Germany, or the Federal Republic of Germany, was officially established in May 1949. East Germany, or the German Democratic Republic, was established in October 1949. Under their occupying governments, the two Germanys followed very different paths. West Germany was allied with the U.S., the U.K. and France and became a western capitalist country with a market economy. In contrast, East Germany was allied by the Soviet Union and fell under highly centralized communist rule.

*Stalin's economic policies in the Soviet Union were devastating for the Russian population, but they did successfully complete his goal of rapidly industrializing the Soviet Union. Explain what his policies were, in what ways they were harsh, and how they succeeded.

- After the grain crisis of 1928, the Communist Pary, under Stalin, decreed the collectivization of agriculture in 1929 as the necessary step towards accelerated industrialization. - Over the next 2 years , in a carefully laid out plan, 3-5 percent of the "wealthiest" farmers on grain producing lands were "liquidated"- selected for execution, removal to labor camps, or resettlement to inferior soil. Their properties were confiscated, and the remaining peasents were regrouped as employees on state farms. - Animals were considered collective property. - Between 6 and 14 million farmers were forcibly removed, with the majority killed outright or worked and starved to death. - The impact on agriculture was devastating but the transfer of confiscated wealth from the farmers to industry was substantial. - Income from accelerated oil export and renewed grain exports from state farms in the 1930s was similarly poured into factory constructio. - By 1939, the rural population was down from 82 to 52 percent, and industrialization was accomplished

*What were the issues of voting rights that the American colonists had to settle in trying to create a new republic?

- Although America had more representation than the British through Parliament, it still excluded 1/5 of the population which was black, and half which was female. - The US Constitution left the issue of voting rights up to the states. - By 1790, all states had eliminated religious requirements for voting. As a result, approximately 60 to 70 percent of adult white men could vote. During this time, six states (Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Vermont) permitted free African Americans to vote. - The most significant political innovation of the early nineteenth century was the abolition of property qualifications for voting and officeholding.

*How did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen challenge the ancien regime? Contrast the pre- and post-revolutionary social systems.

- Ancien régime, (French: "old order") Political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king of France as well as a member of an estate and province. All rights and status flowed from the social institutions, divided into three orders: clergy, nobility, and others (the Third Estate). There was no national citizenship - is one of the fundamental documents of the French Revolution. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, it promulgates a set of individual rights and collective rights which are defined as universal: they are supposed to be valid in all times and places, pertaining to human nature itself.

*How was the Crimean War (1853-1856) the first of the modern technological wars?

- Because of it used one of the first products of the mid-nineteenth century industrial weapons revolution, the French Minie ball, whose hollow expanding base allowed for ease of ramming in muzzle-loading rifles, quadrupled the effective range of infantry weapons and vastly increased their accuracy. - This lead to larger losses. - French steam-powered and iron-hulled floating batteries inaugurated the age of ironclad navies. - Telegraph lines permitted correspondents to send front line reports to their London newspapers. - Photography documented the conflict. - First modern medical care on the battlefield.

*Why was the production of cheap high-quality steel an important development in the second stage of the industrial revolution?

- Before steel was a product of highly skilled craftspeople and swordsmith. New technological advances made it possible to produce steel in mass quantities that were high grade and inexpensive. Some methods were the blast furnace and open-hearth smelting method. - Steel was lighter, harder, and more durable. - It was important because the second revolution was characterized by more railroads,which was made possible by steel. - Steel provided better rails for railroads, and girders for the construction of high-rise buildings. - Structural steel and steel-reinforced concrete made possible the construction of skyscrapers. - Using steel to build ships lead to advancements of steamship technology. Steel ships greatly improved the travel-time between continents.

*What is the Drain Theory and how does it impact Indian-British relations according to Naoroji? (786-790)

- Dadabhai Naoroji was the first man to say that internal factors were not the reasons of poverty in India but poverty was caused by the colonial rule that was draining the wealth and prosperity of India. In 1867, Dadabhai Naoroji put forward the 'drain of wealth' theory in which he stated that the Britain was completely draining India. - Dadabhai Naoroji gave six factors that caused external drain. These are: External rule and administration in India. Funds and labour needed for economic development was brought in by immigrants but India did not draw immigrants. All the civil administration and army expenses of Britain were paid by India. India was bearing the burden of territory building both inside and outside India. India was further exploited by opening the country to free trade. Major earners in India during British rule were foreigners. The money they earned was never invested in India to buy anything. Moreover they left India with that money. - India was giving a huge amount to Britain. On the other hand, trade as well as Indian labour was deeply undervalued. Along with this, the East India Company was buying products from India with Indian money and exporting it to Britain.

*How did populism in Latin America represent an alternative to capitalism and communism?

- Democratic capitalism was unattractive to Latin America because it reminds them of how the US, in the grip of the Cold War, was primarily interested in the professed loyalty of autocratic rulers in Latin America. - Communism was of little appeal given Stalin's preference for large, obedient communist parties. - Populism is where rulers seek support directly from the population, through organizing mass rallies, manipulating elections, and intimidating or bypassing parliament. This flourished in Latin America from 1945-1962.

*Compare England, France, Spain, and Portugal in terms of how they initially exploited their American conquests.

- England: The British started colonization a bit later and not necessarily focused on economic exploitation, as a lot of settlers in the Thirteen Colonies were simply fleeing religious prosecution, especially after the Act of Supremacy, in 1558. - France: The French initially came to the Americas with the goal of trading, even with Native Americans, whom they respected and forged alliances with. - Spain: Came to the Americas with mainly conquistadors to convert Native "heathens" and look for gold, silver, and other natural resources. They brutally conquered many empires. - Portugal: Portugal's territory was not divided into smaller colonies, which in the long term allowed the emergence of Brazil as a unified regional power. In addition, the Portuguese Empire was the only major imperial power that transferred its monarchy to the colonies. They produced sugar and limited themselves to Brazil.

*Describe the atrocities committed by European powers in the Scramble for Africa and in Southeast Asia, and decide if these qualify as genocide.

- Europe believed in a "civilizing mission" - Colonial regime which Germany erected in East Africa was exceedingly brutal. Its admin decided to grow cotton for its domestic textile industry, using forced labor to keep costs low. When the Maji-Maji rebellion against these labor conditions broke out among the indigenous population, German troops used their superior firepower to systematically kill and destroy, with some 200,000 dead, amounting to one-third of the population (1905-1907). - In the colony of German Southwest Africa (today's Namibia) occupied in 1884, German settlers displaced indigenous Herero and Nama in such large numbers that they eventually provoked an uprising. Again, German troops engaged in a massive campaign of genocidal repression , nearly wiping out the Herero and Nama (1904-1907). The governor of the colony, Lothar von Trotha, said himself that the nation should be destroyed/ethnically destroyed. - North of Namibia, King Leopold's colony of the Congo saw 10,000,000 Congolese killed or starved to death. - Millions dead as result of famine in India.

*What was Gandhi's assessment of "Western Civilization" and how did it compare to Eastern Civilization?

- He famously replied when asked about western civilization : "I think it would be a good idea." He did not spare journalists either, saying: "I believe in equality for everyone, except reporters and photographers." - what was it that Indians specifically needed to be liberated from? He came to the conclusion that it was not British rule as such, but something deeper and more pervasive. It was modern civilization. This was a relatively new and somewhat shocking idea in an Indian context, and Gandhi clearly needed to justify it. But his justification of the claim was, if anything, more shocking than the claim itself. He argued that modern civilization, as presented in the West and more specifically in Britain, was an evil force that was entirely opposed to the true interests of human beings, thus 'The tendency of... the western civilization is to propagate immorality' -For Indians already had their own economic order, morality and culture — their own civilization in fact. So to oppose western civilization quite vigorously, as Gandhi did here, was, at the very least, tactically prudent.

*What measures did the Paris Commune propose in 1871, and how did they point the way to future development in European countries?

- In 1871, in Paris, there was one of the first modern left-wing revolutions in the world. It came amidst a background of war and siege. The Paris Commune as the revolution was known, sought to implement some of the most radical ideas of the French Revolution. The revolutionaries were much influenced by anarchism and were in many ways the precursors the Soviet Communist in Russian in the early 20th century. The Paris Commune was ultimately defeated, but it served as a model for many revolutionaries at the time and to the present day. - The rebels demanded a separation of Church and State, universal suffrage and some, demanded even the abolition of all private property. They also wanted the power to rest with the people and their local committees. - The declaration provides that citizens are to be guaranteed the rights of "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression." It argues that the need for law derives from the fact that "...the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights." Thus, the declaration sees law as an "expression of the general will," intended to promote an equality of rights and to forbid "only actions harmful to the society."

*What was the "Eastern Question" tackled at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, and how was it answered?

- It concerned the Baltic states, and resulted in the Ottoman Empire accepting the loss of two-thirds of the Empire's European provinces.

*How does the play about 47 Ronin depict the samurai culture if Bushido (way of the warrior)?

- It shows that the way of the warrior is there until the very end. - Samurai are held to a high standard and are punished harshly for breach of conduct. - Asano was commanded to commit seppaku after a knife attack even though he barely harmed the other person. - After avenging Asano's death and killing Kira, the other Ronan samurai turned themselves in and committed seppaku as well.

*In what ways was the First World War a total war, and what factors (economic, technological, political, etc.) caused that "totality?"

- It was a total war because all the resources of the nations involved including all or most of the civilian population are marshaled for the war effort. - As total war unfolded, all segments of society were increasingly seen as legitimately targets for the combatants. - Conscription was introduced to bolster military forces and resources like ships, trains or vehicles were commandeered for military purposes. Wartime governments also acted to protect national security, by implementing press censorship, curfews and strict punishments for breaches and violations. They also made extensive use of propaganda, both to raise public morale and to raise money through war bonds. - The Auxiliary Service Law in Germany, passed in late 1916, empowered the government to employ and relocate any adult males it needed to meet its labour needs. More than two million men were forced out of the agricultural sector to work in weapons and munitions production. - As the war progressed, new restrictions were added to the legislation. Daylight saving was introduced to provide more working hours in the day. Alcohol consumption was restricted, opening hours of pubs were cut back and beer was watered down to reduce its strength. It became illegal to light bonfires or fly kites, both of which might attract enemy airships. - Control of the press and communication media was particularly stringent. London appointed 'official' military journalists and set up the War Office Press Bureau, which processed stories and distributed them to newspapers (very few civilian reporters were ever let near the front lines).

*Discuss a few of the different Enlightenment ideas about religion and faith, using specific writers as examples.

- John Locke (1632-1704) was another major thinker in the Enlightenment era. Historian Norman Hampson says, "the new currents of thought all seemed to flow together in [him]".{11} Locke believed that knowledge by experience is superior to that which is accepted by belief and trust — "the floating of other men's opinions in our brains," as he called it.{12} He rejected the theory of innate ideas taught by Descartes, believing instead that our minds begin as blank slates to which is added knowledge by experience. Locke carried this approach into the realm of human nature and morality. He believed that "moral values arose from sensations of pleasure and pain, the mind calling 'good' what experience showed to be productive of pleasure."{13} Although Locke was a Christian, he set the stage for a naturalistic understanding of morality. - Descartes

*How did E. D. Morel use his unique position to expose the atrocities committed in the Belgian Congo, and what price did he pay for his activism?

- Journalist Edward D. Morel (1873-1924) against the idea that the whites had a duty to "civilize" other peoples. He was anti-imperialist - He was initially employed as a clerk in an English trading post with commercial interests in the Belgian Congo. He had access to records and documents that revealed the mistreatment and exploitation of African slave labor on Belgian rubber plantations. - Determined to expose these atrocities, Morel published a series of scathing denunciations in 1900. - Forced to leave his job, Morel continued his activist campaign against Belgian atrocities by launching a newspaper, The West African Mail, in 1903, followed by his foundation of the Congo Reform Association in 1904. Two particularly trenchant books exposing King Leopold's brutal policies soon followed. - By far the most famous of Morel's indictments was "The Black Man's Burden (1920) with condemns the evils of European capitalism and industrialism. - He was sentenced to prison in 1917 but subsequently went on to win a seat in Parliament in 1922 as a Labour candidate, defeating Winston Churchill in the process. - He became the father of international activism on behalf of human rights.

**What approach did Matteo Ricci take in China?

- Matteo Ricci encouraged his Jesuit followers to immerse themselves into Chinese culture. - They wore Chinese garments, learned the language, and accepted Chinese traditions. - He even tolerated the maintenance of ancestral shrines - Indirect propagation of the faith by using European science and technology in order to attract the attention of the educated Chinese and convince them of the high level of European civilization. - Openness to and tolerance of Chinese values. In China, Matteo Ricci encountered a society with high moral values, for which he expressed his admiration. - Confucianism, which he considered to be a philosophy based on natural law. In his opinion it contained the idea of God. Finally, he adopted a tolerant attitude towards certain Confucian rites, such as the ancestral worship and the veneration of Confucius, which soon were labelled 'civil rites'.

*What role did the Japanese Emperor have according to the Meiji Constitution?

- Meiji Constitution, constitution of Japan from 1889 to 1947. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan's leaders sought to create a constitution that would define Japan as a capable, modern nation deserving of Western respect while preserving their own power. - The resultant document, largely the handiwork of the genro (elder statesman) Itō Hirobumi, called for a bicameral parliament (the Diet) with an elected lower house and a prime minister and cabinet appointed by the emperor. - The emperor was granted supreme control of the army and navy. A privy council composed of the Meiji genro, created prior to the constitution, advised the emperor and wielded actual power.

*How did Metternich and the Congress of Vienna ensure that they could restore monarchies after the defeat of Napoleon?

- Metternich had the congress of Vienna hammer out two new principles: legitimacy, and balance of power. - They did this to re-institute kings and emperors. - Legitimacy: to recognize exclusive monarchical rule and restore the borders of France as they where in 1789. - Balance of power: To prevent one state from rising to dominance over another.

* What do Michelangelo and Galileo reveal about art and science during the Renaissance era?

- Michelangelo revealed a new way of looking at Roman pasts and the natural world. - He combined geometry, algebra, and Archimedean physics. He also formulated the mathematical "law of falling bodies". He combined imagination with empirical research and experimentation, founding what we now call the (mathematized) new sciences

**In what ways did Napoleon change France and all of Europe?

- Napoleon changed France by creating the Napoleonic Code, negotiating a long-term agreement with the Roman Catholic Church and reforming the tax and education systems. - FULL ANSWER - Napoleon also introduced the Napoleonic Code to the world. He based it off of Justinian's Code, or Roman law. The Napoleonic Code separated civil law into personal status, property and the acquisition of property, ensuring that every French citizen would have an equal chance to gain wealth and status. The Code was massively influential and became the basis for most European countries' governments. - During his reign of power, Napoleon created the Bank of France to support France's faltering economy and provide his military campaigns with financial support. He used his personal wealth to back the money. - He also later signed the Concordat with the Pope, recognizing Catholicism as the state religion, but also providing religious freedom to French citizens. He introduced an upper limit for prices on basic food items, such as bread and flour, to prevent riots due to hunger and starvation. By providing France with a strong economy, religious freedom and cheap food, Napoleon successfully kept the population comfortable enough to prevent any rebellions or widespread resistance to his own power. - He conquered many European nations and spread ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity throughout Europe. The leaders of competing empires did not like this, as it challenged the feudalism and aristocratic status quo that protected the higher echelons of society. Despite Napoleon's eventual defeat and exile, he had a supreme impact on the shaping of European politics.

*How did Hitler use legal means to come to power?

- Nazi party, led by Hitler, won in parliament in the spring of 1932 and again in the fall. Hitler demanded the Chancellorship. - President Paul Von Hindenburg nominated Hitler for the position to neutralize Nazism and keep Hitler under control. Hitler escaped all restraints. - After a fire in the German parliament in 1933, Hitler blamed the communists and the President allowed him to declare martial law for a limited time. Two months later, the Nazi Party in parliament passed the enabling act which gave Hitler by emergency decree 4 years in his role. - Hitler took advantage of this, and instituted new reforms and laws that gathered public support.

* Explain the limitations on state revenue in the period from 1450-1550, and how states tried to overcome those limitations.

- New infantries with firearms devoured a great amount of money, leading to the increase in taxes during 1450-1550. - But rulers couldn't raise land, head, and commerce taxes without formal (in assemblies) or informal (based on customs and traditions) assent of the ruling classes and cities. - Villagers voted when taxes were too oppressive. - Most European countries had taxation limits in the mid-sixteenth century and for the next two centuries rulers could only raise additional finances only to the detriment of their previously acquired central powers, such as borrowing from merchants and selling offices. - This lead to the decrease in state finances in the eighteenth century.

*Describe the economic development of Australia by British settlers; what affect did this have on native populations?

- Settlers pioneered agriculture in South Australia, where rainfall, fluctuating according to dry and wet El Nino/La Nina cycles was relatively reliable and provided the population with most of its cereal needs. - Sugar and rice cultivation introduced to the tropical northeast in the 1860s, was performed with indentured labor form Pacific Islands. - Even during penal colony times, sheep ranching in the east and the exportation of wool developed into a thriving business; eventually half the wool needed by the British textile industry was supplied by Australia. - Most important was the mining of gold and silver, beginning in the east in 1851 and continuing and continuing thereafter in nearly all parts of the continent. - Gold rush led to mass immigration from Britain, China, and internal migrants. - Cities such as Sydney and Melbourne expanded continuously during the 1800s and encompassed more than two-thirds of the total white population. - The indigenous population of the aborigines, who had inhabited the continent for over 50,000 years, shrank during the same time several hundred thousand to 67,000, mostly from diseases but also after confrontations with ranchers intruding on their hunting and gathering lands. As in North America, whites were relentless in taking possession of an allegedly empty - or soon expected to be empty- continent.

*How did the First World War impact Vera Brittain, as she described in Testament of Youth?

- She was a Nurse and her brother was killed in action, with other friends and relatives being killed as well. - She writes of her pain of losing her brother. - She describes her solitude.

*What was "Enlightened" about the rule of Catherine the Great; in what ways was her rule un-Enlightened?

- She was intellectually engaged with enlightenment concepts, exchanging letters with Voltaire. - Rulers were to remain firmly committed to enlightenment rule but should also pursue administrative, judicial, and educational reforms in order to increase the welfare of their subjects. - She was a subtle activist and pushed for major reforms. She strengthened urban manufacturers with a provincial reform in 1755. - However, she also strengthened the aristocracy in 1785 with a charter that exempted them from the poll tax and increased its property rights, including the purchase of serfs. This was a measure to head off a repetition of the terrible peasant rebellion od 1762- 1775.

*Describe the political and religious situation of the Netherlands in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century and how it changed during that period.

- Spanish overlords wanted to keep the country Catholic. - When Phillip II became King of Spain and the Netherlands, he asked the Jesuits and the Inquisition to persecute the Calvinists. - Phillip subdivided the bishoprics into smaller units and requited clergymen in place of members of the nobility. - In response, the nobility and Calvinists rose to revolt in 1565 and dismantled bishoprics. They also got rid of images and sculptures in church thereby triggering the Protestant war of Dutch liberation the Catholic Spanish Overlordship. - Phillip sent in an army that suppressed the liberation, and imposed Catholicism, executing rebels, even members of the Dutch aristocracy. - In 1579, the liberation war was renewed and many provinces created the "United Provinces of the Dutch Republic." - Spain refuses to recognize the republic and kept fighting until Spanish financial issues prompted the truce of 1609-1621. - N fought again in the 30 years war and gained full independence in 1648.

*What did Adolf Hitler argue regarding effective oratory in Mein Kampf?

- Spoken word, he says, is more important than written word. - The faces of the audiences tell a speaker how effective they are. - He believes a good public orator will not repeat the same substance and reproach twice in the same form. - He says that an orator must speak instinctively. A good orator must make sure his audience understands him. - He thinks a good orator is convincing and will reconstruct his message in a different way if the audience does not understand..

*How did American women's lives change in the 1920s, and how did they not change?

- The 19th Amendment passed in 1920 gave women the right to vote. - American women heightened their social profile. - Many colleges and universities went coed. BUT many women majored in education to become teachers or in home economics to become good housewives to the husbands they met at school. - Women took over the skill to be copiers and reproducers went he typewriter was introduced. They also became telephone operators. - African American women were not always allowed the same new rights as white women.

*What were the Tanzimat Reforms and how successful were they in achieving their goals for the Ottoman Empire?

- The Tanzimat reforms were carried out between 1830 and 1870 in the Ottoman Empire. They were a wide ranging series of educational, political and economic reforms. They were an attempt at modernisation to stop the decline of Ottoman power. The process of modernisation involved adopting models and practices of western countries and societies and it primarily motivated to compete western powers and preserve their Empire. The modernization process in the Ottoman Empire was a way of ensuring that they did not become the subjects of the western powers.[1] During the nineteenth century much of the world became subject to the western powers, especially Britain and France. The Tanzimat reforms were only partially successful and did not halt the Ottoman decline - Adressed taxes and military. - As the reforms were being implemented, a new European political initiative challenged the Ottoman empire. - The Ottoman Government was forced to adopt economic reforms in order to ensure that it had the sufficient resources to compete with the western powers. They adopted modernizing and secularizing policies in order to transform the economy. The reforms were radical and contrary to the Muslim ethos of the Empire and the Islamic scholars. The Ottoman Government was able to impose its will on an often reluctant population, as it bid to make the changes necessary to ensure the survival of the Empire. The reform projects were only partially successfully as they failed to modernize the realm and ensure its survival beyond World War I.

*What happened to the samurai during the Meiji Restoration?

- The changes that occurred in Japan during the Meiji period had a profound impact on the military class of samurai. The restoration of imperialism in 1868 marked the end of both the feudal regime and the government of the shogun. - In 1876 the Meiji government issued the Hatorei edict prohibiting the wearing of swords in public, an exclusive privilege and right of samurai since the Edo period. The sword set, daisho, had defined a samurai since ancient times both physically and visually, representing his power and spirituality, and most importantly, his soul. - Thus, the sword was worn near the centre of a man's body, where the Japanese believed the soul to reside. Without the sword set, the samurai's power disappeared, making him an equal amongst others. The "soul of the samurai" during the Meiji period was thus relegated to conduct of the past. - in addition, the Meiji government banned the traditional hairstyle, the top-knot, and encouraged samurai to wear Western dress at all official government functions. The edict, thus, not only attempted to remove the samurai's visibility from the public eye in an effort to conform him to the new Meiji society

*How did the Luddites react to the process of industrialization in their field, and how did the government react against them? Why?

- The original Luddites were British weavers and textile workers who objected to the increased use of automated looms and knitting frames. Most were trained artisans who had spent years learning their craft, and they feared that unskilled machine operators were robbing them of their livelihood. When their appeals for government aid and assistance were ignored, a few desperate weavers began breaking into factories and smashing textile machines. - The British government instead moved to quash the uprisings by making machine breaking punishable by death. The unrest finally reached its peak in April 1812, when a few Luddites were gunned down during an attack on a mill near Huddersfield. The army rounded up many of the dissidents in the days that followed, and dozens were hanged or transported to Australia. By 1813, the Luddite resistance had all but vanished. It wasn't until the 20th century that their name re-entered the popular lexicon as a synonym for "technophobe."

*In what ways did Britain's interest in India affect her relationship with China in the nineteenth century?

- The primary motive of British imperialism in China in the nineteenth century was economic. There was a high demand for Chinese tea, silk and porcelain in the British market. However, Britain did not possess sufficient silver to trade with the Qing Empire. Thus, a system of barter based on Indian opium was created to bridge this problem of payment.

*What are the concerns about Christian missionaries that led the Tokugawa to take such an extreme a reaction as the "trampling the crucifix" movement?

- The shogunate believed that Spain and Portugal's expansion was made possible through Catholicism. - They viewed foreign influence as a threat and decided that in order to drive out the Spanish and Portuguese influence, they had to get rid of Catholicism. - Christians rebelled, and the Tokugawa shogunate persecuted many of them. - They were given the chance to "trample the crucifix" to show they have disregarded their faith. - 37,000 Christians killed.

*Describe the nineteenth-century economic shift from India and China to Western Europe, and explain the causes of this process.

- The transition in India from European trade-fort activities to colonialism coincided with the decline of the Mughal dynasty. - The East India Company's ultimate failure to maintain peace in the empire induced the British government to assume direct control in 1857. As a result, Britain became a colonial power in the eastern hemisphere, making India its center for the delivery of the cotton in which the early British industrialization depended.

*Why is 1917 described by many historians as the "turning point" in the First World War?

- This is the year of the February and Bolshevik revolutions. Tsarist Russia collapsed in the face of horrendous casualties, crippled industry, extensive labor unrest, governmental ineptitude, and general internal weakness. - The Bolsheviks signed the treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Germans in 1918, which handed them one-third of the Russian Empire's population, territory, and resources in exchange for Russia's withdraw from the war. This empowered the German effort. - The US, which at first intended to stay neutral, joined the allied side. Woodrow Wilson asked congress to declare war this year. The entrance of the US in the war added the critical resources needed by the Allies to ultimately win the war.

*How was household slavery in sub-Saharan Africa flexible, when compared to the transatlantic slave trade that developed between Africa and the Americas?

- When compared to the transatlantic slave trade, household slavery in sub-Saharan Africa was considered "flexible" because of all of the different varieties of slavery that tended to be complex in structure and function. - Household slavery in sub-Saharan Africa was considered more flexible than the transatlantic slave trade because the household slaves were often raided from many different places or neighboring villages. The household slaves were not necessarily sold, and they typically had a variety of different positions in the house/field that they worked. The slaves part of the transatlantic slave trade were sold to owners once they arrived to the Americas.

**One of the most problematic clauses of the Versailles peace treaty was the demand by France for financial reparations from Germany. Why did France press for harsh reparations, and what problems did this create? What was the position of the United States and of Britain in regard to war reparation from Germany?

- World War I officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. Negotiated among the Allied powers with little participation by Germany, its 15 parts and 440 articles reassigned German boundaries and assigned liability for reparations. After strict enforcement for five years, the French assented to the modification of important provisions. Germany agreed to pay reparations under the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, but those plans were cancelled in 1932, and Hitler's rise to power and subsequent actions rendered moot the remaining terms of the treaty. - The treaty, negotiated between January and June 1919 in Paris, was written by the Allies with almost no participation by the Germans. - Part IV stripped Germany of all its colonies, and Part V reduced Germany's armed forces to very low levels and prohibited Germany from possessing certain classes of weapons, while committing the Allies to eventual disarmament as well. Part VIII established Germany's liability for reparations without stating a specific figure and began with Article 231, in which Germany accepted the responsibility of itself and its allies for the losses and damages of the Allies "as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." Part IX imposed numerous other financial obligations upon Germany. - US wanted peace without victory, where everyone would reduce armed forces and freed the seas.

**Why did Great Britain assist the Ottoman Empire in preventing the other European powers from taking over Ottoman lands in Eastern Europe and North Africa?

-Britain wanted to maintain its role as world superpower. - GB made itself protector of the Ottoman Empire , and tried to slow the ambitions of Russia. - Russia helped get the Greeks independence (1821-1832) and was centrally involved in initiating a pattern of ethnic nationalism that replaced constitutionalism as the organizing ideology for many Europeans in the 19th century. - To prevent the Russian invasion, Britain and the Ottomans agreed in 1878 to turn the Island of Cyprus over to the British protectorate. This protectorate would have British advisory and troops, ready to defend Istanbul against a renewed Russian invasion. - GB protected Istanbul from takeover by Egyptian Muhammad Ali. GB eventually occupied Egypt.

**How did Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín work together to liberate South America? In what ways did they disagree, and how did that affect the kind of independent states they created?

-First met in 1833 and agreed Bolivar was in a better geographical position. -Bolivar defeated the Spanish forces for Venezuela in the Andes mountains by surprise and in 1826 the Spanish surrendered on an island off the Chilean coast. -San Martin won by joining forces with other leaders. When the two met in Guayaquil, Peru, they joined their armies, and with a doubled force led Peru to independence from Spain. - San Martin was disappointed with disputes among liberal constitutionalists and royalists, federalists and centralists, as well as Creole elitists and mestizo, pardo, and mulatto populists. - San Martin favored monarchial rule for Latin America while Bolivar preferred republicanism and Creole oligarchal rule. -Both wanted integration.

*What do historians mean by the term "plantation zone" and how was it connected to slavery?

A plantation zone is used to describe an area where cash crops are harvested. Slave labor harvested sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton on large estates.

*Where and when did the Industrial Revolution originate?

Because of several advantageous factors, the industrial revolution began in Britain in the early 18th century. Among these were an earlier political revolution that empowered the merchant classes over the landed aristocracy, along with a prior agricultural revolution, and the abundance of raw materials like coal.

*By 1750 Japan was the most urbanized society on earth; it also had high rates of population growth. What factors allowed Japan to support such a large, urbanized population and still remain protected from most of the outside world?

By imposing strict travel rules within the country. Commoners needed permission from authorities. - Peasants were not allowed to engage in non-agricultural activities in order to ensure a stable source of income for those in positions of authority. - From 1633 onward Japan adopted a policy of national seclusion where Japanese subjects were forbidden to travel abroad or to return from overseas. - Only contact were some Dutch (Calvinists) and Chinese merchants who traded in Nagasaki.

**What do letters about the Cuban Missile Crisis between Fidel Castro and Nikita Khrushchev reveal about the views of each of these leaders?

Castro: - That Castro is opposed to inspections on his territory and was against American violations of Cuba's airspace because it means renouncing the sovereign prerogative. Khrushchev: - That they had originally made a deal with the US saying they would not have missiles in Cuba. - That the people do not have to know everything. - Situation was avoided to avoid mass casualties. The letters concerned the Bay of Pigs Invasion: On April 17, 1961, 1400 Cuban exiles launched what became a botched invasion at the Bay of Pigs on the south coast of Cuba. The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the Central Intelligence Agency-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961.

*In 1973, what was the result of President Allende of Chile nationalizing mines and angering the Nixon administration, ITT Corp, and the CIA?

Chile's armed forces stage a coup d'état against the government of President Salvador Allende, the first democratically elected Marxist leader in Latin America. Allende retreated with his supporters to La Moneda, the fortress-like presidential palace in Santiago, which was surrounded by tanks and infantry and bombed by air force jets. Allende survived the aerial attack but then apparently shot himself to death as troops stormed the burning palace, reportedly using an automatic rifle given to him as a gift by Cuban dictator Fidel Castro. The U.S. government and its Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had worked for three years to foment a coup against Allende, who was regarded by the Nixon administration as a threat to democracy in Chile and Latin America. Ironically, the democratically elected Allende was succeeded by the brutal dictator General Augusto Pinochet, who ruled over Chile with an iron fist for the next 17 years.

*How did the Emperor Qianlong view the English King George III?

Emperor Qianlong viewed King George III as lesser. - He writes that he has entertained King George's Ambassador and deputy enough and that the request for a seat at the Celestial Court as is "contrary to all usage of my dynasty". - He reasserts the rules and boundaries Europeans must follow if they were to stay in the one city they are allowed in. - He views him as dumb - He calls English merchants barbarians. - He reimposes that if England wants a seat at the table, so will other nations.

*In what ways was Western Europe interested in Ming and Qing China?

European countries such as England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Denmark sought many products, mainly porcelain from Ming and Qing China. Other Products were tea, silk, paper, and cotton textiles. Europeans sought a diplomatic seat at the table but the Chinese denied it.

** What were the products and processes associated with the first and second industrial revolutions? How did each change the world, and in what countries did each occur? How did these developments influence global interactions?

First revolution: - By the 1830s, in Belgium, northern France, and the northern German states- all of which had coal reserves, conditions had grown more suitable for industrialization than earlier when wages were low. - Gov involvment greatly enhanced the investment climate; protective tariffs for manufacturers and the gradual removal of internal toll restrictions, particularly in the northern German states, opened up the trading industry. - Industrialization was imported to the US towards the end of the 18th century by Samuel Slater, a British engineer who developed the first water-powered textile factory in America in Rhode Island. - America produced a lot of cotton and iron ingots. - increased use of coal - A shift in hand production methods to machines - Development of steam power. Second Industrial Revolution - Steel started to replace iron. - Following the Angelo-Prussian war, Germany's annexation of the ore-rich regions of Alsace-Lorraine led to dramatic increases in industrial production. Germany caught up to Britainin terms of steel production. - Steel was better than iron because it was lighter, harder, and more durable. Therefore it was better for railroads. This lead to more railroads, higher buildings, and more steel ships. - Advaces were made with chemicals, leading to new synthetic dyes and artificial silk, and then nitrate. - (Europe) first electronic generator and Nikols Tesla's invention of alternate current and Tesla coil. This helped efficient transmission of electricity. - Internal combustion engine - Electronic telegraphs were developed, leading to communication across the world. The phone was invented in 1876. - weapons revolution.

*What did Thomas Paine argue in Rights of Man?

He argued in 17 articles that men are born and should remain free. He states that the purpose of government is to protect the rights of man, which are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. He defines liberty as the right to do anything unless it harms another. He also talks about free speech.

**What are the historic roots from which modern racism evolved?

In North America, long after slavery was abolished, these attitudes were preserved in law and custom in many places and reinforced during the colonization of Africa during the nineteenth century and in the practice of segregation in the United States. In Latin America- although racism is no less pervasive-racial views are more subtle. People describing themselves as mulatto, sambo, or pardo have had a better chance to be recognized as members of their own distinct ethnic groups than in the Unites States, where until recently the census classified people simply as either Black or Caucasian. The 2010 census form, however, expanded its choices to 14 racial categories and allowed people to check multiple boxes. Clearly, the complexities of race and ethnicity in the Americas are continuing to evolve.

**After achieving independence, why did Latin American countries opt for a continuation of mineral and agricultural commodity exports?

In colonial times, Latin America was the warm-weather expansion of Europe, sending its mineral and agricultural commodities to Europe. When it acquired its independence and Europe industrialized during the 1800's, these commodities became even more important, and the continent opted for a pattern of export-led development. This meant the systematic increase of mineral and agricultural commodity exports, with rising living standards not only for those who profited directly from the exports but also for many in the urban centers. Even with rising living standards it became clear by the turn of the century that a supplementary policy of industrialization had to be pursued.

*Although the caudillos often left a legacy of misrule behind, some were beneficial to the nations they ran. Discuss the lengthy presidency of Porfirio Díaz, comparing the ways in which his presidency was beneficial and the ways in which it was harmful for Mexico.

In the Mid 1870s a new caudillo, Porfirio Diaz, came to power. In 1876 he took control of Mexico by ousting the president. He had the support of the military. During the Diaz years, elections became meaningless. Diaz offered land, power, or political favors to anyone who supported him. He terrorized many who refused to support him. Diaz managed to stay in power until 1911. Diaz's use of dictatorial powers ensured that there was order in Mexico. President of Mexico. - Conservative stability over Mexico's turbulent politics, development of the American West. - favored infrastructural and industrial development like rail, telegraph, and telephone systems that were laid, and textile factories and basic heavy industries were set up, oil was produced in quantity, and modest agricultural improvements. -Economy exploded by 6 percent -Critics of the regime were arrested, beaten, and sent to exile. - Restless urban population and rural population since the rural pop had to have self-sufficiency.

**What were the experiences of the indigenous people under the new imperialism? How did they adapt to colonialism? How did they resist?

Many imperial conquests protracted campaigns that claimed many indigenous victims. If one of the goals of the ensuing colonization was commodity production, the indigenous population was recruited, often forcibly and with low wages. Resistance to European colonialism manifested itself in ethnic nationalism, as demonstrated by the examples of Jose Rizal, Phan Boi Chau, and Emilio Aguinaldo. In Australia and New Zealand and other colonies where European settlement was encouraged, colonial governments or settlers ousted the indigenous population from the most fertile lands, often in the face of fierce resistance.

*Why did Catholic missionaries record Native American literature and oral traditions, and who resisted those attempts?

Missionaries learned Native languages in order to translate the Bible for them. Missionary Monks recorded Native literature and traditions but were resisted by King Phillip II of Spain, who was a proponent of Catholic reformation and forbade the publication of all manuscripts dealing with "idolatry" and "superstition".

**How did the political landscape of the Cold War change from 1963 to 1991?

Perhaps the biggest changes came in the 1980s. Through the US had been defeated politically in Vietnam and was facing a recession at home, it still was the world's largest economy and could weather a protracted arms race. Though it was not fully perceived at the time, the Soviet Union was far more economically fragile- which ultimately made it ideologically fragile as well. The strains of Polish dissent, the Afghan War, and a renewed arms race with the US simply wore the Soviet state down.

**How did Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb express their shift from the religious toleration of Akbar and Jahangir to a more legalistic Sunni tradition?

Shah Jahan - Khurram reigned as Shah Jahan and feared Muslims would assimilate into Hindu society. - He caused a definite turn to legalistic tradition. Under the influence of Sunni theologians, Shah Jahan began to block construction and repair for non-Muslim religious buildings, instituted more direct state support for Islamic festivals, and furnished lavish subsidies for Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca. Aurangzeb - Son of Shah Jahan - Wanted a complete Islamification of the Mughal empire ruled by Sharia Law and connected to a commonwealth of other Islamic states. Unification of the Muslim world. - They believed that Mughal rule should be primarily for the benefit of Muslims,m the opposite of his great-grandfather Akbar's view of religious transcendence. - Stopped short of forcible conversion but did offer multiple indulgences to bring believers to the faith. Elites who converted were given lavish gifts and preferential assignments, and those who did not be isolated from the seat of power. - Discriminatory taxes were levied on unbelievers, including a new tax on Hindu pilgrims. - Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of dozens of Hindu temples that were not constructed or repaired according to state-approved provisions. - Reimposition of the jizya tax. - Also demolished sikh temples and tried to interfere with their selection of a religious leader.

*How and why did Sikhism become identified with a fierce warrior culture, despite its early tendency toward pacificism? What role did the intolerance of other faiths have in this transformation?

Some of the Guru Sikhs were even executed by the Moghul emperors. In order to stop their persecutions, Guru Gobind decided to make his followers a community of fighters. He changed his surname to Singh, which means lion. His followers also changed their surname to Singh. Since then a ceremony of baptizing was established among the Sikhs in which the boys were given the title Singh and the girls were titled Kaur meaning princess. In those days "Singh" as a surname was very popular among a famous warrior caste of north India, the Rajputs. Some of the first Sikhs were also Rajputs. - Gobind led a full blown Sikh revolt

**What were the weaknesses, economically and morally, in the Atlantic System?

The Atlantic system, or "triangular trade" involved the brutal treatment of Africans in ships in the middle passage, where they were packed tightly and given little to no exercise or treatment.

**Describe the nationalist movements of the Balkans, and how these movements affected both the Ottoman and the Russian Empires.

The Balkans underwent significant change and disorder in the late 19th century. At its peak the Ottoman Empire had ruled most of eastern Europe, including the Balkan states. But by the late 1800s the Ottomans were in retreat. During this century Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria all achieved independence from Ottoman rule. Western European powers - particularly Britain, France, Germany and Russia - developed a strong interest in the region, based on concerns about what might happen once the Ottoman Empire disintegrated. They referred to this as the 'Eastern question' and developed their own foreign policy objectives. Russia hoped to expand its territory by moving into the Balkans and other areas formerly under Ottoman rule. The Russian navy, with its ports on the Black Sea, coveted access to and control of the Bosphorus, which provided shipping access to the Mediterranean. Britain was opposed to Russian expansion into the Mediterranean and the Middle East, so wanted the Ottoman Empire to remain intact for as long as feasible, to provide a buffer against the Russians. Germany hoped to acquire bankrupt Ottoman regions as vassal states, possibly even as colonies.

*Discuss the factors that contributed to the speed and extent of the Spanish conquest of Central and South America; which factor was the most important and why? How was Cortés able to take over the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán and Francisco Pizarro able to conquer the Incas?

The Spanish conquests were made swift by: 1) Exploiting internal weaknesses of the Aztec and Inca empires, eliminating the top of power structures and paralyzing the decision-making apparatus long enough for their conquests to succeed. 2)The Aztec and Inca empires were relatively new creations in which there were individuals and groups who contested the hierarchal structure of power. These became the allies of the conquistadors. 3) Smallpox ravaged Native American populations and reduced Native American labor forces. 4) Spanish advantages like horses, steel weapons and armor, and breastplates, helped them defeat native populations. - Hernan Cortes allied with the Tlaxcalans, the enemies of the Aztecs. He marched onto Tenochtitlan where Montezuma invited him to his palace where Cortes eventually overpowers him. - After being defeated by the Aztecs, Cortes returned with 2,000 Spanish troops and 50,000 allied NA troops and seized it for 3 months, destroying it and looting what is left. - Smallpox preceded Francisco Pizzaro in reaching the Inca empire; it killed the emperor and his heir and lead to a war of succession between his surviving sons. Atahualpa became emperor - Pizzaro had his men ambush the square and massacred many including holding the emperor hostage. Not one Spanish soldier died. Atahualpa gave the Spanish a gold ransom but they executed him anyway. - With little resistance, the Spanish massacred the people of the capital, Cuzco, and stripped it of gold and silver.

*When and how did the mathematization of the sciences begin, and how did it gain popularity in northwestern Europe? Why is the popularization of the sciences important for understanding the period 1500-1750?

The discovery of the two continents of the americas prompted Nicolaus Copernicus to reject Aristotle's astronomical theory of spheres and to posit a sun-centered planetary system. copernicus's new approach to science continued with Galilei's discovery of the mathmatical law of falling bodies in physics and was completed when Isaac newton unified physics and astronomy. In southern Europe, the adoption of the New sciences occurred more slowly than in northwestern Europe due to the Catholic reformations rejection of Galileo.

*What happened to Gandhi on the stagecoach from Charlestown to Johannesburg?

The next evening he continued the train journey, this time without a mishap. But on the journey from Charlestown to Johannesburg which had to be covered by stagecoach he was made to sit with the coachman on the box outside, while the white conductor sat inside with the white passengers. Gandhi ignored this humiliation for being born as an Indian or a "colored" man, because he did not want to miss the coach and the journey for his client. On the way, the conductor who wanted a smoke spread a piece of dirty sack-cloth on the footboard and ordered Gandhi to sit there so that the conductor could have Gandhi's seat and smoke. Gandhi refused and the conductor rained blows on him, trying to throw him down. Gandhi clung to the brass rails of the coach box, refusing to yield, and not willing to retaliate. Some of the white passengers protested at this cowardly assault and the conductor was obliged to stop beating Gandhi who kept his seat.

*What can we learn from the slave ship Sally and Olaudah Equiano's life?

The slave ship Sally showed how long and complicated the middle passage voyages could be. Olaudah Equiano was captured in Nigeria and was a slave who traveled across the west indies and Virginia and eventually got his freedom. His involvement in the abolitionist movement helped contribute to the abolition of the British slave trade.

**What were the strengths and weaknesses of Mughal rule?

The weaknesses are probably more obvious than the strengths at first glance. Two things are immediately apparent: first, the position of the Mughals as an ethnic and religious minority ruling a vastly larger majority population and, second, the conflict-prone succession practices of the older central Asian Turkic leaders. The minority position of the Mughals aggravated long-existing tensions between Hindu subjects and Muslim rulers in India, of which the Mughals were to be the last line. In an age of religious civilizations, where some kind of unity of religion was the ideal, this put considerable strains on the Mughals as rulers- as it did the Ottomans in predominantly Christian lands and Catholics and Protestants in Europe. Central Asian Turkic succession practices almost always guaranteed conflict when it was time for a new ruler to accede the throne. Nearly every Mughal successor during this period ended up having to fight factions and family to gain the empire. In some respects the strengths of Mughal rule developed in reaction to these problems. Babur and Akbar, in particular, were extraordinarily tolerant rulers in terms of religion. When later rulers like Aurangzeb returned tp strict Sunni Islamic policies, it prompted resistance, especially among Hindus. Also, while Mughal rulers were never able to completely free themselves from succession struggles, they aucceeded in setting up a well-run fiscal-military state with the mansabdar system, largely undercutting old local and regional loyalties and tying the new loyalty to the state. Like France, the Ottomans. and the Cinfuscian states of eastern Asia, the development of beurocratic forms was an important earmark of the early modern era.

*What did the Portuguese discover about sailing down the west coast of Africa in 1434, and how did that change the relationship between Europe and West Africa?

They discovered that ships could overcome adverse currents and winds and return from the West African coast by sailing out into the Atlantic, setting course for the newly discovered island of the Canaries, Madeira, and Azores, before turning east towards Lisbon. This lead to an easier way of circumnavigating the continent. This lead to a stronger trade relationship and the start of the Portuguese slave trade.

**Why and how did European settlers in South and North America strive for self-government, and how successful were they in achieving their goals?

Two contrasting patterns characterized the way in which European colonies were governed. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns, primarily interested in extracting minerals and warm-weather products from the colonies, had a strong interest in exercising as much centralized control over their possessions in the Americas as they could. In contrast, the British crown granted self-government to the North American colonies from the start, in part because the colonies were initially economically far less important and in part because of a long tradition of self-rule in their towns and cities back home. Latin American colonies achieved only partial self rule, but they indirectly destroyed central rule through the purchase of offices. After financial reforms, Spain and Portugal re-established a degree of central rule through the appointment of officers from the home countries (thus, not allowing Latin Americans to buy offices anymore). pg.637 -NA had it pretty good, they had Benign Neglect on their side so very little govt oversight on NA, because they weren't too important from an economical standpoint -SA had a lot of exports/riches going back to Spain, so they were regulated a lot, the Crown in Spain also sold offices to raise even more money, so only partial-self rule -South America was not very successful in self-governing, the Spanish enforced the Viceroyalty system to hamper these efforts -NA was pretty successful, mostly in part to the Benign Neglect of England, they had to fend for themselves and create their own sources of revenue and living, leading to great long-term benefits

*What was the impact of immigration on Latin America in the nineteenth century? Where were most of the immigrants from and how were they viewed by the creoles that dominated post-independence Latin America?

Why: - Profitability of exports was achieved through low wages. - Latin America experiences high waves of immigration in the 1800s. - The population grew sevenfold, to 74 million. - Still a lot of lands, so there is a high demand for labor. - Mit'a (forced revolving labor duties) and slavery existed through the 1800s. Who: - European immigration was low so they resorted to measures of select mass immigration. - "coolies": indentured laborers from India and China on 5-10 year contracts working off the costs of transportation. - During 1847-1874, nearly half a million East Indiana traveled to various European colonies in the Carribean. Similarly, 235,000 Chinese came to Peru, Cuba, and Costa Rica to work in guano pits, silver mines, sugar & cotton plantations, and railroads. - If the experience of five Carribean Islands is taken as a guide, only 10% of coolies went home. - Immigration from Europe was less controlled and on a much larger scale. In Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and Chile, Italians and Spaniards settled in large numbers from around 1870 and on. What: - In most of Latin America except for Argentina, governments, beholden to large land-owners, feared the rise of cities with immigrant laborers who did not share their interests. They, therefore, opposed mass immigration.