Lifespan Development - Final Exam Review

Physical decline in middle age

• Women lose 2" after 55 • Men lose 1" after 55 • Body fat increases • Strength declines 10% after age 60 • Vision - begins to decline around age 40 as elasticity of the lens begins to deteriorate • Glaucoma - occurs in about 1-2% of people over age 40 and African Americans o Damage to eyes by build up of pressure • Presbyopia - gradual loss of ability to see near objects in middle age • Presbycusis - decline in ability to hear high pitched sound; 45 - 65 age; more common in men

Smoking deaths predicted worldwide

• World Health Organization predicted a billion people will die from smoking this century • Smoking has declined in the US since peaking in the 1960s o This is not the case in much of the world • Tobacco → number 1 cause of preventable death

Puberty - when it occurs and what it is

• Young females experience menarche (first period cycle) • Occurs at an earlier age in more developed countries o Likely due to less disease and better nutrition • Breasts begin developing around age 10 • Young males experience growth in penis and scrotum: Spermarche around age 13 • Males begin producing sperm • Increased hormone production during adolescence all contribute to occurring changes during adolescence

Changes in self-esteem during middle childhood and across different groups

-overall self-esteem is high during middle childhood, but it begins to decline around the age of 12. - the main one appears to be the school transition that typically occurs around this age: Students leaving elementary school and entering either middle school or junior high school show a decline in self-esteem, which then gradually rises again - Early research confirmed that hypothesis and found that African Americans had lower self-esteem than whites. -although white children initially show higher self-esteem than black children, black children begin to show slightly higher self-esteem than white children around the age of 11. This shift occurs as African American children become more closely identified with their racial group, develop more complex views of racial identity, and increasingly view the positive aspects of their group membership -Hispanic children also show an increase in self-esteem toward the end of middle childhood, although even in adolescence their self-esteem still trails that of whites. In contrast, Asian American children show the opposite pattern: Their self-esteem in elementary school is higher than that of whites and blacks, but by the end of childhood, their self-esteem is lower than that of whites

Basic idea of the information processing model of cognitive developments and the 3 main components of this model

a. used by cognitive psychologists to explain and describe mental processes. b. The model likens the thinking process to how a computer works. i. Just like a computer, the human mind takes in information, organizes and stores it to be retrieved at a later time. c. 3 components: Encoding, storing, retrieving seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information

Different domains that lifespan psychologists are interested in studying (e.g., social, personality, etc.)

-Physical development: body's physical makeup, brain, NS, muscles, skeletal & senses, and need for food, sleep & drink -Cognitive development: growth & change in intellectual capabilities that influences behavior -Personality development: enduring characteristics that differ from one person to another -Social development: individuals; interactions w/ others & their social relationships grow, change & remain stable over the course of life

Exercise recommendations for adults

30 minutes a day, 5 times a week is sufficient

Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development:

Cognitive advances occur through exposure of information within zone of proximal development (ZPD); the threshold where a child can almost perform a task without help.

The meaning of Piaget's terms - centration and decentering

Decentering: because kids are less egocentric, Being able to understand multiple perspectives or aspects of a situation Centration: the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects

Divorce in middle adulthood

Divorce in middle adulthood is actually increasing. One in four divorces in US to people aged 50 or older. People may spend less time together People in individualistic cultures may value personal happiness greater than the marriage Divorse has become de-stigmatized Boredom Stress • Remarriage o 75-80% of people who divorce eventually marry again o 90% of divorced women under age 25 but only 33% of women over age 40 remarry o Married people generally report greater life satisfaction

Typical height and weight changes for boys and girls in middle childhood

During middle childhood, weight change and height change are slow but steady. Both boys and girls gain around 5 to 7 pounds a year. Children grow 2- inches per year and around age 11, girls, on average, outgrown boys because of their growth spurt starts at 10 years old. Average height for girls is 4'11 and boys are 4'9. This is the only time girls have a higher average height than boys.

Big five personality factors - stability and change over time

Erickson's views are that personality changes a great deal over time. Conversely, a large body of evidence holds that the big five personality traits are stable and continuous over time. Big 5 includes OCEAN: Openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation related to occupation

Extrinsic Motivation (working for external rewards ie pay or health benefits). Intrinsic Motivation (internal rewards, feeling good/sense of accomplishment for work results). As applies to occupation, given that a Puritan view that work (in itself) brings about a sense of personal fulfillment,work then becomes important to one's personal identity, social lives, and status.

Reasons for advances in fine motor skills during middle childhood:

One reason for advances in fine motor skills is that the amount of myelin in the brain increases significantly between the ages of six and eight. Myelin provides protective insulation that surrounds parts of nerve cells. Because increased levels of myelin raise the speed at which electrical impulses travel between neurons, messages can reach muscles more rapidly and control them better.

K. Warner Schaie's developmental stages

Picks up where Piaget left off • Childhood & Adolescence: Acquisitive Stage o Acquiring knowledge • Young Adulthood: Achieving Stage o Use skills to achieve certain things such as career, family, etc • Middle Adulthood: o Executive Stage → people often times at this stage of their life become involved in other activities such as civic activities that make the community better o Responsible Stage → caring for others such as family, paying bills, etc • Late Adulthood: Reintegrative Stage o People go back to doing the things that interest them the most

Gilligan's stages of moral development for females

Stage, Characteristics, & Example Stage 1: ORIENTATION TOWARD INDIVIDUAL SURVIVAL Initial concentration is on what is practical and best for self •Gradual transition from selfishness to responsibility, which includes thinking about what would be best for others E.g. A first grader may insist on playing only games of her own choosing when playing a friend. Stage 2: GOODNESS AS SELF-SACRIFICE Initial view is that a woman must sacrifice her own wishes for what other people want •Gradual transition from "goodness" to "truth," which takes into account the needs of both self and others E.g. Now older, the same girl may believe that to be a good friend, she must play the games her friend chooses, even if she herself doesn't like them. Stage 3: MORALITY OF NONVIOLENCE A moral equivalence is established between self and others •Hurting anyone, including oneself, is seen as immoral •Most sophisticated form of reasoning, according to Gilligan E.g. The same girl may realize that both friends must enjoy their time together and look for activities that both she and her friend can enjoy.

Characteristics of physical development and growth in the preschool years

a. Growth is asymmetrical b. Rapid growth during the first 2 years c. Boys and girls are the same weight/height during the preschool years

Male and female reproductive cells

gamete cells (ovum and sperm)

Role of stereotypes in academics

• 25% of adults aged 25 or older do not have a high school diploma • Women are now enrolled and receive more degrees in college than men 133 BA's for women for every 100 men • Not just the "freshman 15" first year adjustment reaction =cluster of symptoms associated with first year in college • Girls historically have been treated differently than boys • It was believed boys and girls possess innate differences in abilities • Women still more likely to choose "traditional" female careers • Benevolent sexism → evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly o For example → if a male professor gives a female student easier tasks/projects than the male students; this will harm the female student eventually as she is not being challenged at the same level as the male students • 36% of community college students are over the age of 30 • Jobs are harder to find, require more skills. Older students often try to gain an edge or to avoid obsolescence. Sometimes just trying to gain new knowledge for its own sake • Only about 60% of students entering a 4 year college program graduate in 6 years • College is expensive and stressful

Gender differences in play and play groups during middle childhood

• Across cultures, friendships become largely segregated along gender lines • Violations of segregation often have romantic elements • Boys typically have a greater number of "friends" • Girls typically have "best friends", smaller networks, and closer relationships • Race and Friendships o In 3rd grade → 1/3 of White and 2/3 Black children identified an other race best friend o By 10th grade - less than 10% of White and 5% of Black children still indicated an other race best friend

Types of play behavior in preschoolers

• Functional play: Involves repetitive activities typical of young preschoolers • Constructive Play: Manipulating various objects in attempts to build things • Parallel play: Children do similar things or playing with similar toys but do not interact • Onlooker play: Child watches but does not participate in play • Associative play: 2 or more children interact/share toys or materials • Cooperative play: More organized interactions where children take turns, work together, share: Most sophisticated

Factors involved in finding a marriage partner

• In the US, love is the predominant requirement • Not the same in all cultures • Men value physical attractiveness • Women value ambition and industriousness • Filtering potential marriage partners → this model suggests that people subject potential partners to successively finer grained filters that filter out most people until one gets to a field of potential partners • Marriage gradient → the idea that men tend to marry women who are slightly younger, smaller, and lower status • Although homogamy has been standard for most marriages in the US, rate of marriages crossing ethnic/racial lines is substantial

Reasons for the change in average family size

→ US fertility rate is lower than 2.1 births per female, less than required for a stable population • Availability of more reliable birth control methods • Women working outside the home • Choosing to have children later • Cost of raising and educating children increasing • Fear of not being a good or accessible parent

Non-verbal encoding and decoding:

+Encoding- process by which info is initially recorded in a form usable to memory +Decoding- mental and academic skill of being able to look at letters, numbers and words and translate them into sounds and meanings

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

+LEVEL 1: Preconventional morality The main considerations are the avoidance of punishment and the desire for rewards • STAGE 1 Obedience and punishment orientation: People obey rules to avoid being punished. Obedience is its own reward • STAGE 2 Reward orientation: People obey rules in order to earn rewards for their own benefit. +LEVEL 2: Conventional morality Membership in society becomes important. People behave in ways that will win the approval of others • STAGE 3 "Good boy" morality: People want to be respected by others and try to do what they're supposed to do • STAGE 4 Authority and social-order-maintaining morality: People believe that only society, not individuals, can determine what is right. Obeying society's rules is right in itself. +LEVEL 3: Postconventional morality People accept that there are certain ideals and principles of morality that must govern our actions. These ideals are more important than any particular society's rules. • STAGE 5 Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted law: People rightly feel obligated to follow the agreed rules of society. But as societies develop over time, rules have to be updated to make societal changes reflect underlying social principles • STAGE 6 Morality of individual principles and conscience: People accept that laws are attempts to write down specific applications of universal moral principles. Individuals must test these laws against their consciences, which tend to express an inborn sense of those principles.

Self-esteem and self-concept - what they are and distinctions between them

+Self-concept: a person's identity, or set of beliefs about what one is like as an individual • During middle childhood, children's self-concept evolves to think of themselves less in terms of external physical attributes and more in terms of psychological traits • Over time, self-concept becomes increasingly complex and differentiated +Self-esteem: an individual's overall and specific positive and negative self-evaluation • In middle childhood, self-esteem becomes more specific to particular domains • Threats to self-esteem can cause anxiety, which leads to poor performance • Cycles of self-esteem: o Cycle of failure → actual failure can lead to low self-esteem which can lead to low expectations which can lead to reduced effort and high anxiety, both of which can lead to actual failure again o Cycle of success → actual success can lead to high self-esteem which can lead to high expectations which can lead to increased effort and lower anxiety which can lead to more success - Whereas self-concept reflects beliefs and cognitions about the self (I am good at trumpet; I am not so good at social studies), self-esteem is more emotionally oriented (Everybody thinks I'm a nerd.)

Erik Erikson's stages of development from middle childhood on:

+industry-versus-inferiority stage- the period from age 6 to 12 characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern world -Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings with it feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of competence; difficulties in this stage lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy. As a result, children may withdraw both from academic pursuits, showing less interest and motivation to excel, and from interactions with peers.

Aging in early adulthood

-Primary aging, or senescence, involves the universal and irreversible changes that occur as people get older due to genetic programming. It reflects the inevitable changes that all of us experience from the time we are born. Natural physical decline brought about by aging - Secondary aging, encompasses changes that are due to illness, health habits, and other individual differences but that are not due to increased age itself and are not inevitable. Lifestyle decisions, including the use-- or abuse-- of alcohol, tobacco, or drugs or engaging in unprotected sex. Can also increase risk of dying

Sternberg's triarchic theory of love

-The intimacy component encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness. -The passion component comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance. This component is exemplified by intense, physiologically arousing feelings of attraction. -The decision/commitment component, embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another person and the longer-term determination to maintain that love

Marcia's categories of adolescent development - Crisis or Commitment?

1. Identity achievement: the status of adolescents who commit to a particular identity following a period of crisis during which they consider various alternatives 2. Identity foreclosure: the status of adolescents who prematurely commit to an identity without adequately exploring alternatives 3. Moratorium: the status of an adolescent who may have explored various identity alternatives to some degree, but have not yet committed themselves 4. Identity diffusion: the status of adolescents who consider various identity alternative, but never commit to one of never even consider identity option in any conscious way • Commitment present + exploration present = Identity Achievement; adolescent knows the path they will take in life >> most psychologically healthy, higher in achievement motivation and moral reasoning • Commitment present + exploration absent= Identity Foreclosure; accepting a path without sufficient exploration (religion is a good example). "Rigid strength": happy and satisfied; also have a high need for social approval and tend to be authoritarian • Commitment absent + exploration present= Identity Moratorium; putting a decision on hold >> relatively high anxiety and experience psychological conflict; also lively and appealing, seeking intimacy with others • Commitment absent + exploration absent= Identity diffusion; no idea on what direction to take >> lack of commitment impairs their ability to form close relationships; socially withdrawn.

Learning approaches based on ideas from Vygotsky during middle childhood:

Cognitive advances occur through exposure of information within zone of proximal development (ZPD) • Cooperative learning: is relatively easy to implement and is inexpensive successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. (positive interdependence) • Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and understanding. The teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue. This process has shown impressive success in raising reading comprehension levels, particularly for students experiencing reading difficulties

Marriage satisfaction over time

Marriage satisfaction tends to increase over time, especially once parents are empty nesters. There is a downward dip in marriage satisfaction after kids come into the picture, but satisfaction does rise again later.

Stages of friendship during middle childhood

Nature of Friendships Changes during Middle Childhood 1. Stage 1 (4 to 7 yo) → friendships based on concrete examples and amount of time spent 2. Stage 2 (8 to 10 yo) → Friendships based on personal qualities of friends, self-interest, and trust 3. Stage 3 (11 to 15 yo) → Friendships take psychological closeness and loyalty into account

Normative crisis models - what they are and whose theories would be considered to be this model

Normative crisis models - what they are and whose theories would be considered to be this model Suggests people progress through a series of crises or challenges The normative crisis theory is the traditional theory and holds that there are basically universal stages that are connected to a sequence of age-related crises. Normative crisis models tend to be specific to western culture. Examples: • Erick Erickson's Psychosocial Theory of development-predicts that people move through a series of stages and crises through the life-span. o Criticism: Does not make sufficient allowance for individual variability George Vaillant Ages 45-55 adults seek to extract the meaning from their lives and to "keep the meaning" by accepting the strengths and weaknesses of others. • Roger Gould- 7 Stages of Adulthood o Stage 1 16-18 Plan to leave home and terminate parental control o Stage 2 18-22 Leave the family and begin to reorient toward peers o Stage 3 22-28 Become independent and commit to career, spouse and children o Stage 4 29-34 Question themselves and experience confusion;may become dissatisfied with marriage and career o Stage 5 35-43 Feels an urgent need to achieve life goals, becoming increasingly aware of the passage and limits of time; they often realign life goals o Stage 6 43-53 Settle down at last, with acceptance of their lives o Stage 7 53-60 Grow more tolerant, accepting their past; they become less negative and generally more mellow Levinson • "Seasons of Life": • Most people are susceptible to fairly profound midlife crisis • Early 40s: period of psychological tumult • 40 - 45: move into the midlife transition, a time of questioning • May lead to a midlife crisis: a stage of uncertainty and indecision about their lives • Realize won't accomplish all goals • May discover accomplishments have brought less satisfaction than expected • Levinson: Critiques o Interviewed males only, so female development is unknown o Small sample - 40 men o Research does not support a crisis for most men. Most make a smooth transition & enjoy midlife. o Why does the myth continue? A few obvious cases are easily recalled.

Adolescent health concerns - obesity and eating disorders

Obesity in Adolescence • Most common nutritional concern • 1 of 5 kids are overweight • 1 in 20 are obese • Obese adolescents: 80% likelihood of being an obese adult • Puts adolescents at risk of diabetes and other diseases • Partly the product of changing lifestyles-- most sit at home on social media and tv • Most common in girls-- girls report less physical activity than boys outside of school this can be attributed to inadequate resources for girls in sports • Partly the result of the availability of cheap, fattening food Eating Disorders • Anorexia Nervosa: a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance which may become skeletal are out of the ordinary Often begins as a weight loss diet. 10% of victims are males and that percentage is increasing and is associated with the use of steroids. • Bulimia Nervosa: a severe eating disorder characterized by binges on large quantities of food, followed by purging of the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives. Begins after a diet restriction has been broken - leading to a cycle of binge and purge • Both disorders most often afflict women in adolescence or early 20s • Earlier maturing girls, who have a higher level of body fat: Higher risk • Depression is a risk factor • Genetic link: Identical twins more likely to share the same eating disorder • Only 5% of girls have bodies that are capable of meeting the "ideal" o If Barbie were a real woman: 36-18-33 • Both are the products of both biological and environmental causes, treatment typically involves a mix of approached. Both psychological therapy and dietary modifications are likely to be needed for successful treatment

Empty nest syndrome

The empty nest syndrome occurs when children leave the nest. People that have invested their identities into being a parent are left with a sense of emptiness. Most difficult for stay at home moms. Marital satisfaction typically arises during this time.

Social clocks

essentially a psychological, socially constructed "clock" that marks when various developmental milestones should occur. Ie, living on your own by your mid-20's. Each gender has their own social clock, multiple "clocks" to choose from and has implications for personality development in middle adulthood. • The culturally determined psychological timepiece providing a sense of whether we have reached the major benchmarks of like at the appropriate time in comparison to our peers For example, women have social clocks for when motherhood and/or career development should occur. Helson found that choosing a social clock (investing efforts to grow in that objective) was more important to well-being than which pathway they chose.

Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence:

intelligence is made up of three major components: componential, experiential, and contextual. +The componential aspect includes the mental components involved in analyzing data used in solving problems, especially problems involving rational behavior. It relates to people's ability to select and use formulas, to choose appropriate problem solving strategies, and in general to make use of what they have been taught. +The experiential component refers to the relationship between intelligence, people's prior experience, and their ability to cope with new situations. This is the insightful aspect of intelligence, which allows people to relate what they already know to a new situation and an array of facts never before encountered. +The contextual component of intelligence involves the degree of success people demonstrate in facing the demands of their everyday, real-world environments. For instance, the contextual component is involved in adapting to on-the-job professional demands Practical intelligence: according to sternberg intelligence that is learned primarily by observing others and modeling their behavior Emotional intelligence: the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, and regulation of emotions.

Sexually transmitted diseases

• AIDS= leading cause of death among young people. Has no cure and brings death to those who are infected with the HIV virus that produces the disease. It is classified as a sexually transmitted infection (STI). African Americans and Hispanics account for 70% of new aids cases in the US. African American males have almost 8x more prevalence than white males • HPV: most common STI, can be transmitted through genital contact o Vaccine protects against some types, has caused strong political reaction o Responsible for 100% of cervical cancers • Genital Herpes: Contagious when sores are present • Gonorrhea and syphilis: Longest recognized STIs, largely treatable with antibiotics • HPV and AIDS can both be fatal

Causes of death in early adulthood:

• Adults in their 20s and 30s stand a higher risk of dying from accidents, primarily those involving automobiles, than from most other causes. But there are other killers: Among the leading sources of death for people age 25 to 34 are AIDS, cancer, heart disease, and suicide. • Lifestyle decisions, including the use—or abuse—of alcohol, tobacco, or drugs or engaging in unprotected sex, can hasten secondary aging, physical declines brought about by environmental factors or an individual's behavioral choices. Such lifestyle decisions can also increase a young adult's risk of dying from illness and disease. • Although homicide is the third most frequent cause of death for white males between the ages of 20 to 34, it is the most frequent cause of death for black males and the second most frequent cause of death for Hispanic males in that same age range. • Leading causes of death among young adults (ages 25-34) are: accidents, AIDS, cancer, heart disease, suicide, murder, cultural and SES differences

Sexuality and pregnancy in adolescence

• Age of first time engaging in intercourse has decreased over the last 50 years; currently at age 17 o However, the number of adolescents postponing intercourse also increasing o 80% of 20 year olds have had sexual intercourse • Masturabtion is usually the first sexual experiences that boys and girls engage in o 80% of boys and 20% of girls masturabte by age 15 o History of misinformation → physicians as late as 1800s warned of physical/psychological consequences of masturbation such as impaired morals, epilepsy, depression, blindness, insanity and death • The question of sexual orientation usually occurs at adolescence: o Homosexual o Heterosexual o Bisexual o About 25% of boys and 10% of girls have had at least one same sex encounter • Far fewer numbers become exclusively homosexual, maybe 4-10% • Teenage pregnancy numbers have significantly declined o Due to a decrease in the number of teens have sex, more consistent use of birth control and better education about sex, alternatives for sex o Rates of teen pregnancy are higher among minorites o Virginity pledge → not very effective at reducing premarital sex but does help delay first sexual experience o Significantly higher pregnancy rate in US compared to many countries

Dangers to well-being during middle childhood:

• Asthma- a chronic condition characterized by periodic attacks of wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. among the diseases that have shown a significant increase in prevalence over the last several decades, with more than 15 million children in the US have it. • Accidents (Motor vehicles; Bikes; Fires and burns; Drowning; Gun-related deaths). Most deaths from accidents are transportational accidents, others follow suit. • Inadequate nutrition o Malnutrition is implicated in more than 50% of all child deaths worldwide o Consequences: • Lowered resistance to infection • More likely to die from common childhood ailments and respiratory infections • Frequent illness that impacts growth • Childhood obesity → increasing, about 15% of kids are obese o Serious problems associated with unhealthy weight including heart disease, diabetes, cancer, etc o Most common causes: • Genetic factors • Lack of physical activity • Unhealthy eating patterns • Combination of these factors • In rare cases, a medical condition such as a hormonal problem

Brain changes during adolescence

• Brain Development in Adolescence o Brain continues to develop into adulthood o Increases in myelin coated nerve cells makes communication among brain areas faster o Increased development of prefrontal cortex helps control impulsive and destructive behaviors • However, maturity gap persists into adulthood • The Adolescent Brain o Brain becomes more sensitive to rewards o Less sensitive to possible punishments via lower amygdala reactivity o Increased responsiveness to dopamine o Maturation of prefrontal cortex o Increasing gray matter o Synaptic "Pruning" occurs to eliminate unnecessary pathways • Makes quicker pathways for neurotransmission (quicker thought process)

Social learning theory of gender related behaviors

• By Bandura • Social Learning Theory: learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model • • Four Stages a child goes through to develop gender behavior o Stage 1- Attention: they notice and observe the behavior o Stage 2- Memory: the behavior is memorized and stored in their memory o Stage 3- Imitation: behavior is performed based on imitating what they see around them o Stage 4- Motivation: "Their behaviour is based on the desired consequences or what will be gained by the behaviour, either immediately or in the near future."(scienceaid.net) • Someone will imitate a behavior they think they should perform o There will also model someone with similar characteristics to themselves

Psychosomatic diseases/disorders

• Consequently, stress may lead to psychosomatic disorders, medical problems caused by the interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. For instance, ulcers, asthma, arthritis, and high blood pressure may—though not invariably— be produced by stress • It can increase the risk of becoming ill, it may actually produce illness, it makes it more difficult to recover from illness, and it may reduce one's ability to cope with future stress.

Statistics regarding psychological disorders during adolescence

• Depression o adolescents are prone to mild depression o about 3% experience major depression o more than ¼ of adolescents report feeling so sad or hopeless for two or more weeks in a row that they stop doing their normal activities o girls experience depression more often than boys • Due to greater demands and pressures related to female role expectations o some studies found that African American adolescents have higher rates of depression but not all research supports this conclusion o Native Americans have higher rates of depression o Risk factors: • Being female • Experiencing major negative life events • Having depression in your family • Having an alcoholic parent • Being unpopular can contribute to onset • Suicide o third most common cause of death in the 15- to 24-year-old age group o Adolescent suicide rate has trippled in the last 30 years in U.S o 12.2 suicides per 100,000 adolescents o rate is higher for boys than girls, although girls attempt suicide more frequently • Boys tend to use more violent means

Effects of divorce on children

• Divorce is very common o About ½ kids live whole childhood with two parent households o Psychological maladjustment often occurs • Lasts as long as 2 years or longer • Divorce is higher for minority children o Kids are much more likely to live with their mothers o Single parent households much more likely to live below the poverty line o Ultimate consequences for children depend on a variety of factors that accompany single-parenthood, such as the economic status of the family, the amount of time that the parent is able to spend with the child, and the degree of stress in the household • Blended families o Blended families include remarried couples that have at least one stepchild living with them o Living in a blended family involves role ambiguity, in which roles and expectations are unclear o School aged children often adjust relatively smoothly to a blended family

Cognitive distortions in adolescence

• Egocentrism- when adolescents become highly critical, self focused and believe the world revolves around them • Imaginary audience- when adolescents think that what they're doing is the focus of everyone else's attention • Personal Fables- when adolescents think that something they're going through/experiencing is only relevant to them and that no one can relate to it. Also lead them to feel invulnerable to the risks that threaten others.

Memory in middle age

• External event=sensory stimuli • Sensory memory= fleeting sense of something to be remembered • Short term memory= encoded through rehearsal which then ends up in long term memory • Long term memory= if encoded sufficiently will be available for later retrieval • Working or short term memory: fades without rehearsal and then forgotten, relatively permanent • Only minor memory loss in middle age and we often attribute moments of absent mindedness to memory decline • Sensory and short term (working) memory remain intact • Long term memory shows some decline • Changes in middle age are relatively minor o Minor memory loss in middle age o Sensory and short term (working) memory remain intact o Long term memory shows some decline o Fluid intelligence - information processing capabilities, reasoning, memory (declines with age) o Crystalized intelligence - accumulation of information, skills, learned over experience (increases with age or stays steady) o People often attribute moments of absent mindedness to aging

Resilience

• For people who face the most profound of life's difficulties—such as the unexpected death of a loved one or a permanent injury, such as spinal cord damage—a key factor in their reactions is their level of resilience. As we first discussed in Chapter 8, resilience is the ability to withstand, overcome, and actually thrive following profound adversity (Werner, 2005; Kim-Cohen, 2007; Lipsitt & Demick, 2012). • Resilient young adults tend to be easygoing, good-natured, and have good social and communication skills. They are independent, feeling that they can shape their own fate and are not dependent on others or on luck.

Changes in relationships with parents during adolescence

• Friend and peer relationships begin to dominate for many adolescents • Adolescents often rebel against parental authority as they are seeking autonomy o Parents are often resistant to attempts of adolescents to grow up • Boys are generally granted greater autonomy sooner than girls • Family conflicts can escalate o Adolescents begin questioning their parents motives and decisions • Generation Gap- belief that a deep divide exists between parents and their adolescent children (mostly a myth) o Differences in how the adolescent chooses to dress, what music they listen to and who they're friends with o Despite these differences, values and attitudes between parents and teens are more aligned than with teens and other teens o Parents and teens are often very similar on social, political, and religious issues o Generally speaking, adolescents are usually much more like their parents than is often believed or portrayed in the media

Factors influencing self-esteem in adolescence

• Gender • SES • Race/ethnicity • Complex combination of factors: ethgender (joint influence of race and gender) • Self esteem continues to become more differentiated and domain specific • During adolescence, girls self esteem tends to be lower than boys • Boys are vulnerable to lower self esteem due to inability to live up to gender stereotypes • Girls self esteem often dependent on social success • Higher SES adolescents generally have higher self-esteem • During adolescence, similar in self-esteem by race

Gender differences in occupation and reasons why

• Many women entering early adulthood assumed that is admittedly exaggerated job description matched the work for which they were best suited and to which they aspired: housewife • The men's job listings encompassed such professions as police officer, construction worker, and legal counsel • Women's listings were for secretaries, teachers, cashiers, and librarians. • Women were considered most appropriate for communal professions, occupations associated with relationships, such as nursing. • Men were perceived as best suited for agentic professions, are associated with getting things accomplished, such as carpentry. • Women are less likely to be found in traditionally male-dominated professions such as engineering and computer programming. o More women are working outside the home than ever before, despite status and pay that are often lower than men's. o Between 1950 and 2010, the percentage of the female population (aged 16 and over) in the U.S. labor force increased from 35 percent to close to 60 percent, and women today make up around 47 percent of the labor force. • Women (and minorities, too) in high-status, visible professional roles may hit what has come to be called as glass ceiling. o Is an invisible barrier within an organization that, because of discrimination, prevents individuals from being promoted beyond a certain level. o It operates subtly, and often the people responsible for keeping the glass ceiling in place are unaware of how their actions perpetuate discrimination against women and minorities.

Drug and alcohol use in adolescence

• Marijuana o Most frequently used drug; use has increased over the last decade; attitudes have become more favorable; recreationally legal in 11 states • Alcohol o Alcoholism • Dependence on alcohol and an inability to control drinking • Genetic component: alcoholism runs in families • Problems escalate as tolerance escalates • Important to get help o 75% of college students report having at least one drink in the last month o 20% of college students report drinking more than 16 drinks a week o Binge drinking- 5 or more drinks in one sitting (men); 4 or more drinks in one sitting (women) o Problems with drinking escalate as tolerance escalates o Substance Use Disorder (DSM Criteria) • Increasing tolerance • Wanting to cut down use • Failing to meet obligations • Putting yourself or others at risk • Substance related legal difficulties • Withdrawals

Diseases of middle age

• Osteoporosis (bones become fragile) → often from calcium deficiency, more common in women • Glaucoma (Pressure in the eye limits fluid flow which diminishes sight) • Heart disease o More men die from heart disease during middle age than anything else o Genetic component o Men more likely than women to suffer from heart disease • Estrogen linked to later onset of heart disease o Many environmental factors → smoking, diet, lack of exercise o Estrogen linked to later onset of heart disease for women • Cancer second leading cause of death in US o 40% of those diagnosed still alive after 5 years later o Feared more than heart disease even though not as deadly o Genetic component o Environmental factors → smoking, poor nutrition, alcohol use, radiation, sun overexposure o Fighting spirit associated with better cancer outcomes (promising effects, such as less pain and anxiety, lived longer, better immune system) o Breast cancer risk begins to rise around age 30 • Middle aged better health than younger adults • Fewer infections, digestive problems, better immunity

Effects of stress in middle age

• Physiological effects o Higher blood pressure o Lower immune system o Increased hormonal activity o Psychophysiological conditions • Harmful behaviors o Increased use of drugs/alcohol, nicotine o Decreased nutrition/sleep • Indirect health related behaviors o Less compliance with medical advice/delay in seeking out medical care • Cardiovascular disease!! o Hypertension "The Silent Killer" o Healthy blood pressure = 120/80 (anything higher is bad) o Primary or essential high BP (90%) o Secondary high BP (10%) • Health and personality o Type A personalities → competitive, impatient, driven • Polyphasic activity → multiple activities carried out simultaneously (multi-tasking) • Greater stress exposure → physiological reactivity → causes wear and tear on heart and arteries o Type B personalities → non-competitive, patience, low aggression

Cognitive development in adolescence

• Piaget and Formal Operations o Adolescents being understanding/using abstract reasoning • ex) if you had a 3rd eye, where would you put it? o Propositional thought/syllogisms • For example → "all humans are mortal, I am human, therefore I am mortal" o Thinking becomes more systematic at around age 12 o Critiques of this theory: • Piaget suggested universal stages of cognitive development • Some skills begin earlier than Piaget proposed • Maybe cognitive development does not end in adolescence? • Information Processing Perspective o Memory storage increases and we have a greater knowledge store of facts o Develop the ability to multitask o Metacognition • Thinking about thinking

Cognitive development during middle childhood

• Piaget → concrete operational stage (USE OF LOGIC) o Gradual shift: from preoperational to concrete operational thought (children shifting back and forth between the two stages) o Decentering: because kids are less egocentric, Being able to understand multiple perspectives or aspects of a situation o Reversibility- understanding that forms and processes can be reversed. o Conservation understanding progresses in middle childhood (understanding abstract idea) • Information processing approach o Increasing ability to handle information → memory and memory capacity improvement o Changes in memory and processing are occurring • Children do not just have memories, but they begin to understand what they are • Short-term memory increases significantly during this time • Increased memory function may facilitate more logical thinking processes what

Popularity in adolescence

• Popularity--mostly liked--higher statues--more friends, less lonely, more activities • Controversial → liked by some, not others → high status, more friends, less lonely, more activities • Rejected → not liked → low status, fewer friends, aware they're not as popular • Neglected → neither liked nor disliked → low status, fewer friends, aware they're not as popular

Primary and secondary sex characteristics

• Primary Characteristics: Those related directly to reproduction ex. Changes in vagina and uterus • Secondary characteristics: Indicators of sexual maturity that do not involve the sex organs directly (breast and pubic hair)

Lazarus and Folkman's model of stress and coping

• Primary appraisal = Events appraised in terms of consequences to the self o Determining whether or not the stimuli is a threat, is positive, or is neutral • Secondary appraisal = Consideration given to how to deal with the stress o Determining if one has the resources and ability to cope with the stimuli if it is perceived as a threat • Problem focused coping involves directly engaging the problem • Emotion focused coping attempts to make yourself feel better • Defensive coping → trivializing, denying a stressor exists • Stress experienced largely based on appraisal

Pros and cons of early maturation in adolescence

• Pros of Early Maturation o Boys: • Early maturing boys tend to be more successful at athletics, presumably because of their larger size • Tend to be more popular and have a more positive self-concept o Girls: • Tend to be sought after more as potential dates, and their popularity may enhance their self-concepts • Cons of Early Maturation o BOYS • More apt to have difficulties in school, and they are more likely to become involved in delinquency and substance abuse • Conspicuousness of their deviance from their later maturing classmates may have a negative effect, producing anxiety, unhappiness, and depression GIRLS • Obvious changes in their bodies (such as development of breasts) may lead to them feeling uncomfortable and different from their peers • May have to endure ridicule from their less mature classmates

Qualities of popular and unpopular students during middle childhood

• Qualities of Popular Students o Sense of humor o Being nice o Helpful o Complimentary o Inviting o Sharing o Avoiding bad behaviors o Giving others control o Providing instructions o Loyal • Qualities of Unpopular Students o Verbal aggression o Expressing anger o Dishonesty o Being critical o Greedy/bossy o Physically aggressive o Annoying o Teasing o Interfering with achievements o Unfaithfulness •Higher status children often have a greater number of friends and resources and tend to exclude lower status children from their groups

Gay and lesbian parenting findings

• Rough estimates suggest that around 16-20% of same-sex couples are parents • According to studies, gay, lesbian, and heterosexual couples, labor tends to be divided more evenly in homosexual household than in heterosexual • Gay and lesbian couples cling more strongly to the ideal of an egalitarian allocation of household work. • Lesbian mothers childrearing tends to fall more to one member of the couple, while the other spends more time in paid employment. • When children arrive appears to be more similar to that of heterosexual couples than dissimilar, particularly in the increased role specialization occasioned by the requirement of child care. • Children raised in households in which the parents are homosexual show no differences in terms of eventual adjustment from those raised in heterosexual. • Children being raised in a gay or lesbian household is increasing • More equal division of labor • Even in gay and lesbian householdings parenting duties usually belong to one more than the other • Children from gay and lesbian households appear to show no differences in adjustment

Piaget's stages of cognitive development - no need to know the substages of the sensorimotor stage of development

• Sensorimotor stage (birth to 18-24 months old) • Pre-operational stage (2-7 years of age) o symbolic function: the ability to use a mental symbol, a word, or an object to stand for or represent something that is not physically present o Centration: the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects o (lack of )Conservation: the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects [marks the transition from preoperational to concrete operational] o Egocentric thought: thinking that does not take into account the viewpoints of others • the lack of awareness that others see things from a different physical perspective • & the failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and points of view that differ from theirs o Intuitive thought: preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world o Begin to understand the notion of • Functionality: the idea that actions, events, and outcomes are related to one another in fixed patterns • Identity: the understanding that certain things stay the same, regardless of changes in shape, size, and appearance (necessary for the understanding of conservation) • Concrete operational stage (7-11 years old) • Formal operational stage (adolescence to adulthood)

Concerns over physical appearance in middle age

• Signs of aging become undeniable • Reactions tied to self-concept: those with greatest physical prowess, physically attractive and women are especially difficult (especially true for Western culture) • If you were highly celebrated for your looks when you were younger, then when you begin to age in middle age, it may have a greater impact on you because it affects your identity even more so

Changes in adolescent physical development over time

• Start of physical maturation: o Begins when the pituitary gland in the brain signals other glands in children's bodies to begin producing the sex hormones, androgens (male hormones) or estrogens (female hormones), at adult levels. o Males and females produce both types of sex hormones, but males have a higher concentration of androgens and females a higher concentration of estrogens.) o Pituitary gland also signals body to increase production of growth hormones that interact with the sex hormones to cause the growth spurt and puberty. In addition, the hormone leptin appears to play a role in the start of puberty. o Growth spurt occurs at around age 10 for girls and 12 for boys

Suicide during adolescence

• Suicides among adolescents have tripled in the last 30 years • Suicide rate higher for males than females • Females attempt suicide more often • Rates among adolescents have increased far greater than that for other groups • However, suicide is most common among the elderly • Bullying can be the impetus for suicide o Ex) Rebecca Sedwick commits suicide due to taunting from Guadalipe Bitchass Shaw • Warning signs for adolescent suicide: o Talking about wanting to be dead o Preoccupation with death in music, film o Missing classes or sinking grades o Giving significant things away o Writing a will o Dramatic behavior changes o Knowing someone who committed suicide o Bullying

Hardiness

• The success with which young adults deal with stress depends in part on their coping style, their general tendency to deal with stress in a particular way. For example, people with a "hardy" coping style are especially successful in dealing with stress. Hardiness is a personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness. Hardy individuals are take-charge people who revel in life's challenges. It is not surprising, then, that people who are high in hardiness are more resistant to stress-related. Emphasis on qualities that indicate resilience • 3 C's of Hardiness o Commitment: Staying involved and engaged in meaningful activities o Control: A belief that you can influence outcomes in a positive way o Challenge: Understanding that life changes and challenges are normal

Psychological and learning disorders during middle childhood-

• Visual impairments: 20/200(legal blindness); 20/70(partial sightedness), facial contortions and blinking indicates visual problems. • Auditory impairments affect 1-2 percent school age children. • 20% kids have psychological disorders that causes significant impairment, believed to result from brain dysfunction due to genetic or environmental factors • Speech impairments: sometimes paired with auditory impairments, most common is stuttering, can be associated with social problems • ADHD: Low tolerance for frustration, start tasks before instructions completed but having difficulties finishing it, 10% 3-17 years old have it, excessive & long term; appear before age 7, continue for minimum 6 months, create a real handicap in a person's life; different than normal distractibility). Ritalin can help but unknown long term effects. • Learning disorder o May manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations o Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.

Erikson's first stage of development in his normative crisis model of psychosocial development:

• the approach to personality development that is based on fairly universal stages, tied to a sequence of age-related crises • Trust vs mistrust (birth to 18 months) o During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop. • Autonomy vs shame/doubt (18 mo.-3 yrs) o focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. If criticized, overly controlled, they begin to feel inadequate, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities. • Initiative vs guilt (3-6) o Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. • Industry vs inferiority (6-12) o The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. • Identity vs identity confusion (12-20) o adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. • Intimacy vs isolation (20-40) o we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member. Success in this stage=love. • Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65) o Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. • Ego Integrity vs despair (65+) o Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Approaches to teaching reading during middle childhood discussed in class:

•Code-based = learning phonics, sounds of letters, they suggest that reading consists of processing the individual components of words, combining them into words, and then using the words to derive meaning of written sentences and passages • Best one to use! •Whole language - reading is viewed as a natural process, similar to the acquisition of the oral language. Instead of being taught to sound out words, children are encouraged to make guesses about the meanings of words based on the context they appear in. National Reading Panel and National Research Council support reading instruction using code-based approaches

Types of intelligence:

•Fluid intelligence: reflects information processing and problem solving abilities, reflects information processing capabilities reasoning, and memory •Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge, skills, and strategies people learn over time that can be applied to solve problems. Accumulation of info, skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem solving •Triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg's conception of intelligence as the components of experience, context, and componential elements. A model that states that intelligence consists of three aspects of information processing: the componential element, the experimental element, and the contextual element • Componential: reflects how efficiently people can process and analyze info • Experimental: people who have strong experimental element can easily compare new material with what they already know and can combine and relate facts that they already know in novel and creative ways • Contextual: element of intelligence concerns practicals intelligence or ways of dealing with the demands of the everyday environment

Special needs children and educational approaches for them during middle childhood

•In 1975 when Congress passed Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. The intent of the law—an intent that has been largely realized—was to ensure that children with special needs received a full education in the least restrictive environment, the setting most similar to that of children without special needs (Yell, 1995).the law has meant that children with special needs must be integrated into regular classrooms and regular activities to the greatest extent possible, as long as doing so is educationally beneficial. • Mainstreaming: an educational approach in which exceptional children are integrated to the extent possible into the traditional educational system and are provided with a broad range of educational alternatives • Full inclusion: the integration of all students, even those with severe disabilities into regular classes and ceasing the operation of special educational programs

Bullying and its impact on children

•Most children, about 90%, experience some bullying at some point in childhood o Can be physical, psychological, and/or emotional o Those children who experience frequent bullying are most often loners who are fairly passive. They often cry easily, and they tend to lack the social skills that might otherwise defuse a bullying situation • 50% of bullies come from abusive home environments • Cyberbullying o may be even more painful because often the bullying is done anonymously or may involve public postings • Training students to intervene on behalf of the bullied has been effective in reducing incidence

Stages of gestational development-

•Preterm - born prior to 38 weeks gestation •Low-birthweight - weigh less than 5 ½ pounds •Small for gestational age infants - babies who weigh less than 90% of what babies at the same stage weigh •Age of viability - age at which a pre-term infant can survive - about 22 weeks Number of weeks considered normal length of gestation (and the term for births prior to that): 38 weeks and Preterm 4 principles of growth and development (chapter 4) 1. Cephalocaudal principle - Growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and proceeds down the body 2. Proximodistal principle- proceeds from the center of the body outward 3. Principle of hierarchical integration-simple skills usually develop separately and independently, but these skills build upon one another. So for instance, first a baby learns to curl his fingers, and then her learns to clench his fist. 4. Principle of the independence of systems- different body systems grow at different rates • Infants grow at a fast pace the first 2 years

Stages of reading progress during middle childhood:

•Stage 1 brings the first real type of reading, but it largely involves phonological recoding skills. At this stage, which usually encompasses the first and second grade, children can sound out words by blending the letters together. Children also complete the job of learning the names of letters and the sounds that go with them. •In Stage 2, typically around second and third grades, children learn to read aloud with fluency. However, they do not attach much meaning to the words, because the effort involved in simply sounding out words is usually so great that relatively few cognitive resources are left over to process the meaning of the words. La-Toya's flawless reading of The Witches shows that she has reached at least this stage of reading development. •The next period, Stage 3, extends from fourth to eighth grades. Reading becomes a means to an end—in particular, a way to learn. Whereas earlier reading was an accomplishment in and of itself, by this point children use reading to learn about the world. However, even at this age, understanding gained from reading is not complete. For instance, one limitation children have at this stage is that they are able to comprehend information only when it is presented from a single perspective. •In the final period, Stage 4, children are able to read and process information that reflects multiple points of view. This ability, which begins during the transition into high school, permits children to develop a far more sophisticated understanding of material. This explains why great works of literature are not read at an earlier stage of education. It is not so much that younger children do not have the vocabulary to understand such works (although this is partially true); it is that they lack the ability to understand the multiple points of view that sophisticated literature invariably presents.