NCE
In group work,
"Counseling group" - less structured than a guidance group Leader of a counseling group needs more training than an individual running a guidance group
Robert Rosenthal
"Experimenter Effect" - A researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment
Alfred Adler
"Sibling interaction may have more impact than parent-child interaction"
Carl Rogers
1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded Person-centered Therapy (Client-centered Therapy), theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
Freedman and Fraser
1966, Foot in the door phenomenon
An effective children counseling group ideally has
3 or 4 members
Ideal adolescent group might be slightly smaller
5 or 6 members
Epictetus
A Greek philosopher most closely related to REBT; suggested we feel the way we think "People are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them"
Andrew Salter
A behaviorist who did groundbreaking work which led to assertiveness training - created Conditioned Reflex Therapy Hater of psychoanalytic model
Superbill
A bill, submitted to the insurance company, that verifies the nature of the counselor-client interaction Includes: client's name, data, ICD diagnosis, CPT code, provider's name and license
ABABA Design
A design in which a baseline condition (A) is measured first, followed by measurements during a treatment condition (B), followed by a return to the baseline measurement condition (A), followed by a return to the treatment condition (B) and a final baseline measurement condition (A) to verify that the change in behavior is linked to the experimental condition Popularized in 1970s by the behavior modification rage, tracks the client with an extended baseline, through treatment, to the outcome.
Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)
A form of cognitive behavior modification that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation
In-Basket Technique
A job simulation where a job candidate is given a basket including memos, emails, phone messages, requests for presentations, data reports, and complaints, that a manager would typically encounter. The hiring person then monitors how the candidate makes decisions, prioritizes, pays attention to detail, delegates, and responds to the correspondence. Then applicant is expected to communicate why they choose the various responses
Avocation
A leisure activity that one engages in for pleasure rather than money
Baseline (In Behaviorism)
A measure of the behavior prior to the treatment or when treatment is not being implemented
Authoritarian Parenting
A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children One-way communication
Always Script
A person will always remain a give away
Accreditation
A process whereby an agency or school meets certain standards and qualifications set forth by an association or accrediting organization Accreditation applies to programs, not individual counselor Eg. CACREP
Dyadic Relationship
A relationship between two persons (Counselor + Counselee)
Catharsis / Abreaction
A release of emotional tension
Role Conflict
A situation in which there is a discrepancy between the way a member is expected to behave and the way he or she actually behaves
Skeleton Keys
A standard or stock intervention that will work for numerous problems
Paradoxical Intention
A technique described by Frankl in which helping the client invoke exaggerated negative thoughts to help the client become aware of his behavior and the consequences of that behavior
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A widely used personality test based on Jungian types (associated with the work of Carl Jung's analytic psychology) The test provides a four-letter type score such as ISFJ (introversion, sensing, feeling, judging)
Displaced Homemaker
A woman with children who was a homemaker but is currently in need of work to support her family - due to divorce or widowed Can also include women who are seeking employment because her children are grown (she used to always stayed home and raised children)
Compensatory Effect
A worker compensates or makes up for things he or she cannot get at work Eg. A librarian who needs to be quiet at her job may go out after work and get wild, crazy and loud Work can also help people compensate for things missing in one's family life
Test
An instrument which measures a given sample of behavior A systematic method of measuring a sample of behavior
Open Groups
An ongoing group that runs indefinitely; members join or leave the group as they need to
Communication modes used by assertiveness trainers to determine or discriminate client response patterns
Assertive, Nonassertive, and Aggressive
Reciprocity (Marriage)
Asserts that in most cases two people will reinforce each other at about the same level over time. When this doesn't happen, marital discord may result
Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group
Daniel Goleman
Believed that EQ rather than IQ determines success (EQ is more important than IQ)
Computer-Based Career Information Systems (CBCISs) / Computer-Assisted Career Guidance System (CACG)
CHOICES and System of Interactive Guidance and Information (SIGI)
A new IQ test has a standard error of measurement (SEM) of 3. Tom scores 106 on the test. If he takes the test a lot, we can predict that about 68% of the time, Tom will score between 103 and 109
Calculation: 106-3=103 and 106+3=109 103 to 109 is the 68% confidence interval
Oscar K. Buros
Came up with the Mental Measurements Yearbook that review available psychological tests
Mark Savickas
Career Construction Postmodern Theory
Roe's Approach to Career Choice
Career choice is influenced by genetics, parent-child interaction, unconscious motivators, current needs, interests (people/things), education and intelligence Genetics help to determine intelligence and education, hence influences one's career choice
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Child psychologist who studied the child
Phenomenology (Existentialism)
Client's internal personal experience of events
Factors that impact the counselor's social influence / Areas that cause problems for the counselor's self-image
Competence, Power, Intimacy
T.X. Barber
Created a cognitive theory of hypnotism
Likert Scale
Created by Rensis Likert in early 1930s This scale helps improve the overall degree of measurement Response categories (example): Strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree
Henry Murray
Created the "Needs-Press" Theory and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan
Member-specific Measures
Designed to assess change (or lack of it) in an individual group member; EX: self-rating or a rating by an outside observer; not standardized
IVs and DVs can be ___
Discrete分离 or Continuous Discrete - eg. a brand of counseling or occupation Continuous - eg. height or weight
Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence (Charles Spearman)
Every task requires a combination of a general ability (g) and skills that are specific to the task (s)
Robin Skynner
Feels that kids who had poor role model as children possess protective systems - means that such individuals harbor unrealistic expectation of people in current relationships carried over from childhood
Edwin Bordin
Felt that career choices could be used to solve unconscious conflicts - psychoanalytic approach Felt that difficulties related to job choice are indicative of neurotic symptoms
Classical Conditioning, where CS comes before UCS can also be referred to as
Forward conditioning
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
Founded Analytic Psychology
Leniency / Strictness Bias
Giving a worker a very high/lenient or a very low/strict rating while avoiding the middle average ratings
Dyad
Group of two
Standard Error of Measurement
How accurate or inaccurate a test score is Low standard error means high reliability, thus the lower Standard Error of Measurement the better
HS-BCP
Human Services-Board Certified Practitioner
Construct
Idea that cannot be seen or measured directly
What will the standard error of measurement tell you about a test?
If two sets of results are due to chance Standard error of measurement estimates where an individual's scores would fall if given the same assessment over a period of time
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment This group receives the IV
Eclecticism
In psychotherapy, drawing ideas from two or more systems of therapy instead of committing to just one system.
IV
Independent Variable The variable that the researcher manipulates, controls, alters, or wishes to experiment with
Subgroup/Faction帮派
Is a clique or a group within a group
Desirable Script or
Less Desirable Script
Group IQ Test
Less accurate and have lower reliability
Informal Assessment
Occurs in a more casual manner Eg. self-reports, case notes, journal, observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, participation, peer and self evaluation
Linear Causality
One cause equals one effect; the line of reasoning is direct Often use in individual counseling
Stimulus Discrimination (also called stimulus differentiation)
One is taught to respond only to a specific stimulus
Plaintiff原告
One who begins a lawsuit
Perpetrators of sexual abuse are primarily males;
Perpetrators of physical abuse are generally females
Piaget
Piaget saw moral judgment broken into two age brackets: below and above age ten Those under age ten tended to judge wrong-doings by the amount of damage caused rather than the intention behind the act
Dichotomy
Present with two opposing choices
License
Primarily state specific Licenses are conferred by the individual state and not the federal government
Classification of Groups
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary by Charles Cooley
Systematic Desensitization (Steps)
Relaxation training, Construction of anxiety hierarchy, Desensitization in imagination, and In vivo desensitization
David Wechsler (1896-1981)
Served in the military, testing army recruits during World War I. He came to believe that the ways in which psychologists viewed and measured "intelligence" was inadequate. In 1934 he began construction of the most widely used adult intelligence test battery, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), which set the standard for practical measurement of intelligence
Some exams will refer to the CS as the NS (neutral stimulus);
Some exams will refer the UCS as the "reinforcing" or "charged stimulus"
White-Collar Worker
Someone in a professional or clerical job who usually earns a salary
Cloe Madanes and Jay Haley are associated with the ______ school of family counseling
Strategic
Jay Haley
Strategic Family Therapy Believed in designing a strategy for each specific problem Coined the term "strategic therapy"
Horizontal Interventions (Interpersonal Method)
Strategies that approach the group as a whole
Counterbalancing
Switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study
Joseph Wolpe
Systematic desensitization
Handicapped
Term "disabled" is now preferred
Game Analysis
The act of looking at the consequences of games
Reactive Effect / Reactivity / Observer Effect
The changes in individual or group behavior that are due to being observed or otherwise studied The subject is reacting to the presence of the investigation Eg. Hawthorne Effect
Expertness
The client perceives the counselor rather than the way the counselor perceives themselves
X Axis
The horizontal line on a graph Used to plot the IV scores Also called the Abscissa
Differential Sensitivity
The idea that some people are more vulnerable than others to certain experiences, even prescription medication, and usually because of genetic differences
Spillover
The individual's work spills over into his or her time off the job (the person engages in activities similar to work during periods of leisure)
Group Content
The material discussed within the group Refers to what the group is discussing
Ontology本体论 (Existentialism)
The philosophy of being and existing
Script Analysis
The process of ferreting out the client's script
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
The statistical procedure used to study the impact of independent variables on two or more dependent variables Is used when there is MORE THAN ONE DV
Group Dynamics
The study of the interrelationships and interactions between group members The study of group operations
I'm Not Ok--You're Ok
These people blame themselves for everything that goes wrong; drowning in guilt
Basic Research
To advance our understanding of theory
Mediation
To settle disputes between couples getting a divorce without going to court
Providers
Very high in caring
RIASEC (John Holland)
Visually depicted with a hexagon that includes 6 personality types / work environments Congruence between the person and the job is emphasized Person is categorized using 3 digit codes such as SEC
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) by Vygotsky
Vygotsky believed the potential for cognitive development depended upon the ZPD, which was a level of development attained when children engage in social interactions. When the social interaction is guided by an adult or collaborated with peers, the ZPD exceeds what one could achieve individually
Achievement Test vs. Aptitude Test
What you've learned vs. What you can do in the future (potential)
First Born Child (Adler)
When a child is born, it impacts personality Oldest child -- prone to perfectionism and need for affirmation -- tends to become intellectual, conscientious and dominant in social settings. Adler attributes this to the child losing the parents' undivided attention and compensating throughout life by working to get it back. In addition, this child may be expected to set an example and be given responsibility for younger siblings
Never Script
When a person never feels they will succeed
Pre-experimental Designs
When a single group is used in research or two groups that are not equivalent
Deviation Phenomenon
When an individual purposely, or when in doubt, gives unusual responses
Unfinished Business (Gestalt)
When an unexpressed feeling interferes with present situations and causes difficulties People's unfinished business causes neuroses and needs to be resolved
Experimental Neurosis
When the differentiation process becomes too tough because stimuli are almost identical, the dog will show signs of emotional disturbance
First psychology laboratory was set up by ___
Wilhelm Wundt
Mores
accepted standards and customs of a social group
Fritz Pearls
developed Gestalt therapy
Medical model of medicine or psychotherapy begins with a ___
formal label or diagnosis of the problems
The most effective time interval (temporal relation) between the CS and the US...
is 0.5 or half a second
The Big Five (Personality Test) - OCEAN
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Vocational Development parallels ___
psychosocial, cognitive and personality development
The most important trait for group members is the ability ...
to trust
A malpractice or liability insurance company is least likely to defend you if ___
you are sexually involved with a client
In group work,
"Therapy" - when the problem is more severe and more individual work is needed for a longer duration Psychotherapy groups are commonly used in inpatient psychiatric hospitals and residential facilities for patients with in-depth psychological problems Psychotherapy groups is tertiary and may emphasize on unconscious mind and childhood experiences more than counseling group Leader must have the most training because they may need to treat people who are not functioning in the range of "normality"
Adlerian counselor often asks the client:
"What would life be like if you were functioning in an ideal manner?" Counselor also asks the client to act "as if" he or she did not have the problem
Conditioned stimulus (bell) comes before Unconditioned stimulus (meat)
"c" letter is before "u" letter
In individual treatment,
"counseling" and "therapy" can be used interchangeably
Limitations of Confidentiality
(1) Danger to self or others (2) Suspected child maltreatment (eg. abuse, neglect) (3) Court orders a release of information (4) Clerical assistants who process client information and papers (5) To gain consultation/supervision (6) Client requests a release of information (7) Client raises the issue of the counselor's competence in a malpractice lawsuit (8) Client is less than 18 years of age. If client is a minor, a parent or guardian can demand that information be disclosed that was revealed during a session) (9) An elderly person is abused (10) Insurance company or managed care company requests a diagnosis and/or relevant clinical information
3 Steps to Implement the Trait-and-Factor Approach (Parsons)
(1) Knowledge of the self and aptitudes and interests (2) Knowledge of jobs (advantages and disadvantages) (3) Matching the individual with the work
4 Basic Patterns Prevented Good Communication Under Stress (Virginia Satir)
(1) Placating (people pleaser) - You try to please everybody out of a fear of rejection. Cause individual to sacrifice his or her own needs as a way of dealing with stress (2) Blaming - Sacrifice others to feel good about themselves, often say "if it weren't for you...", point finger at others to avoid dealing with their own issues (3) Being overly reasonable (aka Responsible analyzer, Computing) - Functioning like a computer to keep their emotions in check, emotionally detached, is likely to engage in intellectualization智能化 (4) Being irrelevant (Distracting) - Will distract the family form the problem via constantly taking about irrelevant topics
John Holland's 4 Assumptions
(1) There are six basic personality types in our culture: RIASEC (2) Most work environments correspond to the six personality types (3) People search out an agreeable environment which let's them express their personality type (4) Individual's behavior is determined by an interaction of the personality and the environment
ABA Model
(A) a baseline is secured (pretest measurement) (B) intervention is implemented (A) the outcome is examined via a new baseline
Retroflection
(Gestalt) Act of doing to yourself what you really wish to do to someone else
Making the Rounds
(Gestalt) In group work, members listen to the person in the hot seat say something about each member. Members might give feedback in return When a leader allows each group member to weigh in on a given topic Client is instructed to say the same message to everyone in the group
Therapeutic Surrender
(In multiracial counseling) The client psychologically surrenders him/herself to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open w/ feelings and thoughts
Most Specific to Most General
(JOC) Job/Position - Occupation - Career
Binet IQ Score
(MA/CA) x 100 (Mental age divided by chronological age) x 100 (Memory: MA - master is the higher education degree, so put it on top of the equation as the numerator) The score indicated how you compared to those in your age group
Hot seat technique
(Perl's Gestalt therapy groups) A person who is the target of the therapist's interventions in the here and now
Tom Harris Life Positions
(TA) Life position tells the counselor how a person goes about receiving strokes or recognition I'm Ok, You're Ok I'm Ok--You're Not Ok I'm Not Ok--You're Ok I'm Not Ok--You're Not Ok
Crossed Transaction
(TA) Occur when vectors from a message sent and a message received do not run parallel (e.g. I send a message from my adult to your adult and you respond from your adult to my child) Results in deadlock of communication or hurtful feelings
Complementary Transaction
(TA) Vectors of communication run parallel; a healthy communication transaction (e.g. I send a message from my adult to your child and get a response from your child to my adult) When get an appropriate, predicted response
Causal Comparative Research
(quant) Attempts to determine the cause or reason for pre-existing differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals Not randomly assigned IV not manipulated
Threats to Internal Validity
- Maturation of subjects (psychological and physical changes including fatigue due to time involved) - Mortality (subjects withdrawing) - Instruments used to measure the behavior or trait - Statistical regression (notion that extremely high or low scores would move toward the mean if utilized again)
The significant of the 1958 National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was that it ___
-- provided financial aid for graduate education in counseling -- expanded school guidance services -- improved guidance for gifted children
Adlerian Theory
-People have a specific concern and need for social interest -Emphasizes the future, holism, collaboration, and choice -Focuses on the importance of childhood, birth order, and behavioral goals -Stresses definable stages and techniques/practice in school and institutional settings
Two most popular levels of significance are ___
.05 and .01
Probability (p-value) in social science research is set at ___
.05 or lower
Size of Correlation/Association of Effect Size
.20 or less - small association .50 or less - medium association .80 or higher - strong or large association
DOT Nine Occupational Categories
0/1 - professional, technical, and managerial careers 2 - clerical and sales careers 3 - service careers 4 - agricultural, fishery, forestry, and related careers 5 - processing careers 6 - machine trade careers 7 - bench work careers 8 - structural work careers 9 - miscellaneous 杂
Power of a Statistical Test
1 minus(-) Beta The power implies a statistical test's ability to reject correctly a false null hypothesis
John Gottman's 6 Predictors of Divorce
1) Marriage got off to hard "Start up" 2) Relationship is characterized via negativity (criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling) 3) There is flooding - negativity comes on suddenly and is overwhelming 4) Body language changes (eg. plus rate between 110 and 165) 5) Attempts to repair the marriage fail 6) Lack of fond memories from the early days of the relationship
ACA Code of Ethics's Values
1) To enhance human development for the entire life span 2) Embrace diversity and multicultural factors since clients are unique 3) Promote social justice 4) Safeguard the integrity of the counselor-client relationship 5) Practice counseling in an ethical/safe manner
Glasser outlined eight steps for the counselor in the reality therapy process:
1. Build a good relationship. 2. Examine the current behavior. 3. Evaluate whether the behavior is helpful or not. 4. Brainstorm alternatives. 5. Make a commitment to try selected alternatives. 6. At a later time examine the effectiveness of the commitment - no punishment and no excuses. 7. Accept the logical and natural consequences of the behavior (refuse using punishment) 8. Do not become discouraged (never give up)
Types of Validity
1. Content Validity 2. Construct Validity 3. Concurrent Validity 4. Predictive Validity 5. Consequential Validity
4 Processes of Motivational Interviewing (In Order)
1. Engaging - to create a relationship with the client (MI counselor is not an expert, is a partner) 2. Focusing - the conversation should be limited to the patterns of behavior the client wishes to change 3. Evoking - client should use his or her own motivation to make changes 4. Planning - create a SMART and measurable plan that works
3 Levels of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
1. Pre-conventional 2. Conventional 3. Post-conventional
Stages of Change
1. Precontemplation 2. Contemplation 3. Preparation 4. Action 5. Maintenance
Transtheoretical Model of Change
1. Precontemplation - not ready to change or not acknowledge the issue 2. Contemplation - ambivalent of getting ready to change 3. Preparation - comes up with ideas how to change 4. Action - takes steps to improve 5. Maintenance - relies on behaviors to prevent relapse and to perpetuate the new behaviors
Aaron Beck's Cognitive Triad of Depression
1. negative views of the self 2. negative views of the world 3. negative views of the future
Sufficient time for an adult group session is
1.5 to 2 hours
In a lifetime the average person has ___
10 - 15 jobs
Group conducted over a long period of time (eg. 6 months) can safely have as many as ...
10 members
Raymond B. Cattell
16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) Suitable for age 16 and above Measures key personality such as assertiveness, emotional maturity, and shrewdness (quality of having or showing good powers of judgement) Is a factor-analytic test rather than theory-based test
Which test measures key personality factors?
16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is a self-report personality test developed using several decades worth of empirical research. Cattell and his associates set to measure the following personality factors: warmth, intellect, emotional stability, aggressiveness, liveliness, dutifulness, social assertiveness, sensitivity, paranoia, abstractedness, introversion, anxiety, open mindedness, independence, perfectionism, tension. The Myers Briggs Type Inventory is a self-report personality inventory which indicates how people perceive the world and make decisions
Little Albert Experiment
1920 - John Watson - classical conditioning (behavioral theory) on a 9 month old baby - white rat was paired with a loud clanking noise resulting in crying and fear of rat
3 Phases of Stress Inoculation Technique
1st - Educational phase - client is taught to monitor the impact of inner dialogue on behavior 2nd: Rehearsal phase - client is taught to rehearse new self-talk 3rd: Application phase - new inner dialogue is attempted during actual stress-producing situations
First Order Change vs. Second Order Change (Strategic Family Therapy)
1st order: Changes that are superficial. Occurs when a client makes a superficial change to deal with a problem, but the change does not alter the underlying structure of the family. Deals with the existing structure, doing more or less of something, and involving a restoration of balance. Changes are temporary 2nd order: Actual change in the family structure, alters the undesirable behavioral pattern and thus makes a difference that is longer lasting. Creating a new way of seeing things completely. Second order change requires new learning and often begins through the informal system) 2nd order change is more desirable than first order change
ACA Code of Ethics
2014 (newest)
David Olson's Family Circumplex Model
3 aspects: Cohesion, flexibility, and communication
Old Theory of Personality by Sheldon
3 basic temperaments based on one's physical build -- Mesomorph / Muscular Type - assertive, courageous, willing to take risks -- Ectomorph / Slender or Frail build - sensitive and inhibited -- Endomorph / Soft Rotund - love food, comfort, relaxation
Conyne's "Group Work Grid" Model
4 intervention levels: Individual, Interpersonal, Organization, Community Population
Ideal adult counseling group has
5 or 6 to 8
In a normal distribution,
68% (68.26%) of the scores fall within +/-1 standard deviation (SD) of the mean 95% (95.44%) fall within +/-2 SDs of the mean 99.7% (99.74%) fall within +/-3 SDs of the mean Mean = 50% point of the curve (the middle)
Meta-Analysis
A "study of studies" that analyzes the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion
ABC Theory
A - activating event B - belief system C - emotional consequence
ABCDE Theory
A - activating event B - belief system C - emotional consequence D - disputing the irrational behavior at B E - new emotional consequence
La Belle Indifference (Conversion Disorder)
A French term - the lack of concern for their (imagined) medical problem sometimes shown by people with conversion disorders A condition in which the person is unconcerned with symptoms caused by a conversion disorder. A naive, inappropriate lack of emotion or concern for the perceptions by others of one's disability, usually seen in persons with conversion disorder.
Gazda's Global Scale for Rating Helper Responses
A Level One Response giving no help to the client at all A Level Two Response being strictly superficial A Level Three Response facilitating growth but only minimally since the counselor's responses are at least not distorted though only surface A Level Four (Gazda's highest level) Response which entails the counselor's going beyond reflection to underlying feelings and meanings
Horizontal Bar Chart
A bar chart that displays the bars in a horizontal direction
Variable
A behavior or circumstance that can exist on at least two levels or conditions A factor that can varies or is capable of change
Lifestyle
A broad term that describes the overall balance of work, leisure (aka avocational), family, and social activities
Appraisal (aka assessment or evaluation)
A broad term that describes the process of assessing or estimating attributes (characteristics) Eg. Survey, observations, clinical interviews
Hawthorne Effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied By Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger
Status Attainment Theory
A child will eventually secure job commensurate/match with his or her family status
Until Script
A client is not allowed to feel good until a certain accomplishment or event arrives
Role Reversal (Behavioral Role-Playing Technique)
A client who is having difficulty communicating with another person in their life role-plays the person with whom they are having difficulty. Another group member or the leader plays the group member with the problem This give the group member a new perspective on the situation and allow the person to learn via modeling alternative ways of behaving
Thought Stopping
A cognitive-behavioral method in which the client learns to stop having anxiety-provoking thoughts, by yelling in their mind STOP! as loudly as possible every time they experience an unpleasant thought
Accidental Reinforcement (aka Adventitious Reinforcement)
A coincidence between a performance and a reinforcer Reinforcement can occur regardless of the behavior (think independent) Eg. "superstitious" behavior
Cultural Pluralism
A condition in which many cultures coexist within a society and maintain their cultural differences.
Phi-coefficient Correlation
A correlation between two dichotomous variables Eg. Correlate NCC status with CCMHC status (has it/does not have it) / Correlate gender (male/female) with certification status (has certification/does not have certification)
Cronbach's Alpha (α)
A correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability When items are nondichotomous (there are more than two answer options)
Identification
A defense mechanism where a person identifies with a cause or a successful person with the unconscious hope that he or she will be perceived as successful or worthwhile
Binge-Eating Disorder
A disorder characterized by compulsive overeating Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa Most common type of eating disorder
Unimodal Distribution
A distribution with one peak
Tarasoff v. Regents
A duty to warn a person of serious and foreseeable harm to him or herself or to others Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California, was a case in which the Supreme Court of California held that mental health professionals have a duty to protect individuals who are being threatened with bodily harm by a patient In October 1969, Prosenjit Poddar (Poddar) murdered Tatiana Tarasoff (Tarasoff). Plaintiffs, Tatiana's parents, contended that only a short time prior, Poddar had expressed his intention to do so. This, they alleged, he had confided to his therapist, Dr. Lawrence Moore, a psychologist employed by University of California. They further alleged that Dr. Moore had warned campus police of Poddar's intentions, and that the police had briefly detained him, but then released him. Plaintiffs asserted two grounds for their action: -- The failure to confine Poddar, in spite of his expressed intentions to kill Tarasoff, and failure to warn Tarasoff or her parents. Defendants maintained that they owed no duty of care to the victim, and were immune from suit
Homeostasis动态平衡
A family that is stable and reaches an equilibrium Can be good or bad Bad: Family will attempt to hold onto a given pattern of functioning that could indeed be dysfunctional
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
A federal agency designed to regulate and enforce the provisions of Title VII
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) 1974
A federal law that governs student confidentiality in schools. It requires that schools not divulge, reveal or share any personally identifiable information about a student or his/her family, unless it is with another school employee who needs the information to work with the student Information cannot be released without adult consent A parent can see his or her children's school record (if children is a minor) An 18-year-old or above student can view their own educational record Also called the Buckley Amendment
Sensate Focus
A form of behavioral sex therapy that involves graduated touching exercises Relies on counterconditioning Couple is told to engage in touching and caressing (to lower anxiety levels) on a graduated basis until intercourse is possible Developed by William H. Masters & Virginia Johnson
Gestalt means ...
A form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole It can also imply that the integrated whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Growth takes place when the client has integrated disowned parts of the personality and reconnected with them
Teleological目的论 Approach
A future event is responsible for the client's current behavior Eg. counselor focuses on the client's goal to become a stock broker in four years when she finishes her business degree
Reactive (counseling term)
A given condition is the result of environmental stress
Job or Position
A given position within an organization (i.e. counselor at Artemis)
Bimodal Distribution
A graph of a distribution of data that has two modes Looks like a camel's back with two humps
Scattergram
A graph of two variables being correlated To show correlation coefficient
Sociogram
A graphic representation of the interaction patterns in a group Sociogram can help identify group factions
Self-Help Group
A group made up of people with similar problems who help and support one another without the direct leadership of a clinician. Also called a mutual help group. Doesn't have either or both of the support group's features
Interdisciplinary Team
A group of health care professionals with varied medical educations, backgrounds, and experiences who work together to deliver the best possible care for each client
Structured Group
A group which focuses on a given theme (eg. group for veterans)
Paraprofessional辅助人员
A helper who does not possess the education and experience necessary to secure professional credentials
Impaired Professional
A helper who has personal issue (e.g., substance abuse or brain damage) that would hinder the quality of services rendered A deterioration恶化 in the ability to function as a counselor
Hypothesis
A hunch or an educated guess which can be tested utilizing the experimental model Is a statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and DV
Registry注册处
A list of providers Someone whose name is included in a state counseling registry can sometimes use the title "registered professional counselor" or RPC
Concept in Deductive Reasoning (Aristotle)
A major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion The major premise contains a term from the predicate of the conclusion The minor premise contains a term from the subject of the conclusion The conclusion combines major and minor premise with a "therefore" symbol(∴)
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables Is used when there is no direct manipulation of the IV (Eg. how IQ correlates with panic disorder? IV (the IQ) is not manipulated, just being measured)
Duty to Warn and Duty to Protect in Texas
A mental health professional may disclose information ONLY to medical or law enforcement personnel if the professional determines that there is a probability of imminent physical injury by the patient to the patient or others or there is a probability of immediate mental or emotional injury to the patient. The bottom line, however, even in Texas, is that in circumstances of a clearly identified victim, involving threat of actual bodily harm, the professional arguably has a legal duty to protect the patient through -- Informing the clearly identified victim of the threat -- Having the patient admitted voluntarily to a hospital -- Seeking involuntary hospitalization -- Pursuing a course of action consistent with current professional standards that will discharge the duty
Implosive Therapy
A method for decreasing anxiety by exposing the client to an imaginary anxiety stimulus
Nocebo Effect
A negative placebo effect due to the expectation of adverse consequences from receiving treatment
Virtual Relationship
A non-face-to-face relationship (e.g., through social media) Virtual relationship with clients are unethical
Kruskal-Wallis test
A non-parametric test to test whether more than two independent groups differ It is the non-parametric version of one-way ANOVA
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
A non-parametric tests whether two correlated means differ significantly (Memory: the 'co' reminds you of 'correlated') It is the non-parametric equivalent of the t-test
Chi-Square
A nonparametric statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution Must have mutually exclusive categories to use Chi-Square (eg. Will seek therapy vs. Won't seek therapy) Eg. Answer question like: Whether being a counseling major or a social work major determines if you will seek therapy for an elevator phobia?
Measure
A number or score has been assigned to the person's attribute or performance
Authoritative Parenting
A parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making In most situation, will produce a happy child with desirable social skills
RIASEC (John Holland)
A person can be described best using a "profile" over three areas known as a three digit code Based on the hexagon, consistent types are next to each other on the hexagon - RIA would be "consistent" while RAE would be "inconsistent"
Life-Career Rainbow (Donald Super)
A person can play several potential roles as they advances through the five life stages Roles are played out at home, community, school, and work Career can include student, employee, pensioner, retirement, civic duties, avocations, and family roles Helps members to answer "Where have you been in life and where are you going?" - Opens the door to discuss a career crisis such as layoff
Reactive Schizophrenia
A person experienced a psychotic episode following a traumatic experience Schizophrenia develops suddenly in response to a particular event, higher rate of recovery In contrast to an individual who was seemingly always schizophrenic, and the pathology could not be traced to any given set of circumstances
Open-ended Script
A person has no direction or plan
Dislocated Worker
A person is unemployed because of job elimination, downsizing, company relocation, or company closing Can also refer to a person who has an obsolete 过时的 set of job skills
Public Law 93-380 (also known as Buckley Amendment)
A person over age 18 can view their own record, which included test data; could view their kid's test (kids below 18); could demand a correction they discovered while reading a file
Pervasive Indecisiveness
A person who has a lifelong pattern of severe anxiety related to decision making This makes the act of deciding on a career much more difficult
Reality Therapy
A person's childhood may have contributed to the problem. However, the past is never really the problem. Client's childhood is usually not explore Focuses on here-and-now
Life Scripts
A person's ongoing drama which dictates how a person will live his or her life 3 basic unhealthy scripts: no love, no mind, no joy
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (GZTS)
A personality measure for persons who do not have severe psychiatric disabilities Used with normally functioning individuals aged 16+ Measuring 10 traits Initially developed to assess Carl Jung's constructs of introversion and extroversion Can be used in a variety of settings, but it has been used most frequently with the college-aged population
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
A personality test developed especially for typical individuals aged 13 and older (no severe psychiatric disabilities) Shares questions with MMPI
Latency Stage (6-puberty)
A phase of dormant sexual feelings
Narrative Therapy
A postmodern theory developed in the 1970's/80's by White, White, & Epston Believes that a client invents their own story and issues become characters in the story Externalize the problem - separate the problem from the person
Aspirational Ethics
A practitioner adheres to the highest possible ethical standards Ideal or optimal practice
Realistic Job Preview (RJP)
A preview of a job that provides both positive and negative information about the job and the company Interested candidate (college student) contact a worker in the field and then interview the worker
Secondary Group
A problem or disturbance is present but not usually severe Reduce the severity or length of a problem and generally includes prevention aspects Eg. Group deals with grief or shyness
Job Analysis
A procedure where tasks, duties, skills, required education, safety issues, and other data are examined Leads to a job descriptions or job specifications
Rorschach Inkblot Test
A projective personality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots and are analyzed to identify a respondent's inner feelings and interpret his or her personality structure Uses 10 inkblot cards
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes / pictures Uses 20 cards when administered to any given individual
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)
A projective test in which the subject completes 40 incomplete sentence with a real feeling A completion projective test Method of evaluating personality It is assumed the individual reflects his or her own wishes, desires, and fears
Conversion Disorder
A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found Conversion disorder is characterized by voluntary motor or sensory function deficits that suggest neurologic or medical conditions but are rather associated with clinical findings that are not compatible with such conditions.
EKG (Electrocardiogram) Feedback
A recording of the electrical activity of the heart
Empty Chair Technique
A role-playing intervention often used in Gestalt psychotherapy in which clients play conflicting parts. This typically consists of clients engaging in an imaginary dialogue between different sides of themselves
Cluster Sampling
A sampling technique in which clusters of participants within the population of interest are selected at random, followed by data collection from all individuals in each cluster Utilized when it is nearly impossible to find a list of the entire population Cluster sample uses an existing sample or cluster of people or selects a portion of the overall sample Will not be as accurate as a random sample yet it is often used due to time and practical consideration Eg. When trying to make a list of everybody in the U.S who is securing treatment for heroin addiction, you can pick a random sample utilizing a random number generator; instead, you might rely on the population in your home town chemical dependency unit
Quota Sampling
A sampling technique in which researchers divide the population into groups and then arbitrarily choose participants from each group Study where a specific number of cases are necessary from each stratum It is a type of Stratified Sampling Procedure
Adverse Impact
A selection procedure is said to have an adverse impact if the selection rates for any minority or gender groups are less than four-fifths (80%) of the selection rate for the highest group Eg. 60 African American and 80 Whites are hired - 60/80 = 75%. Since 75% is < 80%, this selection process has an adverse impact *minority subgroup rate is placed as the numerator of the equation (Memory: minorities want to be moved "up" in jobs, thus their rate is placed "up" or at the top of the equation)
Multivariate
A set of data involving more than two variables
Bivariate
A set of data that has two variables
ACA Code of Ethics
A set of guidelines established by the ACA to guide the professional practice of counselors in order to ensure the welfare and safety of clients
Object (Ackerman - psychoanalytic family therapy)
A significant other with whom a child wishes to bond This is the notion that an individual or the individual's ego attempts to establish a relationship with an object (often a person or a part of the body) to satisfy needs When this does not happen, anxiety occurs
Correlation Coefficient (r)
A statistic that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables A descriptive statistic which indicates the degree of linear relationship between two variables From -1 to +1 0 = no relationship -/+ 1 = perfect relationship A positive correlation is not a stronger relationship than a negative one of the same numerical value (Eg. -0.5 is as strong as +0.5; -.08 has a stronger relationship than +.06) -/+ tells you the direction of the relationship (eg. positive correlation (same direction) - one increases, the other increases or one decreases, the other decreases; negative correlation (opposite direction/inverse) - one increases, the other decreases) -/+ doesn't tell you how strong the relationship, the number itself does
Factor Analysis
A statistical procedures that use the important or underlying factors to summarize a lot of variables Emphasizes on data reduction Eg. Use the three most important variables that make an effective helper to measure counselor's ability, instead of using a hundred factors
T Test
A statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means
Double-Blind Study
A study in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know if the subjects are in the experimental or control group The person assigned to rate the subjects are often unaware of the hypothesis To eliminate confounding caused by experimenter effects
Factorial Design
A study in which there are two or more independent variables (IVs) Several experimental variables are investigated and interactions can be noted
Participant Observer Model
A study where the researcher actually participates in the study, while making observations about what transpired
Standard Occupational Classification Manual (SOC)
A system used by Federal statistical agencies to classify workers into occupational categories for the purpose of collecting, calculating, or disseminating data
Social Desirability Phenomenon
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
A test can be reliable yet not valid
A test can have high reliability coefficient but still have a low validity coefficient
In order for a test to be valid, it has to also be reliable
A test cannot be valid unless is reliable
Speed Test
A test containing relatively easy items with a short time limit in which individuals must complete as many items as they can A good timed speed test is purposely set up so that nobody finishes it
Parallel Forms / Equivalent Forms
A test has two versions or forms that are interchangeable Each form must have the same mean, standard error, and other statistical components To test reliability by combining two sets of scores Counterbalancing is needed when giving parallel forms - where half of the individuals get form A initially and the other half get form B initially
Split-Half Method
A test is split in two and the scores for each half of the test is compared with one another Measure internal reliability Eg. Split by odd & even number or using random number
Differential Validity
A test is valid for one group, but less or totally invalid for another This is different from Discriminant Validity
Raw Score
A test score that has not been transformed or converted in any way Expressed in the units by which it was originally obtained
Culture-Free Test
A test that if it were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content
Construct Validity
A test's ability to measure a theoretical construct like intelligence, self-esteem, artistic talent, mechanical ability, or managerial potential A test measures any trait that cannot be "directly" measure or observe
fetal origins hypothesis
A theory that links nutritional and other environmental insults that occur during gestation孕期 to the future health of the offspring Genetic endowment and environmental influences after birth, along with what happens to the fetus during gestation, determine our behavior and risks for developing physical diseases and emotional disorders
Cognitive Reconstructing (REBT)
A therapeutic approach that teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and positive beliefs
Counseling Paradigm
A treatment model (paradigm = model)
Causal Comparative Design
A true experiment that is WITHOUT random assignment Data from the causal comparative ex post facto or after the fact design can be analyzed with a test of significance (eg. t test or ANOVA) just like any true experiment
Aversive Conditioning
A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol) Aversive Conditioning is the use of something unpleasant, or a punishment, to stop an unwanted behavior. If a dog is learning to walk on a leash alongside his owner, an undesired behavior would be when the dog pulls on the leash. The owner may use a collar that delivers a shock when a dog pulls - eventually the dog associates pulling on the leash with getting a painful shock and stops pulling. As with all forms of punishment, it may work but is generally less effective than the use of reinforcement.
Systematic Desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli Pairs feared mental imagery with relaxation to eliminate the fear Commonly used to treat phobias A form of behavior therapy, based on Pavlov's classical conditioning
Systematic Desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
Marathon Group
A type of group that is one long group Plays on the theme that after an extended period of time defenses and facades will drop and the person can become honest, genuine, and real Generally lasts a minimum of 24 hours and may be conducted over a weekend or a period of several days Created by Frederick Stoller and George Bach in the 1960s
Generalized Reinforcer
A type of secondary reinforcer that has been associated with several other reinforcers Eg. Money or Token
Multiple-Baseline Design
A type of single-subject design in which a treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more persons, settings, or behaviors In one version of the design, a baseline is established for each of several participants, and the treatment is then introduced for each one. In essence, each participant is tested in an AB design. The key to this design is that the treatment is introduced at a different time for each participant. The idea is that if the dependent variable changes when the treatment is introduced for one participant, it might be a coincidence. But if the dependent variable changes when the treatment is introduced for multiple participants—especially when the treatment is introduced at different times for the different participants—then it is extremely unlikely to be a coincidence
Parameter
A value that describes a population
Statistic
A value that describes a sample
Consultation
A voluntary relationship between a professional helper and a help-needing individual, group, or social unit in which the consultant helps define or solve problems related to the clients, the client system, or work-related issues Encourage growth and self-direction for the consultee Consultant should not become a decision maker for the clients or create a dependent relationship Consultation usually do not go on as long as supervision
Progress Note (aka Clinical Notes)
A written description of the care given and the person's response and progress (eg. informed consent, assessment, DSM diagnosis, symptoms, types of counseling interventions, goals, progress, dates) Mandated by law
Reversal Design / Withdrawal Design
ABA or ABAB, ABABA (single subject design) A: baseline data B: treatment data Administering and taking away treatment Limitations: (1) may be unethical to remove treatment, some behaviors may not reverse (2) the dependent variable may not return to baseline when the treatment is removed To solve the limitations, we can use multiple-baseline design
Romantic Relationship with Client
ACA - 5 years must pass since the last therapy service NBCC - At least two years after terminating the counseling relationship (if you engage in such a relationship after two years period, you must be able to document that the relationship was not exploitative in nature)
CPT
AMA's Current Procedural Terminology (e.g., CPT 90844) Describe the type of mental health service provided to the client Used in addition to the DSM and ICD codes on your billing statement to secure insurance payments/3rd-party payments. The CPT Code includes exact natures of treatment being provided and length of service unit ("psychotherapy for 30 minutes")
A counseling journal article should use documentation (eg. references) that is based on _____ style
APA Based on the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
Reliability
Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings Tells how consistent a test measures an attribute
Divergent Thinking (J. P. Guilford)
Ability to generate many different and new ideas
Predictive Validity (aka Empirical Validity)
Ability to predict future behavior according to established criteria
Ideal Sample Size for Experimental Study
About 15 per group
Oepidus Complex
According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother (opposite sex) and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father (same sex) To resolve the Oepidus complex, child strives for identification with the parent of the same sex to achieve vicarious sexual satisfaction
Latent Content of Dreams
According to Freud, the "disguised/hidden" meanings of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects
IS PATH WARM? (Assessing Suicide)
Acronym for suicide lethality; Used for assessing the risk of suicide Created by the American Association of Suicidology (AAS) - Ideation - Substance abuse - Purposelessness - Anxiety - Trapped - Hopelessness - Withdrawal - Anger - Recklessness - Mood changes
Post Hoc / A Posteriori Tests
Additional hypothesis tests that are done after an ANOVA to determine whether a significant difference exists between specific groups Post hoc tests are an integral part of ANOVA. When you use ANOVA to test the equality of at least three group means, statistically significant results indicate that not all of the group means are equal. However, ANOVA results do not identify which particular differences between pairs of means are significant To test significant differences between group means; To further discriminate between the ANOVA groups Eg. Duncan's multiple range test, Tukey's, Scheffe's test
Birth Order Theory
Adler
Lifestyle, birth order, and family constellation are emphasized by _____.
Adler
Social Connectedness
Adler's term for a belief that people wish to 'belong'. (suggests we need one another)
Drive for Superiority
Adler's term for the motivation to compensate for feelings of inferiority. It was the "striving for superiority" or a thirst for perfection that motivated behavior. Also called the will-to-power.
Test-Retest Method
Administering the same scale or measure to the same respondents at two separate time To measure if the test score remain stable or fluctuate over time when the client takes the same test again. Client takes the same test after waiting for at least seven days A method to measure reliability This procedure is only valid to test traits such as IQ, which remain stable over time and are not altered by mood, memory, or practice
Anne Roe, A. A. Brill, Holland
Adopted personality theories of career choice
Using Internet to Conduct an Experiment
Advantages: rapid data collection, lower research costs, ability to secure very large sample sizes
Anita Mitchell, G. Brian Jones, and John Krumboltz utilized the work of ___ (social learning approach) to explain career choice
Albert Bandura
Rational-emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
Albert Ellis
REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy)
Albert Ellis; Encourages client's to confront and gather evidence to dispute irrational beliefs and faulty assumptions that are believed to result in negative emotional and behavioral consequences
Pioneer in the early history of family therapy
Alfred Adler
Neo-Freudians
Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm, Carl Jung Unlike Freud, neo-freudians stressed the importance of cultural (social) issues and interpersonal (social) relations
Justice
All clients are treated equally, fairness, there is equality Usually applied to group situation, where counselor treats all members fairly
Personalism
All people must adjust to environmental and geological demands (Counselors will make the best progress if they see the client primarily as a person who has learned a set of survival skills rather than as a diseased patient)
Type I Error
Alpha Error False Positive Rejecting null hypothesis when it is true (Memory: RA - R: rejecting the null when is true (type I error); A: accepting the null when is false (type II error))
Alcoholic Anonymous (AA)
Also called 12-step group
Bar Graph
Also called Histogram A distribution with class intervals
Donald Super, Tiedeman and O'Hara
Also derived from Developmental Psychology
Level of Significance (aka cutoff point)
Also referred to as the "Alpha Level"
AACD
American Association for Counseling and Development
AAS
American Association of Suicidology.
The APGA (later AACD and now ACA) division that was initially the most instrumental in pushing for licensing was the ___
American Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES)
AGPA
American Group Psychotherapy Association By Samuel Richard Slavson in 1943
ASGPP
American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama By Jacob Moreno in 1942
Contracting (Behavior)
An agreement is reached with a client, usually in the form of a written, signed contract. This would make clear the consequences that would follow certain identified behaviors
Variable (Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules)
An average number of responses or times may be used
Sampling Error
An error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population Small samples that are intended to mimic the population, sometimes do not happen
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
An expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true
Contrast Effect (Career Counseling)
An interviewer's impression of an interviewee is often affected by previous interviewees An applicant would look more impressive if they are interviewed after a string of applicants who are not qualified for the job
Chaining Behavior
An operant conditioning method in which one response renders a cue that the next response is to occur A chain is a series of operants joined together by reinforcers
t test
Analysis of Variance A statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means Used to ascertain whether two sample means are significantly different Researcher sets the level of significance and then runs the experiment. The t test is computed and yields a t value. Researcher then goes to a t table to check the value If the t value obtained statistically is LOWER than the t value (or called "critical t") in the table, then you ACCEPT the null hypothesis Your computation must EXCEED (be higher than) the number cited in the table in order to REJECT null
ANOVA
Analysis of Variance Compares mean values of a contributes variable for multiple categories/groups (more than two groups) Results of an ANOVA yield an F-statistic. Researcher then consults an F table for the critical value of F. If F obtained (computed) EXCEEDS the critical F value in the table, then REJECT the null
ANCOVA
Analysis of covariance Tests two or more groups while controlling for extraneous variables that are called "covariates" ANCOVA tests a null hypothesis regarding the means of two or more groups after the random samples are adjusted to eliminate average differences Can be referred to as adjusted average statistical procedure
Analytic Psychology / Jungian psychology
Analytic Psychology is a branch of psychology based on the teachings of Carl Jung that views a person's beliefs and behavior as being the result of a balance between competing, and subconscious, internal forces. It relies on the theory that "wholeness" of human mind and behavior can be achieved through the integration of unconscious forces and motivations. As adults we sometimes experience reactions to things and situations that are based on childhood experiences. Once we explore those reactions and can remember why and how that reaction started, we can work towards changing our responses to that previously subconscious stimulus
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)
Answer the question "Was the money wisely spent or does the counseling center need a new program?" Deals with the issue of whether or not it is worth the price to assist people Approach to determining the financial impact of an organization's activities and programs on profitability, through a process of data or calculation comparing value created against the cost of creating that value
Operant
Any behavior that is voluntary Any behavior that is not elicited (draw out) by an obvious stimulus
Ahistoric Therapy
Any psychotherapeutic model that focuses on the here-and-now rather than the past Not concerned with or related to history
Secondary Reinforcer
Any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
Nonsummativity
Any system, including family, is greater than the sum of its parts (the individuals in it) and therefore it is necessary to examine patterns rather than merely each other's behaviors
Kuder Career Planning System (KCPS)
Applicable to K-12, postsecondary, and adults
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
Applicable to age 2 to adulthood The original IQ formula has been replaced by the Standard Age Score (SAS) (Deviation IQ)
ABA
Applied Behavior Analysis Is a new terminology for behavior modification
Connotative Error (aka Semantic Differential)
Applies to the emotional content of a word, which is different from the true dictionary definition.
Archetypes (Jung)
Archetypes is the material that makes up the collective unconscious, which is passed from generation to generation. Emotional symbols that are common to all people (means the same thing to all men and women) and have been formed since the beginning of time
KR-20 or KR-21 and Cronbach's Alpha (α)
Are alternatives to the split-half method
Occam's Razor (the principle of economy) or Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon (means law)
Are used to refer to Parsimony
Arthur Jensen
Argued that intelligence is primarily inherited (80%) and that environment (20%) plays only a minimal role in intelligence Suggested that the closer people are genetically, the more alike their IQ scores Eg. Adopted children will have IQs that are closer to their biological parents than to their adopted parents White score 11 to 15 IQ points higher than African Americans Jensen stated that due to slavery, it was possible that AA were bred for strength rather than intelligence
Associationism
Aristotle, John Locke, David Hume, James Mill, David Hartley It is the attempt to reduce ideas or other mental elements to basic simple/ elementary ideas that are associated together in the mind, usually through experience
Doctor-Patient Consultation Model
Associate with Edgar Schein's work 4 distinct stages: -- 1. Entry -- 2. Diagnosis -- 3. Implementation -- 4. Evaluation For the model to work, the consultee must accurately describe symptomology, trust the consultant's diagnosis, and carry out directives Consultants can focus on process (what is happening from a communications standpoint) or content (knowledge passed on from the consultant to the consultee)
Types of Projective Tests
Association -- "What comes to mind when you look at this inkblot?" Completion -- "Complete these sentences with real feelings" Construction -- Drawing a person
ACA Divisions
Association for Adult Development and Aging (AADA) Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling (AARC) Association for Child and Adolescent Counseling (ACAC) Association for Creativity in Counseling (ACC) American College Counseling Association (ACCA) Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) Association for Humanistic Counseling (AHC) Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Issues in Counseling (ALGBTIC) Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA) Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling (ASERVIC) Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ) International Association of Addictions and Offender Counselors (IAAOC) International Association of Marriage and Family Counselors (IAMFC) Military and Government Counseling Association (MGCA) formerly ACEG National Career Development Association (NCDA) National Employment Counseling Association (NECA)
AARC
Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling
ACES
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision
ASGW
Association for Specialists in Group Work
Radical Behaviorism (Skinner)
Assumes that the environment maintains and supports behavior and that only overt behaviors are the subject of treatment - Using Skinnerian operant conditioning as treatment
Postmodernism
Assumes that there are no fixed truths in the world, only people's individual perception of what constitutes reality or the truth
Dispositional Attribution
Assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones Cause or outcome is generated by the person (internal)
John Bowlby
Attachment and bonding Attachment theory. Identified the characteristics of a child's attachment to his/her caregiver and the phases that a child experiences when separated from the caregiver Bowlby's work was the beginning of Attachment Theory which describes how the parent-sibling bond/attachment later influences how a person develops
Verbal Tracking
Attending behavior (attentive) that is verbal (aka Task-facilitative Behavior)
Nominal
Attributes are only named; Is the Weakest data Nominal scales are used for labeling variables Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division would be meaningless Do not provide quantitative information Only classify, name, label, or identify by group No true zero and does not indicate order Eg. Gender, Favorite Color (red, blue, yellow)
Ordinal
Attributes can be rank-ordered The order of the values is what's important and significant, but the differences between each one is not really known Distances between attributes do not have any meaning Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division would be meaningless Eg. On a survey you might code Educational Attainment as 0=less than high school; 1=some high school.; 2=high school degree; 3=some college; 4=college degree; 5=post college. In this measure, higher numbers mean more education. But is distance from 0 to 1 same as 3 to 4? Of course not The interval between values is not interpretable in an ordinal measure Eg. Likert scale that contains five values - strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree - is ordinal
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.
Edward Alsworth Ross
Authored Social Psychology
3 Basic Leadership Styles
Autocratic (authoritarian) - Leaders give orders. The style that members liked least. Hostility is greater in this group. Children show aggressive behaviors. Beneficial when needed to make an immediate decision. Democratic (participative / facilitator) - Children displayed best behavior in this style. However, this style is not always the best. Although member satisfaction is highest in this style, but it doesn't necessarily lead to high productivity Laisse faire自由放任 (indifferent) - Group members can do as they please without leader interference or direction. Counselors are nonthreatening. Children show aggressive behaviors. When a decision has been made and members are commited to it, this style is usually the most merit.
6 Foundational Principles for Ethical Behavior
Autonomy Nonmaleficence Beneficence Justice Fidelity Veracity
Metacognition
Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes Cognition about cognition
Arnold Lazarus's concept of BASIC ID (multimodal approach)
B represents behavior, which can be manifested through the use of inappropriate acts, habits, gestures, or the lack of appropriate behaviors. A stands for affect, which can be seen as the level of negative feelings or emotions one experiences. S is sensation (the five senses), or the negative bodily sensations or physiological symptoms such as pain, tension, sweat, nausea, quick heartbeat, etc. I stands for imagery, which is the existence of negative cognitive images or mental pictures. C represents cognition or the degree of negative thoughts, attitudes, or beliefs. The second I stands for interpersonal relationships, and refers to one's ability to form successful relationships with others. It is based on social skills and support systems. D is for drugs and biological functions, and examines the individual's physical health, drug use, and other lifestyle choices.
Balance Theory
Balance theory, as used in psychology, is basically a concept on attitude change. It was proposed by Fritz Heider and it suggests that a "cognitive consistency motive" is a drive towards psychological balance. Cognitive consistency holds that humans have a deep need to maintain their beliefs and values over time. This can be exhibited by young adults who give up their teenage "rebellion" and return to the value system that they were raised with. Marketing people in the business have co-opted this theory by realizing that using popular celebrities to endorse products will likely make people view such brands more positively. Likewise, if some consumers already dislike the product being advertised, they will tend to dislike the endorser.
NLP
Bandler and Grinder's neurolinguistic programming This model, supposedly based somewhat on what Milton H. Erickson, Fritz Perls, and Virginia Satir really did in their session, makes some incredible claims, such as the ability to cure a longstanding phobia in less time than it takes to conduct a typical counseling session. 2 most popular techniques used by NLP practitioners are "reframing" and "anchoring." When using reframing, the counselor helps the client to perceive a given situation in a new light so as to produce a new emotional reaction to it. In anchoring, a desirable emotional state is evoked via an outside stimulus such as a touch or a sound or a specific bodily motion
Self-efficacy 自我效能 theory is based on the work of Albert Bandura
Bandura proposed that one's belief or expectation of being successful in an occupation causes the individual to gravitate towards that particular occupation
Ratio (Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules)
Based on the number of responses
Interval (Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules)
Based on the time elapsed
Self-Directed Search (SDS)
Based on the work of Holland and yields scores on his six types, self administered, self scored, and self-interpreted Invented in 1970 The measure provides a 3-letter code (Eg. EIR or ISC) to describe the individual's career personality type Suitable for ages 15 and older; Not suitable for grossly disturbed, uneducated, illiterate person, or individual who have a great deal of difficulty making decisions Available online or in print
Allen E. Ivey has postulated three types of empathy
Basic Empathy, Subtractive Empathy, Additive Empathy
Basic Research vs. Applied Research
Basic Research: aims to increase the scientific knowledge base Applied Research: scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Defamation诽谤
Behavior that can damage one's reputation Libel - in written form Slander - in verbal form
Behavioral modification strategies are based heavily on Skinnerian principles (instrumental / operant conditioning);
Behavior therapy emphasizes Pavlovian principles (classical / respondent conditioning)
Traditionally, ___ counseling has caused the most ethical concerns.
Behavioral The concern has been that behavior therapists can control, manipulate, and shape behavior (Eg. Aversive conditioning - using electrical shocks or drugs to eliminate substance use behaviors)
David Premack's Principle
Behavioristic Marriage and Family Therapist Suggests that a family member must complete an unpleasant task (aka low-probability behavior - LPB) before he or she would be allowed to engage in a pleasant task (aka high-probability behavior - HPB)
James Framo
Believes that important objects (usually parents) often fuel love hate feelings in kids. The more pathological early life experiences the more that person as an adult will make all relationships fir the internal love hate scenario from childhood
Decision Making Theories
Believes that individual has the power to choose from the various career options
Type II Error
Beta Error False Negative Accepting the null hypothesis when it is false (Memory: RA - R: rejecting the null (type I error); A: accepting the null (type II error))
Wechsler Intelligence Tests - Mean 100 - SD 15
Binet Intelligence Test - Mean 100 - SD 16
Bulimia Nervosa
Binge eating and then compensating for the binge eating by purging (eg. vomiting, enemas, diuretics, laxative abuse), fasting, or excessive exercise Not usually low body weight
Temperature Trainer
Biofeedback training (use to help client raises the temperature in their hand to ward off migraines)
Sleep Patterns of Adolescents
Biorhythm changes, Increased need for sleep, Increased academic and social demands Teens require more sleep than the average adult due to their rapid growth. A teen's decreased sleep patterns do not generally stem from defiant behavior. Teens have biorhythm changes, making them more likely to stay up late and sleep later. They are inundated with academic and social demands which may impair the amount or quality of their sleep
John B. Watson
Book "Behaviorism" Suggested that the only subject mater for psychology was observable behavior
Authoritative vs. Authoritarian Parenting
Both authoritative and authoritarian parents are strict and have high expectation of their kids Authoritative parents - strict and warmth (Memory: Authoritative and Warmth have "t") Authoritarian parents - strict and cold
BT
Brief Therapy
Steve de Shazer
Brief solution-focused therapy (BSFT)
Promote Therapeutic Surrender
Building rapport, trust, listening, conquering client resistance, and self-disclosure are helpful in promoting therapeutic surrender
Concept of Attribution Theory
By Gestalt psychologist Fritz Heider Dispositional attribution and Situational attribution
Family Sculping
By Virginia Satir An experiential/expressive technique in which a family member places other family members in positions that symbolize their relationships with other members of the family. Then finally, the member places himself or herself This helps the therapist understand family dynamics that might be missing from merely discussion of family issues
Delay Conditioning
CS is present until US begins CS is present, overlapped by presentation of US
Certifications
Can be used on a national basis A certification is given to an individual via an organization which is not part of the state or federal government
Double-Barred Histogram
Can be used to compare two distributions of scores such as pre and posttest scores
Experimenter Effects
Can flaw an experiment because the experimenter might unconsciously communicate his/her intent or expectations to the subjects
The most popular paradigm of mental health consultation has been proposed by___
Caplan
John Holland
Career - Personality Approach (The Holland Codes - RIASEC) -- Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SII) Believes in stereotypes
John Holland
Career - personality Approach (RIASEC)
Eight Career Anchors Theory (Edgar H. Schein)
Career anchors manifest approximately 5 or 10 years after a person begins work and guide future career choices. Help individuals who have been in the workforce for a few years Career anchors are based on self-concept, abilities, and what the person is good at The goal is to find an anchor that encompasses your career values, motives, and competence Initially has 5 anchors, now has 8 anchors (1) autonomy/independence (2) security/stability (3) technical/functional competence (4) general managerial competence (5) entrepreneurial creativity (6) service/dedication to a cause (7) pure challenge (8) life style
Career Maturity
Career maturity was first mentioned by Donald Super and is the degree to which people are prepared to make good educational and vocational choices Crites created the Career Maturity Inventory based on Donald Super's theory of career development
____ and ___ created a program to help counselors learn accurate empathy
Carkhuff; Truax (Charles Truax worked closely with Robert Carkhuff)
Collective Unconscious (Jung)
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history. Implies that all humans have "collected" universal inherited, unconscious neural patterns
Atheoretical Therapist
Carl Whitaker
Situational Attribution
Cause is attributed to factors outside the individual (external)
CRC
Certified Rehabilitation Counselor Focused on helping people who have disabilities achieve their personal, career, and independent living goals through a counseling process
Accident Theory of Career Development
Chance factors influence one's career choice Unplanned exposure to a powerful stimuli that affect one's career choice
Ways to Reduce Dissonance
Change attitude Change perception of behavior Add consonant cognitions Minimize importance of conflict Reduce perceived choice
Changes in Motivational Interviewing
Change comes from within the client, not an outside sources. Client must overcome their ambivalence toward change (eg. I guess I could give up smoking, but then I might gain weight) Mi does not use aggressive confrontation, giving advice, and persuasion Helper is never punitive惩罚性 and would not insist the client that he has a problem and therefore must change MI is different from traditional brief therapy
Glasser's Book
Choice Theory, Reality Therapy, Reality Therapy in Action, Positive Addiction, Schools Without Failure
Countertransference
Circumstances in which a counselor develops personal feelings about a client because of perceived similarity of the client to significant people in the therapist's life Is an indication of unresolved problems on the helper part Eg. Counselor has a romantic or sexual feelings toward a client
Wave Categories of Behaviorist Treatment
Cited by Steven C. Hayes 1st wave - treatments were based on operant and classical conditioning. Eg. B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov 2nd wave - intervention based on cognitions. Eg. Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck 3rd wave - DBT, MI, and ACT (acceptance and commitment therapy)
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Claimed that Arthur Jensen relied on twin studies with poor internal validity
Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
Wilhelm Reich (1897-1957)
Classical vegototherapy & Orgone box therapy Believed that repeated sexual gratification was necessary for the cure of emotional maladies
Nosology疾病分类学
Classification of diseases
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)
Classify business in regard to the type of activity they are engaged in (eg. the type of service or product) Replaced by the National Industry Classification System (NAICS)
Alloplastic Viewpoint
Client can cope best by changing or altering external factors in the environment (i.e. system)
Autoplastic Viewpoint
Client change comes from within the client (i.e. thoughts and behaviors) (memory: Auto - Self)
Autonomy
Client has a right to control his or her own life
Reactive Effect of the Self-Monitoring
Client is monitoring her own behavior and does not wish to disappoint her therapist
Assimilation-contrast Theory
Client perceives counselor's somewhat similar attitude/statement as even more similar (assimilation error) and dissimilar attitudes as even more dissimilar (contrast error).
Ambivalent Transference
Client rapidly shifts his or her emotional attitude toward the counselor based on learning and experiences related to authority figures from the past
Ambivalent Transference
Client will experience contradictory emotions (Eg. love and hate) alternating from one to the other
Projective Tests (might be called Self-Expressive)
Client will project their personality if given an unstructured task Client is shown vague, ambiguous stimuli such as a picture or an inkblot Is more difficult for client to fake their responses and they will be able to expand on answers Examiner bias is common Need more training than those administer self-report test
REBT
Client's emotional disturbance is the result of irrational thoughts and ideas The cure is a high dose of rational thinking
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Client-centered then later called person-centered (Rogerian therapy) Do not emphasize diagnosis nor giving advice
Naturalistic Observation
Clients are observed in a "natural" setting
Psychodrama (Moreno)
Clients express spontaneous feelings via role-playing
Barnum Effect/ Forer Effect
Clients will often accept a general psychological test report, horoscope, or palm reading and believe it applies specifically to them
Aaron T. Beck
Cognitive therapy or cognitive behavior therapy resembles REBT and focuses on automatic thoughts leading to depression
Rational-emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
Cognitive-behavioral therapy in which clients are directly challenged in their irrational beliefs and helped to restructure their thinking into more rational belief statements
Effect Size
Cohen's d, can exceed 1.00 Measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables
Jacob Moreno, the Father of psychodrama
Coined the term "group therapy" in 1931
James McKeen Cattell
Coined the term mental test and spent time researching mental assessment and its relation to reaction time at the University of Pennsylvania Worked with Wilhelm Wundt and Francis Galton
CEEB Scores
College Entrance Examination Board, aka ETS score (Educational Testing Service) Scale ranges from 200 to 800 A mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100 A score of 200 corresponds to 3 SD below the mean; score of 800 corresponds to 3 SD above the mean Used for SAT and GRE
Ipsative Measures
Compare traits within the same individual, they do not compare a person to other persons who took the instrument, the person is measured in response to their own standard of behavior Yields a within-person analysis Does not reveal absolute strengths Respondent must choose between two or more equally socially acceptable options Respondents are forced to choose one option that is "most true" of them and choose another one that is "least true" of them Eg. Kuder Career Planning Ipsative measures are sometimes referred to as 'forced choice' scale. When given two choices, the respondent needs to pick the one that's most preferred
Deviation IQ
Compares the individual to a norm (a person is compared to others in his or her age group) - the score indicates "deviation" from the norm This is differs from the original way of measuring IQ which was using a ratio score which compared a person's "mental" age with their actual age Uses the Standard Age Score (SAS) formula
Complementarity互补
Complementarity is a theory in social psychology that proposes we seek traits and qualities in social relationships that fill gaps in ourselves. This concept suggests that individuals seek in others traits that they do not have and that 'complete' them. Focus is placed on spectrums of dominance/submission and friendliness/aggression. For example, in the workplace a successful relationship between the boss and their employees is based on complementarity. The boss is dominant and their employees are submissive. Research suggests that similarity between people is actually a better predictor of successful relationships rather than complementarity.
Robert Hoppock
Composite Theory - Feels that to make an accurate career decision you must know your personal needs and then find an occupation that meets a high percentage of those needs. As your personal needs change you might need to secure a different occupation Noted that job satisfaction is determined by the extent to which a person's perceived needs are meet Considered a personality approach
CAC
Computer Assisted Counseling Is like having a counseling "assistance" do the counseling for you Eg. A computer software program that attempts to counsel clients CAC is controversial and most experts agree computers can never provide the compassion of a human doing counseling Is the worst nightmare of a humanistic counselor
CMC
Computer Managed Counseling It helps you manage your practice Includes tasks such as: bookkeeping, client scheduling, printing billing statements, compiling referral sources
Focus II and CHOICES (Career Guidance Systems)
Computer assisted career guidance systems but with limited assessment components
System of Interactive Guidance and Information (SIGI 3)
Computer assisted career guidance systems that can supplement the assessments and guidance of career counselors
Subjective Units of Distress / Disturbance Scale (SUDS)
Concept used in forming a hierarchy to perform Wolpe's systematic desensitization (aka, technique for curbing phobic reactions and anxiety)
Criterion-Related Validity
Concurrent Validity and Predictive Validity The degree to which a measure of interest relates to a measure of established validity (Does this test reflect a certain set of abilities?) How well one measure predicts an outcome for another measure Eg. Does the SAT (test) successfully predict college performance/GPA (criterion) (Concurrent Validity) One way to assess criterion-related validity is to compare it to a known standard. Eg. A new intelligence test could be statistically analyze against a standard IQ test
Concurrent Validity vs. Convergent Validity
Concurrent validity differs from convergent validity in that it focuses on the power of the focal test to predict outcomes on another test or some outcome variable Convergent validity refers to the observation of strong correlations between two tests that are assumed to measure the same construct
Concurrent Validity vs. Predictive Validity
Concurrent validity refers to the degree in which the scores on a measurement are related to other scores on other measurements that have already been established as valid. To examine the relationship between the measure and criterion At The Same Time (unlike predictive validity that focused on the Future) It is different from Predictive Validity, which requires you to compare test scores to performance on some other measure in the future
Trace Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus but is removed before the unconditioned stimulus is presented so that the two stimuli do not occur together CS starts and ends before the introduction of US CS terminates before the occurrence of the US ("t" for terminates and trace conditioning)
Support Group
Conducted by an organization and might charge fees Eg. AA or Weight Watchers
Most ethical dilemmas are related to ______
Confidentiality
Kurt Lewin
Conflict Theory
Electra Complex
Conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Conflict in which the person must decide between more than two goals, with each goal possessing both positive and negative aspects
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose an alternative that has both attractive and unappealing aspects Situation that presents a positive factor with a negative factor at the same time Toughest type of conflict to tackle, generates highest level of frustration
Approach-approach Conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives Easiest type of conflict to cope, generates lowest level of anxiety
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives
Work Interface
Connection between family and work
James Framo and Robin Skynner
Consider Psychoanalytic Family Therapist
Inhibition抑制 (Conditioned Reflex Therapy)
Constipation of emotions that is seen as the opposite of excitation
Behavioral Consultation / Social Learning Theory Model (associated with Albert Bandura)
Consultant designs behavioral change programs for the consultee to implement
Psychodynamic Mental Health Consultation (Gerald Caplan)
Consultant does not see the client directly only advises the consultee
A Greek Chorus
Consultant or supervisory team that observes a session from behind a one-way mirror and send messages to the therapist or the family By Peggy Papp
Triadic Consultation
Consultant works with a mediator to provide services to a client
Counselors generally focus on a person or a group
Consultants focus more on issues
Counseling occurs in a clinical setting
Consultation occurs in a work / organizational setting
Types of Validity
Content Validity Criterion-Related Validity -- Concurrent Validity -- Predictive Validity Construct-Related Validity -- Convergent会聚 Validity -- Discriminant Validity Face Validity
Construct-Related Validity
Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity Whether a test is measuring the construct (theoretical idea) it claims to be measuring
CACREP
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
Definition of Counseling
Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals
Immediacy
Counselor explores the client-counselor relationship as it is transpiring right at that moment Counselor's ability to convey what is happening between the counselor and the client
Ego State Analysis (TA)
Counselor helps the client identify which ego state (Eg. Parent, Child, or Adult) he or she is primarily operating in a given situation
Veracity准确性
Counselor is truthful with clients Eg. provides accurate diagnosis
Vertical Relationships
Counselor is viewed as an expert
Fidelity 保真度
Counselor keeps promises
Client-Centered Approach to Career Counseling
Counselor lets the client find their own leads and job contacts
Selective Placement Philosophy
Counselor may give the client job leads and take an active stance in terms of working with the client
Nonmaleficence
Counselor never uses strategies/interventions or other behavior that could cause harm Do no harm Eg. proper treatment and execution of the treatment Violation: unnecessary or aggressive care, incompetent treatment, not referring when indicated
Monolithic Perspective
Counselor perceives all the people in a given group as being identical.
Beneficence
Counselor practices for the good of society and the client Doing good and the right thing for the patient Actively do what's best for the client An action made for the benefit of others Eg. proper diagnosis and treatment
Basic Empathy
Counselor's response is on the same level as the client's
Competence
Counselor's self-perception of being qualified and capable of performing a task
Child Centered Play Therapy (CCPT)
Counselors are friendly, warm, and accept the child as they are Counselors do no direct the child's topics of conversation or behavior, the process shouldn't be rushed, child leads and the counselor follows Nondirective child play therapy
Child Abuse
Counselors are mandated to report for child abuse Mandated: Counselor doesn't have a choice It is legal and ethical to break confidentiality in this case Report child abuse cases to child abuse hotline, protective services, children's services, or Child Protective Services (CPS)
NBCC's Code of Ethics Describes Ethical Issues Related to Private Practice
Counselors in executive leadership roles should not allow their names to be used in professional notices (eg. website or referral list) at times when they are not performing counseling (eg. out of country and is engaged in a research project for the next two years)
Scope of Practice Concept
Counselors should only practice using techniques for which they have been trained Counselor should not attempt to treat clients for which they have no training
Counterconditioning
Counterconditioning is a type of therapy based on the principles of classical conditioning that attempts to replace bad or unpleasant emotional responses to a stimulus with more pleasant, adaptive responses. Eg. the case of Little Albert - the boy that John Watson conditioned to fear little white rats? Well, if Watson attempted to "uncondition" the fear response to the rats, he would be engaging in counterconditioning - attempting to replace the unpleasant response (fear) to the rats with a more pleasant response (happiness) Includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
Virginia Axline
Created Child Centered Play Therapy Took Rogerian (person-centered) principles and applied them to play therapy
Maxie C. Maultsby Jr.
Created Rational Self-Counseling that is similar to Ellis's REBT The father of Rational Behavior Therapy (RBT) which works well in multicultural group settings RBT is designed to be a Short term psychotherapy which is based on the belief of discovering an unsuspected problem which creates unwanted mental, emotional and physical behaviors
Robert Carkhuff
Created a 5-point scale to measure empathy, genuineness, concreteness and respect
John Gottman
Created a paradigm to predict which marriages would likely end in divorce
Archway Model of Career Determinants Theory
Created by Donald Super One pillars represents individual characteristics (eg. personality traits and interests); the other represents family, labor market, and other external factors (eg. community and economy)
Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB)
Created by E. K. Strong, Jr. in 1927, for men The test indicated how an examinee's likes and dislikes were similar to the likes and dislikes of workers in various occupations In 1933, women's occupations were added to the test 1974, David P. Campbell expanded on the test, become Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII/SII), which is based on John Holland's theory
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
Created by Marsha Linehan A treatment often used for borderline personality disorder that incorporates both cognitive-behavioral and mindfulness elements Famous use with suicidal individual, self-abusive individuals, and those who have addiction issues
Solomon Four-Group Design
Created by Richard L. Solomon Researchers uses two control groups Control for pretest effects Only one experimental group and one control group are pretested. The other control group and experimental group are posttested only. This lets the researcher know if results are influenced by prestesting. All four groups can then be compared
DOT (Dictionary of Occupational Titles)
Created by the US Department of Labor in 1938. This dictionary consists of more than 13,000 job descriptions Approximately 20,000 job titles O*NET became a virtual replacement for DOT in 1991
Robert Williams
Created the Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity (BITCH) to demonstrate that blacks are smart when given tests with info they are familiar with Charged that Binet and Wechsler test were part of "scientific racism"
Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)
Crystallized intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger The ability to use knowledge that was previously acquired through education and experience Increase over the life span Crystallized intelligence is rigid and does not change or adapt Measured by tests that focus on content
Demand Characteristics
Cues or features of a study which suggest a desired outcome Can confound an experiement
Acculturation
Culture - The modification of the culture of a group or individual as a result of contact with a different culture Mixed together but still remain own unique cultural identity Learn new culture while keeping original values Salad bowl Preferred over assimilation
Skewed Distributions
Curves that are not symmetrical (i.e., those which are asymmetrical).
Longitudinal Study (aka Diachronic Method)
Data are collected at different points in time
Cross-Sectional Study (aka Synchronic Method)
Data are observed, measured, and collected at one point in time
Tertiary Group
Deal with individual difficulties that are more serious and longstanding (generally utilized for long-term psychotherapy, always focused on the client's childhood)
Rolfing
Deep muscle massage that assumed to have an impact on the person's emotional state
Compensation
Defense mechanism - making up for weaknesses in one area by excelling in another area
Reaction Formation
Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate.
Projection
Defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening/unacceptable impulses by attributing them to others Eg. a husband who has a hostile nature might attribute this hostility to his wife and say she has an anger management problem
Denial
Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality.
Displacement
Defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet A person who becomes angry at her professor, for example, may come home and take her anger out on her spouse
Malingering
Deliberate faking of a physical or psychological disorder motivated by gain (i.e. avoid work, military duty, or prison)
Operational Definition
Demonstrate the concrete steps necessary to illuminate the concept Outlines a procedure The idea is that another person can duplicate your actions (i.e. the exact steps) for therapeutic, research, or testing purposes
Neal Miller
Demonstrated that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes. (heart rate, blood pressure) By utilizing rewards, rats could be trained to alter heart rate and intestinal contractions
Mary Cover Jones
Demonstrated that learning could seen as a treatment for a phobic reaction
DV
Dependent Variable The variable expresses the outcome or the data related to factors you wish to measure
A test relies on a summated累加 or linear rating scale
Describe answer scales where various values are given to different responses Eg. Likert Scale - 5 = strongly agree; 4 = slight agree The client's score is the sum of all the items
Organ Inferiority (Adler)
Describe how people who found themselves born with certain psychical defects develop feelings of inferiority and start taking actions to compensate for their weaknesses.
Masters and Johnson
Describe sexual response as consisting of four phases - erotic desire, arousal, physical excitement, and orgasm
Structuring of the Group
Determined by the presence or lack of structured tasks or exercises given to members by the group leader
Mann-Whitney U Test
Determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differ significantly when data are nonparametric (Memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated') Unmatched/Uncorrelated groups could be termed Independent groups Used when there are two groups
Mann-Whitney U test
Determines whether 2 uncorrelated means differ significantly when data are nonparmetric (Memory: the 'u' reminds you of 'uncorrelated')
Lewis M. Terman
Developed American version of Binet IQ test in 1916 Called Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (because he was from Stanford University) Binet IQ test was translated into English and adapted to American children Is a standardized test
David Tiedeman and Robert O'Hara
Developed a Decision-Making Theory of 2 parts: Anticipation and Implementation/Adjustment Anticipation phase - person imagines self in given career Implementation/Adjustment phase (aka accommodation or induction) - person engages in reality testing regarding his or her expectations of the occupation Decision-Making Theory is based on Erikson's psychosocial stages. Every decision is characterized by anticipation and implementation
Interpersonal Neurobiology (IPNB)
Developed by Dan Siegel and Allan Schore IPNB uses the clinical evidence that supports continuous brain growth as its foundation. This technique examines the opportunity for healing trauma by stimulating the brain with powerful and positive persuasion. Studies have shown that conditions that were once considered to be irreversible may actually be able to be transformed in a healthy way. Because the brain grows continuously throughout our lives, the implications for healing are unending Explores the effect that therapy has on the brain and how the brain mechanism is directly impacted by life experiences
Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA)
Developed by Dawis and Lofquist (1984) Apply to adults facing career decisions and work adjustment problems. It describes the relationship between individuals and their work environment. Individuals and work environments are considered to be complimentary Person must fit the job, work must meet the person's needs Key concepts: correspondence, work adjustment, satisfaction (on the part of the employee) satisfactoriness (on the part of the employer), tenure (length of time in company) PEC - Person environment correspondence
Asch Conformity Experiment
Developed by Solomon Asch and Muzafer Sherif Subjects had to judge which line was longest, the only subject conforms and actually believes that others were right when the answer was clearly wrong, there is a need of social respect and conformity is the outcome
Motivational Interviewing (MI)
Developed by William R. Miller and Stephen Rollnick in the early 1980s A brief form of therapy, often used in areas of substance abuse and addiction, that allows clients to explore their desires, reasons, ability, and need for change A directive, client-centered style (Rogerian) for eliciting behavior change by helping clients explore and resolve ambivalence Brief - often implemented in five sessions or less
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
Developed the first intelligence test to identify children who needed remedial education (to differentiate feeble-minded children from those who were normal) By 1905, they created a 30-question test with school-related items of increased difficulty. Binet used his own daughters as test subjects in order to investigate mental process Called Binet-Simon Scale Binet is also cited as one of the pioneers in projective testing based on his work with inkblots
Frank Parsons
Developed the idea of matching careers to talents, skills and personality The founder of the vocational guidance movement He developed the talent-matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (aka Ginzberg Group or Ginzberg and Associates)
Developmental Approach (view career choice as an ongoing or longitudinal process rather than a single decision made at one point in time)
DSM
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Produced by a medical organization, the APA
Melting Pot Concept
Different cultures assimilate or melt into the dominant culture - has been deemed a myth A society where many different types of people blend together as one
Classical Extinction
Disappearance of a conditioned response through disassociation of the conditioned and unconditioned response Occurs when the CS is Not reinforced via the US Many believe that the CR is not eliminated but is suppressed, or called "inhibited"抑制
Interval
Distance is meaningful Interval data are measured and have constant, equal distances between values, the distance between attributes does have meaning The zero isn't meaningful, it doesn't mean a true absence of something Can add and subtract, cannot multiply or divide Eg. Intelligence (IQ test) - We know that the scoring difference between a 100 and a 110 is equal to the scoring distance between 120 and 130, but there is no true zero on this test and an IQ of 140 is not twice as high as an IQ of 70 Eg. When we measure temperature (in Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is same as distance from 70-80. The interval between values is interpretable. Because of this, it makes sense to compute an average of an interval variable, where it doesn't make sense to do so for ordinal scales In interval measurement, ratios don't make any sense - 80 degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees (although the attribute value is twice as large) Eg. IQ tests provide interval measurement
Impersonal Leaders
Distant but aggressive
Stanine
Divide distribution of scores into 9 equal intervals (1=low, 9=high) 5 is the mean
Anne Roe
Divided career fields into 8 categories/fields and 6 levels Categories/Fields: arts/entertainment, general, technology, outdoor, science, business, organizations, and services industry Levels- requiring most to least experience and knowledge: professional and managerial - levels 1 and 2; semiprofessional and small business - level 3; skilled - level 4; semiskilled - level 5; and unskilled - level 6
Closed Groups
Do not allow new members to join after the group begins
Person-centered Therapist
Doesn't always use the formal process of diagnosis and psychological assessment (DSM) and doesn't ask a large number of questions (traditionally)
Stephen Karpman
Drama triangle - persecutor, rescuer, victim Often used with transactional analysis (TA)
A. A. Brill
Drew upon psychoanalytic doctrine Emphasized Sublimation as an ego defense mechanism
Dual-Earner Families vs. Dual-Career Families
Dual-Career Family has a job where advancement (moving up in position) is possible vs. Dual-Earner Family has job positions where moving up the line is not possible or is minimal Dual-Career Family earn more than Dual-Earner Family
Failure Identity
Dwelling on past failures can reinforce a negative self-concept
Entropy (Family System Theory)
Dysfunctional families are either too open or too closed (letting too much information in or not enough information in)
Trait and Factor Matching Theory (aka Actuarial or Matching Approach)
E. G. Williamson based on his knowledge of Frank Parsons (The father of guidance) Relies on tests and assessments to match traits, aptitude and interests with a given occupation Assumed that there is one best or single career for the person
Counselor's Social Power / Social Influence
EAT formula E - Expertise A - Attractiveness T - Trustworthiness
Standard (eg. Simple) Random Sampling
Each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected Selection is by chance The selection of one subject does not affect the selection of another subject Eliminates the researcher's tendency to pick a biased sample of subjects
Normative Measures
Each item is independent of all other items Individual's score is evaluated by comparing it to others who took the same test Normative analysis yields comparison between individuals Eg. Likert scale (such a rating scale allows quantification of individuals' feelings and perceptions on certain topics); Percentile rank
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma
Early 1951, Ginzberg and associates began to emphasize developmental factors related to occupational choice. They concluded at occupational choice takes place over a 6-10 year period; the choice is irreversible; and always has the quality of compromise The theory postulated 3 stages: - Fantasy - until age 11, based strongly on impulses - Tentative - age 11 - 17, where interests and abilities are examined - Realistic - age 17 to early twenties, where a choice is made by weighing abilities and needs and making a compromise By 1972, Ginzberg modified his theory and stated that the process of choice is open-ended and lifelong; dropped the hypothesis of irreversibly; and replaced compromise with the concept of optimization (where individuals try to make the best of what they have to offer and what is available in the job market)
Anne Roe
Early Childhood Needs-Theory Approach
Phrenology
Early pseudoscientific psychological doctrine which asserted that one's personality could be determined by the shape and configuration of the skull
Guided Imagery
Effective for adults and adolescents; Client imagines a day in the future working in the job or even receiving an award for outstanding performance in the position
Age-related Tasks (Binet)
Eg. A 9-year-old task was defined as one in which one half (50%) of the 9-year-olds tested could answer correctly
Nonexperimental Designs
Eg. Causal comparative, correlational research, surveys
(Example) DSM-5 vs. ICD-10 Coding
Eg. On page 190 of DSM-5, the diagnostic codes for Separation Anxiety Disorder "309.21 (F93.0)" are listed in the upper right hand corner of the criteria set In this case, 309.21 is the ICD-9-CM / DSM code for Separation Anxiety Disorder, and F93.0 is the ICD-10-CM code Starting October 1st 2015, you will use F93.0 instead of 309.21 for ICD-10-CM when submitting payment for a case of Separation Anxiety Disorder
Standard Scores
Eg. Percentiles, t-scores, z-scores, stanines, standard deviations Benefit over raw scores: standard score allows you to analyze the data in relation to the properties of the normal bell-shaped curve
Superego
Ego ideal The part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
Edgar H. Schein
Eight Career Anchors Theory
Affective means
Emotional
Human Relations Core for effective counseling are
Empathy, Positive Regard (respect), Genuineness
Program-Centered Administrative Consultation
Emphasis on creating, designing, or evaluating the program in question
Existentialist
Emphasize the client's free choice, decision, and will Counselor assists the client to find meaning in life so the client can write his or her own life story by making meaningful choices Death is not seen as an evil concept but rather an entity which gives meaning to the process of life
Carl Rogers' Book "Counseling and Psychotherapy"
Emphasized a theory of intervention where the counselor was not an authoritarian figure such as in psychoanalysis, trait-factor analysis, or directive schools of helping Carl Rogers is also one of the first theorists to use audio recordings to improve practicum supervision
Donald Super
Emphasized career development rather than career choice
Donald Super
Emphasizes on Self-Concept. Individual chooses a career which allows the self-concept to be expressed (Memory: Super and Self-Concept - both begin with "S")
Actuarial
Empirical statistical data is used rather than simply relying on subjective clinical judgment
Victor Vroom's Motivation and Management Expectancy Theory
Employee's performance is influenced by: - Valence: Will the work provide rewards such as money, promotion, or satisfaction? - Expectancy: What does the person feel he or she is capable of doing? - Instrumentality: Will the manger actually give the employee the promised reward such as a raise?
Group Members Roles
Energizer - stimulates enthusiasm in the group Scapegoat - the person everybody blames. He or she is always the target of severe anger and hostility Gatekeeper - tries to make certain that everyone is doing their task and is participating. This person may "secretly" or "unconsciously" want to lead the group and could even attempt to establish norms. The danger is that a gatekeeper often does not work on their own personal issues Interrogator (aka Peeping Tom) - asks never ending string of questions Follower - goes along with the rest of the group Harmonizer (aka conciliator 调解人) - person who tries to make certain that everything is going smoothly Storyteller - monopolized a wealth of group time telling endless (often irrelevant) tales Isolates (aka the silent one) - isolate is ignored by others. Isolates generally feel afraid to reach out or do reach out and are genuinely rejected. Not the same as the scapegoat
Transactional Analysis
Eric Berne 3 ego states: The Child, Adult, and Parent (correspond to Freud's structural theory of id, ego, and superego)
Transactional Analysis
Eric Berne believes that people operate in three ego states and that awareness is an important first step in changing our ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Three basic needs are stimulus, recognition, and structure
Psychosocial Development
Erikson's theory, which emphasizes the importance of social relationships and conscious choice throughout eight stages of development
Freud's Eros and Thanatos
Eros - God of the love of life, Self-preservation Thanatos - Death, Death wish, Death instinct
...
Error factors are likely to be present if the original sample size is small
Power Test
Evaluates the level of mastery without a time limit Ideally be designed so that nobody receives a perfect score
Concept of Plasticity (Human Growth and Development)
Every trait within a given individual can be altered throughout the course of the life span Refers to the capacity for change
Wilcoxon Singed-Rank Test
Examine whether two correlated means differ significantly from each other when data are nonparametric Used when there are two groups Is an alternative to t test (t test is for parametric)
Multipoint Item
Examinee is given three or more forced choices Eg. NCE
Cohort Study
Examines people who were born at the same time (or shared an event, like fought in Vietnam) in regard to a given characteristic
Chi-Square Nonparametric Test
Examines whether obtained frequencies differ significantly from expected frequencies
Occupational Aptitude Tests
Examples: Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Test Battery (ASVAB), O*NET Ability Profiler
Privileged Communication is "Qualified" means
Exceptions may exist
Negative Entropy (Family Systems Theory)
Exchange of energy and resources between systems that promote growth and transformation A balanced state of a healthy family
Rollo May
Existential psychologist Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety, and alienation In his humanistic approach to therapy, he stressed that anxiety could be harnessed and used as a positive force and that people could use their inner resources in making the choices that guide the direction of their lives
Irvin Yalom
Existentialist, well known for studies in group work
Norms
Expected behavior
Gestalt Model Emphasizes on...
Experience rather than interpretation Here and now (stay with the feeling) Awareness in the here and now Dream work Increase psychological and bodily awareness
Virginia Satir
Experiential Conjoint Family Therapy Was often emphatic with the family, felt that family could be healed via love She identified five styles of relating with a family -- Blaming -- Placating -- Computing -- Distracting -- Leveling (have emotional balance and can relate to all kinds of people. They are assertive. The goal of leveling is mutual problem solving) To explore relationships within the family, she used experiential/expressive techniques such as family sculpting and taking a family life chronology 1950s Goal of therapy was to improve intrafamily communication
Carl Whitaker
Experiential Symbolic Family Therapy Believed that experience changes families, not education Experience goes beyond consciousness and the best way to access the unconscious is symbolically Stated the belief that in order to effect the change a family needs, the therapist must engage the family on a deep and personal level He will join the family and experience it as if he were a family member Minimized the importance of theory, noting that therapeutic interaction is more of an art Emphasize systems A co-therapist is helpful because he/she can provide meaningful feedback and allows the therapist to be an active participant in the therapy rather than merely a teacher Can be absurd at times
Pygmalion Effect / Rosenthal Effect / Experimenter Effect
Experimenter falls in love with his or her own hypothesis and the experiment becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy
Social Influence Core
Expertise, Attractiveness, Trustworthiness
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Extraversion or Introversion (E or I) Sensing or Intuitive (S or N) Thinking or Feeling (T or F) Judging or Perceiving (J or P)
EMDR
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing EM - eye movement; REM - rapid eye movement Developed by Francine Shapiro
EMDR (Francine Sharpiro)
Eye-movement Desensitization & Reprocessing Francine Sharpiro Includes rapid back-and-forth eye movements Effective of treating trauma and PTSD
Murray Bowen
Family Systems Therapy He is a psychiatrist known for having developed the Family systems theory from the 1950's onwards. It generally argues that people can only be understood from the viewpoint of their relationships with others, as part of a social system. They cannot be understood in isolation, cut-off from their relations with family members and others with whom they interact. In this theory, the concept of self-differentiation, which is to be opposed to the psychoanalytic concept of fusion, is core. Self-differentiation refers to the ability to simultaneously maintain one's individuality and identity while relating to others
Family Therapy's Duration
Family therapy seems to be briefer than individual counseling
Morphogenesis (Change)
Family's ability to change (Memory: there is "g" in both words)
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
Father of Individual Psychology
Viktor Frankl
Father of Logotherapy (existential form of treatment which stresses 'healing through meaning')
Victor Frankl
Father of Logotherapy, existential form of treatment which focuses on healing through meaning
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Father of Psychoanalysis
William Glasser
Father of Reality Therapy
Interpersonal Leaders
Favor here and now interventions
Take away message of Little Albert Experiment
Fear was not due to psychopathology deep within the unconscious mind (as psychoanalytic or Freudians believe), but is due to learning Fear could be a learned behavior
Group Unity
Feeling of belonging, oneness, or togetherness
Newman, Freeman, Holzinger, Fehr
Felt that genetic influences contributed less than 50% to IQ
Anima
Feminine side of the men
Charles Spearman
Field: intelligence Contributions: found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)
Two-dimensional System of Occupational Classification (Anne Roe)
Fields and Levels 8 Occupational Fields: Service, Business Contact, Organizations, Technology, Outdoor, Science, General Culture, and Arts/Entertainment 6 Levels of Occupational Skills: Professional and Managerial 1, Professional and Managerial 2, Semiprofessional/Small Business, Skilled, Semiskilled, and Unskilled
Multiaxial System (DSM)
First appeared in DSM-III (1980) Eliminated in DSM-5
Behavioral Family Therapy
First appeared in the late 1960s, initially focusing on kids in the family who had problems Pioneers: Gerald Patterson (popularized behavioral parent training in the family's home), Robert Liberman, and Richard Stuart (created operant interpersonal therapy)
Jacob Moreno
First coined the term 'group therapy' in 1931 and invented psychodrama
Watzlawick, Weakland, Fisch
First order change and Second order change
Jesse B. Davis
First person to set up a systematized guidance program in the public schools Work has been classified as a preface to the group movement
Raymond B. Cattell
Fluid intelligence and Crystallized intelligence
Fluid Intelligence (Gf)
Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems Ability to use logic and solve problems in new or novel situations without reference to pre-existing knowledge This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and education Decline as people age Fluid intelligence is flexible (Memory: both begin with "F"), culture-free, adjusts to the situation Tested by "content-free reasoning" such as a block design or a pictorial analogy problem
Consultee-Centered Consultation
Focus on helping the consultee develop improved techniques or skills When your supervisor explains a better way for you to implement a hypnotic induction with one of your clients, then you are the recipient of consultee-centered case consultation
Existentialist
Focus primarily on the client's perception in the here and now (Present and even the future are emphasized) Focus on what the person can ultimately become Key to change is seen as self-determination
Nancy Schlossberg
Focused on Adult Career Development Suggested 5 noteworthy factors: (1) Behavior in the adult years is primarily determined by social rather than biological factors. (2) Behavior can either be a function of one's life stages or one's age at other times. (3) Sex differences are actually more powerful than age or stage differences. (4) Adults continually experience transitions which require adaptation and self-assessment. (5) Identity, intimacy, and generativity are recurring themes in adulthood
Solution-Oriented Therapy
Focused primarily on the future
Training Group
Focuses not on mental health issues but on human relations processes between personnel in a business setting
Social Cognitive Counseling Theory (SCCT)
Focuses on how one's belief system impacts career choice
Neuroscience
Focuses on the science of brain function and nervous system rather than just overt behavior
Identified Patient (IP)
For Family Therapy, the entire family is the identified patient and in need of treatment Family counselors believe that the entire family system is dysfunctional Traditionally, the IP was seen as the person who was having a problem
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Forbids discrimination on the basis of sex, race, color, religion, or national origin in all areas of the employment relationship
Group Cohesiveness
Forces which tend to bind group members together A sense of caring for the group and other members
Joseph H. Pratt
Formed the first counseling/therapy groups from approximately 1905 to 1923; Groups dealt with tuberculosis
Tucker & Jensen's 5 Stages of Group Development
Forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning休会 In the forming stage, the group is coming together and rules are being established. Group members are typically polite to each other. During the storming stage, challenges often arise. Groups members may butt heads and test boundaries. In the norming stage, group members have developed a sense of unity and worked out their conflicts. They are also supportive of leadership. During the performing stage, the group is making progress toward their goals. Leaders are helping group members advance their skills and competencies. The adjourning stage is sometimes referred to as 'mourning' when a group is high functioning and has developed a strong sense of unity. The inevitable end can seem bittersweet.
National Vocational Guidance Association
Founded in 1913, first career guidance organization Fused with other organizations in 1952 to become APGA
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
Founded in 1935, by Bill Wilson (Bill W) and Dr. Bob Smith (Dr. Bob) in Akron, Ohio
Diagnostic Codes Have ___ Digits
Four or five Decimal point occurs after the third digit Eg. 300.3 Obsessive-compulsive disorder; 305.50 Opioid use disorder, mild On occasion, the first digit can be a letter (Eg. V62.3 Academic or educational problem)
Eclectic is associated with ...
Frederick C. Thorne
Baseline
Frequency that a behavior is manifested prior to or in the absence of treatment.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud - oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages In these stages, gratification of the id instincts depends on the stimulation of corresponding areas of the body.
Adult State (aka neopsyche)
Freud's ego Is rational, logical, and does not focus on feelings
Child State (aka archaeopsyche)
Freud's id
Parent State (aka exteropsyche)
Freud's superego Contains "shoulds" and "oughts"
Psychoanalytic Movement
Freud, Jung, Adler
Noogenic Neurosis (Existentialism)
Frustration of the will to meaning Existential frustration (from existential crisis)
Examples of Aptitude Tests
GATB, LSAT, MCAT, O*NET Ability Profiler
3 Key Factors that are needed for an effective helping climate (Rogers) / 3 Conditions that are necessary for client change to occur / Human relations core for effective couseling
Genuineness / Congruence - when counselor is aware of their own feelings and accurately express this to the client (most important factor), Unconditional Positive Regard, Emphatic Understanding
Playing the Projection Technique
Gestalt technique where the counselor asks the client to role play as the person they dislike in order to work with their ego defense
Recount a Dream
Gestalt therapy, client is asked to recount the dream as if it is happening in the present
Converting Questions to Statements
Gestalt therapy, taking responsibility for a feeling or situation through "I" statements A client might say, "Don't all people in a group feel scared during the initial session of group counseling?" The client is asked to turn the question into an "I statement," in this case, "I feel scared during this initial session of group counseling." In Gestalt this is known as "taking responsibility for a feeling or situation." Often, the Gestalt counselor literally asks the client to say this. For example, "I feel scared during this initial session of group counseling, and I take responsibility for being scared."
Forced Choice / Recognition Items
Gives examinee two or more alternatives On some tests, this format is used to control for the Social Desirability Phenomenon (individual puts the answer they feel is socially acceptable) Eg. MMPI-2 - lie scale
Lavender Ceiling
Glass ceiling but in relation to homosexuals, transgender, and bisexual individuals
Strict behaviorists believe the environment controls behaviors
Glasser believes the individual controls the environment
Client-Centered Consultation
Goal is to help client When supervisor suggests plan of action for one of your clients, then you as a consultee are the recipient of client-centered consultation
Consultee-Centered Administrative Consultation
Goal is to help sharpen administrative skills Eg. making you a better presenter at your board meeting)
Deductive Logic / Reasoning
Goes from general to specific (Memory: sounds like reductive - reduce; D for "decrease" from general(big size) to specific (small size))
Inductive Logic/Reasoning
Goes from specific to a generalization Eg. Goes from observing a single counseling session to proposing a counseling theory (Memory: I for "increase" from specific (small size) to general(big size))
Propinquity接近
Goes under the name of the "mere exposure effect", indicating that the more you are around a person the grater the likelihood is you will become attached to them
Group Norms
Govern acceptable behavior and group rules
Homogeneous Group
Group in which members have a great deal of similarity
Heterogeneous Group
Group in which various demographics, levels of knowledge, attitudes, and interests are represented
Examples of Group Dynamics
Group stages, cohesiveness, leadership style, decision making
Open-Ended Group
Group that does not have a given number of sessions or an ending date
Donald Super's 5 Stages of Career Development
Growth (birth to age 14) Exploration (15-24) Establishment (24-44) Maintenance (44-64) Decline (65+) (Memory: GEE MD)
George Gazda's 3 types of groups
Guidance / Psychoeducational group (aka affective education group or psychological education group) - Preventive, provide instruction about a potential problem Counseling Psychotherapy (tertiary and may emphasize unconscious)
Distinguish Between Career Counseling and Vocational Guidance
Guidance is a developmental and educational process within a school system; Career Counseling is a therapeutic service for adults performed outside an educational setting
Mandatory Ethics (aka Standards of Practice)
Guidelines that are strictly enforced Violating one has consequences for your actions They are often very clear-cut and have no gray areas
Resentful Demoralization of the Comparison Group (aka Compensatory Equalization)
Happens when a researcher has an expectation of which treatment method would be better Researcher treats participants in the "better" group more favorably than the others The comparison group lowers their performance or behaves in an inept无能 manner because they have been denied the experimental treatment. When this occurs, the experimental group looks better than they should. If the comparison group deteriorates恶化 throughout the experiment while the experimental group does not, then demoralization could be noted
In strategic family counseling, the person with the power in the family ___
Has the authority to make rules and enforce them Jay Haley believes you enhance the power of a family member within the context of therapy by speaking to him or her first during the initial session of therapy
Principal Researcher
Has the ultimate responsibility for conducting ethical research Others involved in the research is responsible for their own behavior
Vertical Test
Has versions for various age brackets or levels of education (eg. a math test for preschoolers and a version for middle school children)
Cyclical Test
Have several sections which are spiral in nature In each section, the questions go from easy ones to more difficult
Stanley Milgram
He conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience How far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person? Had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions Ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being.
HIPAA
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 United States legislation that provides data privacy and security provisions for safeguarding medical information
The tendency to affiliate (one's need to associate with others) with others ...
Highest in the firstborns and only children (decreases for later-born children - Stanley Schachter)
Like Anne Roe,
Holland felt that early childhood development influences adult personality characteristics
Covariation
How two traits vary together in a population How two variables move with respect to each other Indicate the extent to which 2 random variables are dependent on each other. Higher number means higher dependency Range: negative infinity to positive infinity
Concurrent Validity
How well the test compares to other instruments (test) that are intended for the same purpose The degree to which the measures gathered from one tool agree with the measures gathered from other assessment techniques Criterion measures are obtained approximately the same time as the test score Eg. To access one's depression level, combined BDI results and client's self-reported experience Eg. We want to measure if levels of extrovert/introvert (test) affect sale performance (criterion). In this scenario, we cannot collect data at two different time points. Thus, we measure both levels of extrovert/introvert and sale performance AT THE SAME TIME. Does the test score on the levels of extrovert/introvert test agree with the measurement of the sale performance criterion?
Neuroplasticity
Human brain can change and new neural connections can be made even in later life regardless of our genetics or life experience
Third Force Psychology
Humanistic Psychology (Humanistic Approaches)
Existentialism
Humanistic form of helping in which the counselor helps the client discover meaning in his or her life by doing a deed (eg. an accomplishment), experiencing a value (eg. love), or suffering (eg. Frankl discovered that even being held hostage in a concentration camp could not take away his dignity) Existential stresses growth and self-actualization. Frankl stressed that individuals have choices in their lives and one cannot blame others or childhood circumstances for a lack of fulfillment Existential counseling rejects analysis and behaviorism for being deterministic and simplistic
Etic Viewpoint
Humans are humans regardless of background and culture (the same theories apply to all). -Etic counselor emphasizes sameness that transcends all cultural boundaries. (memory: etic like phonETIC - sounds remain same in any language)
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) / Affirmative Hypothesis
Hypothesis in which there are differences between treatments Asserts that IV has indeed caused a change
Horizontal Relationships
I-Thou relationship Assumes equality between persons
DSM-5 sets diagnostic criteria;
ICD-10 provides billing codes
(MA/CA) x 100
IQ test is created by Binet, but the formula was created by William Louis Stern The formula produced a "ratio IQ", called the "deviation IQ" today
Structural Theory of the Mind
Id (Instinct) - unconscious thinking - instinctual, sexual/aggressive urges, primary processes thinking Ego (Reality) - mediator between id and external environment~ utilizes defense mechanism to control instinctual urges and distinguish fantasy/reality using reality testing Superego (Morality) - moral conscience and the ideal self (starts at age 6) (represents society/societal norms)
Associationism
Ideas are held together by associations
Ethics
If a client has a contagious fatal disease, the counselor is justified in telling a third party who would be at serious and foreseeable risk
Minimal Disclosure
If a counselor must break confidentiality, they must reveal only what is necessary, and when possible, inform the client that they are going to disclose confidential information
Multiple Treatment Interference
If a subject receives more than one treatment, it is often tough to discern辨别 which modality caused the improvements
Parametric Test
If the information about the population is completely known by means of its parameters then statistical test is called parametric test Used only with interval and ratio data The scores are normally distributed (eg. mean, median, mode are the same) Use random sampling Eg. T-test, Z-test, ANOVA
Nonparametric Tests / Distribution-Free Tests
If there is no knowledge about the population or parameters, but still it is required to test the hypothesis of the population, then is called nonparametric test Only uses nominal or ordinal data The curve is not a normal distribution Eg. Mann-Whitney U Test, Wilcoxon Singed-Rank Sum Test for Matched Pairs, Soloman and the Kruskal-Wallis H test
Congruity Theory
If you like your counselor, you're more likely to accept a suggestion (like balance theory), created by Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum
Imaginal Disputation (REBT)
Imagery to help the process of cognitive disputation Allowing the individual to re-experience an Activating Event and now challenged his or her irrational thinking
Social Facilitation
Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others Improvement in individual performance when working with other people rather than alone. Compared to their performance when alone, when in the presence of others, they tend to perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones.
AACD was the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) until 1983
In 1983, APGA changed its name to AACD (American Association for Counseling and Development) in 1992, AACD was changed to ACA (American Counseling Association)
Youngest and Only Children
In Adler's theory, the youngest child may be dependent and selfish due to always being taken care of by family members. However, this child may also possess positive traits of confidence, ability to have fun and comfort at entertaining others. Only children do not have to share their parents' attention. They may have a hard time when they are told no, and school may be a difficult transition as they are not the sole focus of the teacher. On a positive note, Adler believed that, compared to others their age, only children tend to be more mature, feel more comfortable around adults and even do better in intellectual and creative pursuits
Manifest Content of Dreams
In Freudian dream analysis, the "surface," or remembered, story line, which contains symbols that mask the dream's latent content (the true meaning).
Collecting Trading Stamps
In TA, the saving up of enduring, non-genuine feelings, then "trading" them for a script milestone such as a drinking binge or an anger outburst.
Thapar v. Zezulka (1999) (Duty to Protect in Texas)
In Texas, the Texas Supreme Court ruled in 1999 that health professionals in that state have NO DUTY TO WARN AND PROTECT (Thapar v. Zezulka, 1999). In Texas, a psychotherapist who acts on a duty to warn and/or protect when a client expresses the intent to harm another individual would be violating Texas law and placing her or himself at great legal risk In Texas, the court held that the psychological associate had NO DUTY TO WARN a third party who was not part of the special relationship between provider and patient Though Texas has no duty to warn third parties in the circumstance of a threat by a patient to others, there is a duty to exercise reasonable efforts to protect the person, your patient/client, through an assessment of the threat, initiation of civil commitment proceedings, if appropriate, as well as reliance upon waivers of confidentiality as part of an informed consent agreement, executed prior to the initiation of treatment
Control Group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; Contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment This group does not receive the IV
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response Eg. Meat for the dog
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response Eg. The bell when paired with meat to trigger salivation
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) Eg. salivation when food is in the mouth
Synthetic Validity
In industrial and organizational (I/O) settings, a technique for inferring (analyze) the validity of a selection test or other predictor of job performance from a job analysis. It involves systematically analyzing a job into its elements, estimating the validity of the test or predictor in predicting performance on each of these elements, and then combining the validities for each element to form an estimate of the validity of the test or predictor for the job as a whole. Synthetic validity can be useful in estimating the validity of selection procedures in small organizations where the larger samples required in concurrent validity and predictive validity are not available.
Shrinkage (Cross-Validation)
In most cases, a cross-validation coefficient is smaller than the initial validity coefficient
Successive Approximations (aka shaping)
In operant conditioning, a series of behaviors that gradually become more similar to a desired behavior
Free Association
In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
Transference
In psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the therapist of their emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)
In utero
In the womb
Flooding
In this technique, exposure can be in vivo or imaginal. A person is intensely exposed to anxiety-evoking events for a prolonged period of time. Flooding is usually done until the anxiety is significantly diminished Using the exposure fear hierarchy to begin exposure with the most difficult tasks
Psychodrama
Incorporates role-playing into the treatment process Invented by Jacob L. Moreno, also first coined the term "group therapy" in 1931
Incremental Validity
Incremental Validity is used to determine if a new psychological measure will provide more information than measures that are already in use If a new test doesn't provide any new information than the current, simpler measures are already providing then the new test is unnecessary and doesn't need to be used An example would be a school psychologist who was trying to identify learning delays in students so they could receive a specialized curriculum. She first uses grades and teacher interviews to identify any students who may be having trouble learning material. She then uses a test which is supposed to identify students with learning delays. The test would be incrementally valid if it identified students who had learning delays that had gone unnoticed while using the previous grade and interview method. If no new students were identified using the measure then it would not be incrementally valid because it failed to do anything more than the previous method
Habituation / Adaptation
Indicates a decrease in response to a constant stimulus or a stimulus that is repeated too frequently
Changing View of Work
Indicates that in the past, work was seen as drudgery, while today it is viewed as a vehicle to express our identity, self-esteem, and status.
Biserial Correlation
Indicates that one variable is continuous (i.e., an interval scale) while the other is dichotomous Eg. Correlating state licensing exam scores to NCC status (dichotomy is licensed/unlicensed)
Item Difficulty Index / Difficulty Value
Indicates the percentage of individuals who answered each item correctly The higher the number of people who answer a question correctly, the easier the item is and vice versa It can range between 0.0 and 1.0, with a higher value means more people answered correctly, and it was thus an easier item Eg. 0.5 difficulty index suggest that 50% of individuals answered correctly, while 50% did not Eg. 0.25 difficulty index suggests that 25% of individuals answered correctly, while 75% did not
Standard Error of Measurement (SEM)
Indicates what the individual would score / what would most likely occur if he takes the same test again To predict an individual's score if he takes the same test again
Task Action Leadership
Indicative of one way communication Eg. Leader tells the members about a task to accomplish
Individual Psychology
Individual psychology is a term used to refer to a view of psychology pioneered by Alfred Adler that involves taking a holistic view of a client's character. This view diverged drastically from the Viennese school of psychoanalysis that Adler had originally been affiliated with and has been a great influence on the schools of psychology that came into existence in the late 20th century. The term, individual psychology, is not used to mean a focus on the individual person, but to refer to the client's whole environment. The individual referred to means looking at the patient as an indivisible whole, rather than as a group of disparate parts or symptoms.
Human Capital Theory
Individuals secure training and education to get the best possible income
Primary Resources
Information consist of actual records, first-hand accounts of events and experiences An artifact, a document, diary, manuscript, autobiography, a recording, or any other source of information that was created at the time under study.
Group Therapy Stages
Initial stage / orientation and exploration / preaffiliation / forming - superficial communication. Deal with members' approach-avoidance behavior (Eg. people want to be accepted but are scared to participate) Transition stage / power and control / storming - members are often judgmental, resistant, or involved in a struggle for power to establish a hierarchy Working stage / norming stage / cohesion stage / negotiation, intimacy, and frame of reference - real work is done by group Termination stage / separation stage / closure stage / adjourning / consolidation - provides opportunity to learn to deal with letting go
Learning Theory of Career Counseling (John Krumboltz)
Initially called Social Learning Theory 4 factors that can used to simplify career development process: (1) genetic endowment and unique abilities (2) environmental conditions and life events (3) learning experiences (either Pavlovian, social learning theory, or Skinnerian) - association learning (4) task approach skills (problem solving, cognitive responses, ans emotional patterns) - instrumental learning
B. F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning is also referred to as....
Instrumental conditioning In instrumental conditioning, reinforcement or punishment are used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behavior will occur again in the future
IQ mean
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Quotient = the result when you perform division
Kurt Lewin's Action Research
Intended to improve the situation (not just advance knowledge) with local people/clients whole will be better off at the end of the research Self-surveys are often used to conduct Action Research Bridges the gap between research and application/practice
Group-specific Measures
Intended to measure the degree of change (or lack of it) in all persons participating in the group
Didactic
Intended to teach
Nonlinear (Career Counseling)
Interactive activities Eg. field visit, interviewing a professionals, shadowing Reduce the control client has over the process (Eg. cannot control the hours of employment of the agency she is visiting)
SII (Strong Interest Inventory)
Interest inventory based on the theory of John Holland
John Krumboltz
Interests are the result of learning, changes in interests can be learned Actual exposure to wide range of work setting (eg. site visits) is highly desirable Occupational indecisiveness is an indication of information deficit rather than a lack of career maturity (Memory: K for Krumboltz before L in Learn)
ICD
International Classification of Diseases Manual of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death Created by World Health Organization (WHO)
Desensitization in Imagination may be refer to as ...
Interposition介入
Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means ___
Interpreting the results in the simplest way Easiest and least complex explanation is the best Eg. Factor analysis is consider parsimonious
Hermaphrodite
Intersex
John Ertl
Invented an electronic machine to analyze neural efficiency to take the place of pencil and paper tests Relies on a computer, EEG, a strobe light, and an electrode helmet. The theory is that the faster one processes the perception, the more intelligence the person has
Occupation
Is a broader term refers to similar jobs occupied via different people in different settings (eg. psychotherapists)
Double Bind
Is a no-win situation characterized by contradictory messages Eg. never smoke again and then smoke as much as you want
Standard Age Score (SAS)
Is a normalized standard score, with a mean (average) of 100. Standard Age Scores of 89-111 are all within the average range Replaced the original IQ formula
A directive
Is a suggestion
Normal Curve / Bell-Shaped Curve / Gaussian Curve
Is a symmetrical bell The mean, median, and mode all fall in the middle of the curve Frequency are normally distributed
John Henry Effect (aka 'Compensatory Rivalry of a Comparison Group')
Is a threat to the internal validity of a experiment Occurs when subjects strive to prove an experimental treatment that could threaten their livelihood really isn't all that effective
TA Game
Is a transaction with a concealed motive
Assertiveness Training Group
Is a type of behavioral group and is highly structured
Multiple Submission
Is a violation of ethics Occurs when a journal article is submitted to more than one journal at a time Once your article is published you may not have it republished elsewhere without the express permission of the first publisher
Group Counseling
Is also called an interpersonal problem-solving group Shorter duration
Group Therapy
Is also called personality reconstruction group Focus more on individual concerns, deal with more serious pathology, longer duration
Tryptophan
Is an amino acid needed for normal growth in infants and for nitrogen balance in adults Related to serotonin in the brain Losing Tryptophan will cause depression, affect memory, anxiety, sleep, and mood, but increases aggression
Law School Admission Test (LSAT)
Is an aptitude test
Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (aka Bender Gestalt II)
Is an expressive projective measure To test whether there is a brain damage Useful when a client may have an organic, neurological, or motoric difficulty Client is instructed to copy 16 geometric figures which the client can look at while constructing the drawing Suitable for ages 4 and beyond Created by Lauretta Bender
Test Battery
Is considered a Horizontal Test Several measures are used to produce results that could be more accurate than those from using a single source Measures various factors (eg. math and science) during the same testing procedure
Albert Ellis
Is considered the founding father of the cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) movement
Cognitive Enhancement Therapy (CET)
Is included in the evidence-based neurocounseling modalities Clients (often those with schizophrenia) use neurocognitive video-type games and coaching to improve functioning
Career
Is the broadest category that describe a person's lifetime position plus leisure
Mean
Is the only measure of central tendency which reacts to every score in the distribution
Suicide
Is the second or third leading cause of death among those aged 15-24 Is the 10th leading cause of death in the U.S The rate for older adults is two to three times higher than the general population More likely to occur in rural areas that are not highly populated Firearms account for more suicides than all other methods combined Most suicides occur in the spring at the end of April or May
Concreteness (aka 'specificity')
Is used to alleviate vague language.
Three-way ANOVA
Is used when there is THREE IVs
Two-way ANOVA
Is used when there is TWO IVs, regardless of the numbers of levels
J. P. Guilford
Isolated 120 factors (elements/abilities) of intelligence with Factor Analysis Determined that there were 120 elements/abilities which added up to intelligence Two dimensions: convergent and divergent thinking
Naloxone (Brand Name: Narcan)
It blocks the effects of opioid such as heroin and painkillers such as morphine, codeine, and oxycodone By impacting the same portions of the brain as opioids, it can stop or reverse overdoses to save lives Has no serious side effects and will not make the person high
Naltrexone for Alcoholism
It can help prevent relapses into alcohol or drug abuse
Buprenorphine / Naloxone (Brand Name: Suboxone) for Opioid Dependence
It can treat narcotic dependence To help people reduce or quit their use of heroin or other opiates, such as pain relievers like morphine
Antipsychotic (for Schizophrenia)
It controls symptoms by affecting the brain neurotransmitter dopamine Eg. First-generation antipsychotics & Second-generation antipsychotics
Unethical
It is unethical to ask for testimonials推荐 from clients
In a Culture-Fair Test (aka culture-free)
Items are known to the subject regardless of his or her culture Attempts to exclude items that would be known only to an individual due to his or her background
Internal Reliability / Consistency
Items on a test are correlated in order to determine how well they measure the same construct or concept Whether a measure is consistent within itself Participant gives a consistent pattern of answers, no matter how the researcher has phrased the question A measure of how well your test is actually measuring what you want it to measure Eg. Split-half method
Group Therapy
Jacob Moreno Irvin Yalom
Assimilation
Jean Piaget - cognitive development Add new information into existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding This means that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this information by referring to information you already have and try to fit the new information into the information you already have (Memory: SS = same schema = put new info into the same schema you already have) Culture - Minority culture blend in with majority culture, become similar and lose its own distinctiveness. Melting pot. Not preferred
Accommodation
Jean Piaget - cognitive development Form new schema or change existing schema to make room for new information Accommodation is the cognitive process of revising existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can be incorporated. In order to make sense of some new information, you have to adjust information you already have (schemas you already have, etc.) to make room for this new information (Memory: CC = change and create new schema)
Nathan Azrin's Job Club
Job club operates like a behaviorist group in which members share job leads and discuss or role-play specific behaviors (eg. interviewing skills) necessary for job acquisition. The club helps members learn from each other Individual in the club had a good idea of the type of job they intended to secure Arzin was also one of the leading pioneers who created the specific guidelines for running a behavior modification token economy (eg. giving plastic tokens which could be turned in for actual reinforces such as food)
Hidden Job Market
Job opportunities not advertised or publicized
Pink-Collar Worker
Jobs dominated by women (Eg. waiter, secretary, child-care, teacher, beautician); Often pay less
Career Counseling
John Holland Anne Roe
One of the first formal therapeutic groups was held by
Joseph Pratt In 1905, Joseph Pratt, a medical doctor from Boston, gathered a group of patients with tuberculosis in order to educate them
The terms introversion and extroversion are associated with ...
Jung
Jung's Mandala
Jung used drawings balanced around a center point to analyze himself, his clients, and dreams
Moral Development Theory
Kohlberg's theory that human moral development proceeds through clearly defined stages of moral reasoning
Nonstandardized Measure
Lack procedural guidelines for scoring or administration and do not include quantitative information related to "standards" of performance
Door-in-the-Face
Large to small People are more likely to agree to a SMALL request AFTER they have refused a LARGE request
Ego Defense Mechanism
Largely unconscious mental strategies employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety.
Ecosystems (Brief / Strategic Family Therapy)
Larger systems often impact client and family functioning Eg. schools, church, health care system
Speculative Leaders
Leaders that focus primarily on the here-and-now
Energizers
Leaders who emotionally stimulate group members and are charismatic
Managers
Leaders who exert executive control
OOH (Occupational Outlook Handbook)
Leading guide for national occupational and career information from the US department of labor; published in 1949 to aid WWII veterans Revised every two years; highlights salient factors of the job, necessary training, earnings, advancement opportunities, and job prospects for the future
John Krumboltz
Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) Considered a Cognitive Approach / Behavioristic Model Insists that learning, not interests guides people into a certain occupation
Vicarious Learning
Learning based on observation of the consequences of others' behavior
Stimulus Generalization (also called second-order conditioning)
Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
Skewed Distribution
Left and right side of the curve are not mirror images Mean, median, and mode fall at different points
Left Brain vs. Right Brain
Left brain: Logical/Rational Right brain: Creative
Privileged Communication
Legal term that implies that a therapeutic interaction (verbal or written) will not be available for public inspection The client (not the counselor or the court) can choose NOT to have confidential information revealed during a legal proceeding (generally on the witness stand) If client decides to waive his or her right to privileged communication, then the counselor must reveal the information The client is the holder of the privilege It is the client's privilege to reveal Protects clients, not the counselor Legislation varies from state to state Not applicable in cases of child abuse, neglect, or exploitation; suicide or homicide threats; criminal intentions; clients in dire need of hospitalization; or in cases where a counselor is the victim of a malpractice lawsuit; minor (legal guardians hold the privilege); and mentally incompetent individuals
Most experts would agree that overall structured exercises are ______ than unstructured techniques
Less effective
Higher internal validity,
Less generalizable (lower external validity), and vice versa
CPT Codes
Let insurance companies or managed care firms know which service you provide Eg. individual therapy or family therapy For billing purposes
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Level 1: Physiological Needs Level 2: Safety and Security Level 3: Relationships, Love and Affection Level 4: Self Esteem Level 5: Self Actualization
Donald Super
Life Span / Life Space Model or Self-concept and Developmental Stage Theory
Lithium for Bipolar Disorder
Lithium helps reduce the severity and frequency of mania. It may also help relieve or prevent bipolar depression Studies show that lithium can significantly reduce suicide risk. Lithium also helps prevent future manic and depressive episodes
Psychoanalytic Cases
Little Hans, Anna O., Daniel Paul Schreber
C. G. Jung, the founder of analytic psychology, said men operate on logic or the _______ principle, while women are intuitive, operating on the _______ principle.
Logos; Eros Logos - logic Eros - intuition
Platykurtic Distribution
Looks like an upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the abscissa
Premack Principle (aka Relativity theory of reinforcement)
Low-probability Behavior (LPB) & High-probability Behavior (HPB) Any HPB can be used as a reinforcer for any LPB Sometimes called "Grandma's Rule" or "Grandma's Law"
Positively Skewed Curve
Majority of scores at lower end The tail of the curve points to the right
Negatively Skewed Curve
Majority of scores at upper end The tail of the curve points to the left
Sensitization
Make one more sensitive to a stimulus
Test Format
Manner in which test items are presented
Animus
Masculine side of women
MAC
Master Addictions Counselor (NBCC credential)
Fritz Perls borrowed the term Gestalt from the system of psychology proposed by
Max Wertheimer of Germany in 1920
Rational Behavioral Therapy (RBT)
Maxie C. Maultsby This approach relies on REBT; however, the client performs a written self-analysis
Very Heavy Work
Maximum lifting exceeds 100 pounds
Sedentary Work 久坐不动
Maximum lifting is 10 pounds
Heavy Work
Maximum lifting is 100 pounds
Light Work
Maximum lifting is 20 pounds Could walk or stand up to 6 hours daily
Medium Work
Maximum lifting is 50 pounds
Most Useful Measure of Center Tendency
Mean Mean is misleading when the distribution is skewed and there are extreme scores
Central Tendency
Mean, Median, Mode
Bubbles
Means flaws in research
Conjoint
Means two or more family members are in the therapy session at the same time
Range
Measure of Variability The distance between the largest and the smallest scores Eg. Exclusive Range: 54 and 1: Range = 54-1 = 53 OR Inclusive Range: Some test defines the range as the highest score minus the lowest score PLUS 1 Eg. 93 and 33: Range 93 - 33 = 60, 60 + 1 = 61 The larger the range, the greater the dispersion分散 or spread of scores from the mean Generally increases with sample size
Holland's Self-Directed Search (SDS)
Measure the six personality types (RIASEC)
Achievement Test
Measures how much a person has learned in a given subject or area (measure current ability) A measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science, or some other subject Eg. ACT
Strong Interest Inventory (SII)
Measures interests, not abilities Must be computer scored
Achievement Test / Attainment Test
Measures maximum performance or present level of skill
Convergent Validity
Measures of constructs that theoretically should be related to each other Correlations between two different methods of the same trait should be high Eg. Two tests that can measure depression - BDI & MMPI-2
Discriminant Validity
Measures of constructs that theoretically should not be related to each other Relationship between a single method of measuring two different traits should be low Eg. One test of depression and one test of life satisfaction do not correlate The test will NOT REFLECT (correlation close to 0) unrelated variables (Eg. Lack of relationship between IQ and phobia); When there is a discriminant validity (correlation closer to 1), then there is a relationship between the two factors (Eg. Study time and NCE score)
Personality Test / Interest Inventory
Measures typical performance (Memory: typical personality)
Repeated-Measures Comparison Design (aka Within-Subjects Designs)
Measuring the same group of subjects without the IV and then with the IV
Best Center Tendency for Skewed Distributions
Median When there are extreme scores in the distribution
Scapegoating (Group)
Members gang up on a single group member
Injunctions (an authoritative warning or order)
Messages we receive from parents to form the ego states
Topographic Map
Mind has depth like iceberg Unconscious, preconscious, and conscious
E. G. Williamson utilized test data from instruments such as the ___
Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales (Memory: Minnesota means matching or Minnesota and matching both begin with an "M")
Coefficient of Nondetermination
Minus coefficient of determination from 100
Intrapersonal Leaders
More likely to work on the past, sometimes employing psychodynamic notions
Additive Empathy
Most desirable since it adds to the client's understanding and awareness
Donald Super
Most popular developmental career theorist
Group Movement
Movement began in the late 1960s Remain popular in the 1970s
Emic Viewpoint
Multicultural perspective; culture matters, counselor will attempt to look at the world from the client's point of view (memory: emic with M - me like individualism)
Fourth Force in Counseling
Multiculturalism
Positive Addiction
Must be a noncompetitive activity which can be performed alone for about one hour each day, lead to personal improvement, perform the activity without self-critical
Instruments used for Personality Theory of Career Selection
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Guilford-Zimmerman Temperment Survey (GZTS), the Adjective Checklist, BDI, MMPI-2
Oldest to Most Recent
NVGA - APGA - AACD - ACA
NASW
National Association of Social Workers Established in 1955
NCC
National Certified Counselor A generic certification for counselors
Biofeedback that targets the brain is called ...
Neurofeedback
Mirror Neuron Concept
Neuron fires when we perform certain actions and the same neuron fire when we observe others performing those actions
In DOT (Dictionary of Occupational Titles), each job was given a ___ digit code
Nine 1st three digits - occupational category and divisions Middle three digits - described tasks in relation to data, people, and things, respectively Last three digits - Alphabetize the job titles
Somatic Symptom Disorders
No physiological basis or medical condition can be found to explain client's reaction Must have a physical exam before Emotional factors can cause somatic (bodily) complaints and health concerns Often begins early in life (often in one's teen life) and can last an entire lifetime
Linear (Career Counseling)
Non-interactive activities Eg. reading a book about career, watch related-video, hearing a speech Client has some control over the process (Eg. stop reading a job pamphlet)
Parametric Test (to examine a null hypothesis for:) -- 2 means - use t test -- 3 or more groups - use ANOVA and F test
Nonparametric Test (to examine a null hypothesis for:) -- 2 groups - use Mann-Whitney U Test or Wilcoxon Singed-Rank Test -- 3 or more groups - use Kruskal-Wallis One-Way ANOVA H test
Process Notes (aka Psychotherapy Notes)
Not generally shared with clients Process notes are kept separate and intended for the counselor themselves Not required by law
Feminist Therapy
Noted that a psychological difficulty can be located in the environment or political system, rather than in person Gender free - differences between men and women are seen to be the result of socialization, not because they are male or female Have egalitarian平均主义relationship with client
Item Difficulty Index Calculation
Number of persons tested who answered the item correctly DIVIDED BY total number of person tested
6 Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
Obedience and Punishment Individualism Interpersonal Relationship The social order Social Contract Universal Principles
Ethological Observation
Observation of animals
Single-Subject Research Designs
Observing one subject over a variety of behaviors N = 1 Eg. AB or ABA Design
Classical Test Theory
Obtained score = True score + Error X = T + E
Bartering
Occurs when a client exchanges a good or service for treatment or testing Currently, ethics allow bartering if client requests it, a written contract is drafted, it doesn't result in any harm, and relationship is not exploitative
Mental Health Consultation
Occurs when a consultant works with consultee regarding clients or administrative program issues By Gerald Caplan 4 types: -- Client-Centered Consultation -- Consultee-Centered Consultation -- Consultee-Centered Administrative Consultation -- Program-Centered Administrative Consultation
Time-Out
Occurs when a family member (usually a child) is isolated or removed form an environment for a specified period of time so as to ensure that he or she does not receive reinforcement for dysfunctional behavior A procedure that most behaviorists feel is a form of extinction
Conflict of Interest
Occurs when a group member maximizes their needs and interests at the expense of someone else
Recency Effect
Occurs when a rater gives greater weight to recent events when appraising an individual's performance
Horizontal Sampling
Occurs when a researcher selects subjects from a single socioeconomic group
Halo Effect
Occurs when a trait which is not being evaluated (eg. attractiveness or how well he or she is liked) influences a researcher's rating on another trait (eg. counseling skill)
Splitting (Ackerman - psychoanalytic family therapy)
Occurs when client sees an object (another person) as either all good or all bad It allows a person to keep anxiety in check by making objects predictable Begins in childhood, usually categorized one's mother as all good or all bad Eg. A client who realistically perceives her therapist as only having good qualities & A client who sees her therapist as all bad
Musturbation (aka 'absolutist thinking')
Occurs when client uses too many shoulds, oughts, and musts in his thinking
Convergent Thinking (J. P. Guilford)
Occurs when divergent thoughts and ideas are combined into a singular concept
Reciprocity礼尚往来 / Endorsement背书
Occurs when one state or organization accepts the license or credentials of another state or organization (you will be permitted to practice in the new state based on your current credentials without taking another exam)
Vertical Sampling
Occurs when persons from two or more socioeconomic classes are used
Reframing
Occurs when you redefine a situation in a positive context Make the situation or behavior seem acceptable to the client The situation is described in a positive light to evoke a different emotional response
Primary Group
Often labeled as prevention groups (memory: "P" for primary and prevention) Attempts to stop a problem before it occurs Stresses a healthy lifestyle or coping strategies which can reduce the occurrence of a given difficulty Eg. Group that teaches birth control to prevent teen pregnancy
Brief Solution-Oriented Therapy
Often relies on paradoxical intervention
Paradoxical Techniques
Often seem to defy logic as the client is instructed to intensify/exaggerate or purposely engage in the maladaptive behavior Used by Adler & Frankl Became popular with family therapists (Jay Haley & Miton Erikson) Is contraindicated禁忌 in cases with homicidal or suicidal clients
Organismic Variable
One that the researcher cannot control but yet exists E.g. height, weight, gender To determine whether an organismic IV exists, you ask yourself if there is an experimental variable being examined which you cannot manipulate
Semantic Differential Scale
One way for researcher to collect information about individuals' opinions and beliefs Scales ask respondents to report their perception of certain issues and experiences Researchers choose adjectives that allow them to analyze respondents' unconscious desires and anxieties Eg. "On the following scale, how would you describe yourself as a child?" -- Outgoing ----------------- Shy -- Relaxed ------------------- Anxious
One-way ANOVA / Simple ANOVA
One-way analysis of variance is used when there is more than one level of a SINGLE IV
formative evaluation
Ongoing evaluation while the program is underway Ongoing evaluation and provide feedback on how a program is working so that changes can be made if needed
OARS
Open questions - how is your gambling addiction impacting your life? Affirmations - any positive factors the counselor sees in the client's life, such as awards, achievements, or successes Reflective listening (Reflection) - you know this one by now Summaries - you've got this one down
Classical Conditioning (Respondent Conditioning);
Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)
Prejudicial Parent
Opinionated with biases not based on fact (e.g., women should always wear dresses to work)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Orginal version was created in 1940 Current version MMPI-2 was used since 1989 Is a self-report standardized personality test Client can respond with "true", "false" or "cannot say" to 567 questions Was the most researched test and most useful for assessing emotional disturbance MMPI-2 is intended to help clinicians diagnose and treat patients Suitable for individuals over age 18, 60 - 90 minutes testing time MMPI-A is a 478 questions version suitable for 14-18 year old adolescents
Group IQ Tests (Example)
Otis-Lennon, Lorge-Thorndike, California Test of Mental Abilities (Popular in school settings)
Anne Roe spoke of three basic parenting styles:
Overprotective, Avoidant (aka Rejecting), or Acceptant Result in child developing a personality which gravitates toward people or away from people Avoidant - Emotionally cold or hostile style Acceptant - Democratic
Sweet Lemon Rationalization
Overrates a reward
Parametric vs. Non-parametric
Parametric: -- parametric statistical test is one that makes assumptions about the parameters (defining properties) of the population distribution(s) from which one's data are drawn -- information about population is completely known -- specific assumptions are made regarding the population -- null hypothesis is made on parameters of the population distribution -- parametric test is powerful if exists -- test statistics are based on distribution -- Parametric tests are used only with interval and ratio data Non-parametric: -- no information about the population is available -- no assumptions are made regarding the population -- null hypothesis is free from parameters -- not powerful like parametric test -- test statistics are arbitrary 随意 -- can be used with ordinal or nominal data -- data are not normally distributed
4 Lobes of Human Brain
Parietal Lobe - processes information temperature, taste, touch, and movement - processing tactile触 sensory information Occipital Lobe - responsible for vision Frontal Lobe - cognitive functions and voluntary movement Temporal Lobe - processes memory and connects them with our senses
National Defense Education Act
Passed in response to Sputnik, it provided an opportunity and stimulus for college education for many Americans. It allocated funds for upgrading funds in the sciences, foreign language, guidance services, and teaching innovation
Pioneers in the Behaviorist movement
Pavlov, Mary Cover Jones, John B. Watson
Kurtic / Kurtosis
Peakedness of a frequency distribution
Salad Bowl Model of Diversity
People are mixed together, but like lettuce and tomatoes in a salad, they retain their unique cultural identity
What does the abbreviation BCP stand for in relation to Reality Therapy?
Perception controls our behavior
Yerkers-Dodson Law
Performance is related to arousal -moderate levers of arousal= better performance -easy tasks= high levels of arousal -hard tasks= low levels of arousal
Perry's 4 Stages of Mental and Moral Development
Perry believed college students go through 4 stages of mental and moral development: Dualism, Multiplicity, Relativism, and Commitment The first stage that is typically discussed for people who are very young is dualism. Dualism is the belief that every problem is solvable, that students are to learn the right answers, and that one must obey authorities. The second stage is known as multiplicity. Multiplicity is that there are two types of problems: solvable, and also problems that the answer is not know yet. In addition, in this stage, students put trust in their own inner voice. Relativism is the third stage. During this stage, all solutions to problems must have reasons, and be viewed within a specific context. The basis for this stage is that every issue must be evaluated because everything is contextual. Commitment is the last stage where there is an acceptance of uncertainty as part of life. During this stage, students use the combination of personal experience and evidence learned from outside sources to arrive at conclusions
Negative Transference
Phenomenon that occurs during psychoanalytic therapy in which the patient redirects toward the therapist unconscious feelings of Anger and Hostility retained from experiences with authority figures in childhood
Positive Transference
Phenomenon that occurs during therapy, in which the patient redirects toward the therapist unconscious feelings of Love and Affection retained from experiences with authority figures (usually the parents) in early childhood.
Eidetic Imagery
Photographic memory
Andrew Salter
Pioneer in behavior therapy, creating a paradigm dubbed 'conditioning reflex therapy', behavioral theory of hypnosis, and autohypnosis.
Albert Bandura
Pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
R. A. Fisher
Pioneered hypothesis testing.
Juxtaposition
Placing two elements side by side to present a comparison or contrast
Id
Pleasure principle A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
Family Sculpting (Family Therapy Technique)
Popularized by Satir, an experimental/expressive technique in which the family members place other family members in position that symbolize their relationships with other members of the family. Helps clarify family dynamics Family members are instructed to arrange themselves spatially to create a live representation of family members' bonds, feelings of closeness, and sense of alliances
Attrition摩擦 (aka Experimental Mortality)
Possible threat to validity where participant does not show up, fails to complete a study, or drop out of a study
Anne Roe
Postulated jobs can compensate for unmet childhood needs.
Daniel Levinson
Postulated that the human life span has several stressful transition periods and the term "midlife crisis"
Practicing Excitation (Conditioned Reflex Therapy)
Practice of spontaneously experiencing and expressing true emotions (even negative ones) is seen as necessary in order to attain a state of positive mental health
Freud's Idea of the Mind
Pre-conscious mind contains elements from both the unconscious and the conscious minds Unconscious mind contains hidden or forgotten memories Conscious mind contains what is happening in the present
Statistical Regression
Predicts very high and very low scores will move toward the mean if a test is administered again It is a threat to internal validity
Aptitude Test
Predicts whether or not you could capture certain skills with proper training and experience Measure potential / Measure future ability Predictive validity is important when choosing aptitude test
Prejudice vs. Discrimination
Prejudice is a negative attitude, discrimination is a negative behavior A prejudiced person may not act on their attitude. Therefore, someone can be prejudiced towards a certain group but not discriminate against them Prejudice includes all three components of an attitude (affective, behavioral and cognitive), whereas discrimination just involves behavior
Paradox
Prescribing the symptom is a paradoxical strategy Direct antithesis对立 of common sense A statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory or absurd but in reality expresses a possible truth The helper prescribes what the client or family would probably do anyway and can even tell them to exaggerate it
Jane Loevinger - Stages of Ego Development
Presocial, Impulsive, Self-protective, Conformist, Self-Aware, Conscientious, Individualistic, Autonomous, Integrated
Stratified Sampling
Process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a population into smaller sub-groups known as strata. In stratified random sampling or stratification, the strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or characteristics such as income or educational attainment. Then, a probability sample (often a simple random sample ) is drawn from each group Stratified sampling is used to highlight differences between groups in a population, as opposed to simple random sampling, which treats all members of a population as equal, with an equal likelihood of being sampled
Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Processing speed vs Acquired 后天 knowledge
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990
Prohibited employers with 15 or more employees from discriminating against the disabled
PHI
Protected Health Information
Psychoanalysis vs. Psychodynamic
Psychoanalysis in particular has two meanings. First, it is a theory for understanding clinical presentations, and perhaps even people in general. It is also used to describe a form of intensive psychotherapy in the most classic sense, which involves long-term treatment, often for years. The treatment takes place several times a week, with the patient on a couch and conducted by a therapist who is a certified psychoanalyst. Psychoanalytic theory, in part developed based on the intensive form of therapy described above, guides the practice of psychodynamic therapy to a large extent, but not completely. Psychodynamic therapy is psychoanalytic for the most part and makes assumptions about how the mind works that are based on psychoanalytic theory. But the technique is radically different from a traditional psychoanalysis treatment. It is brief—15 sessions would not be unusual—and often similar in number of sessions to CBT. It is mostly delivered once per week and takes place face-to-face. The therapist may not be a certified psychoanalyst, but is someone who trained in psychoanalysis or psychodynamic therapy and considers that his or her therapeutic orientation. In APA's Div. 39 (Psychoanalysis) the term "psychoanalysis" covers the whole range of psychoanalytically oriented therapy, research and treatment.—Amy Novotney
Intrapsychic Process
Psychological processes occurring within the mind
Which group was the most instrumental in opposing counselor licensure?
Psychologists
Race vs. Ethnicity
Race is visible genetic differences; ethnicity deals more with cultural identity
Central Tendency Bias
Rater always uses middle range ratings
Objective Test
Rater's judgement plays little or no part in the scoring process; Scoring procedure is specific Eg. Multiple choice, NCE
Job Evaluation
Rates the value of the job within the organization to decide what it should pay Does not rate the person performing the job
Two Basic Classes of Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
Ratio & Interval
Variable schedules are more effective than fixed schedules
Ratio schedules are more effective than interval schedules
REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy) was formerly known as
Rational-emotive Therapy (RET)
RIASEC (John Holland)
Realistic - "Motoric" person who likes machines, physical labor, and enjoys working with tools Investigative - Likes to think his or her way through a problem Artistic - Value feelings over pure intellect or cognitive ability, avoid conformity and structure, emphasize on self-expression Social - Solve problems using interpersonal skills and feelings Enterprising - Likes to sell to others or perform leadership tasks, value power and status Conventional (secretary or file clerk) - values conformity, structure, rules, and feels comfortable in a subordinate role
Two Popular Behavioral Techniques in Regards to Career Counseling (not necessarily just related to the work of Krumboltz)
Realistic Job Preview (RJP) and Guided Imagery
Ego
Reality principle The largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
View on Current Behaviors
Reality therapy views current behaviors as central to the therapeutic process. Reality, more than other orientations, challenges clients to look at and evaluate what they are now doing and assess whether or not is useful in obtaining their desired goals Client-centered therapy places central importance on the counselor/client relationship and on self-exploration Adlerian focus on encouragement and the development of socially useful goals Gestalt focus on awareness and on internal support
Sublimation (defense mechanism)
Rechanneling of drives or impulses that are personally or socially unacceptable into activities that are acceptable (eg. aggressive individual pursues a career in boxing)
Francis Galton
Recognized as one of the major pioneers in the study of Individual Differences Interested in link between heredity and intelligence Concluded that intelligence was normally distributed like height or weight and it was primarily genetic Believed that intelligence was a single/unitary factor
Which type of memory retrieval requires a person to reconstruct重建 a memory?
Recollection Memories are stored in the brain's hippocampus and recollection occurs when a person needs to reconstruct a memory. Each time a person reminisces回忆 about an experience, that memory is strengthened Recall - designates that specific details be retrieved through memory Recognition - the ability to recognize previously encountered people, events, or objects.
Secondary Resources
Records that explain or interpret primary resources Often secondary sources, like textbooks and articles, provide summaries of information found in primary sources
Snowball Sampling / Chain-Referral Sample
Recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants Uses subjects to drum up other subjects for your study Eg. LGBTQ+ population
V Code
Refers to factors that influence health status Sounds more like day-to-day problems rather than a psychiatric or psychological difficulty
The Gelatt Decision Model
Refers to info as the "fuel of the decision" Decision Making Approach; Occupational choice is an ongoing process but there are times when a key decision must be made Information can be organized into three systems: Predictive; Value, Decision - Predictive System: Probable alternatives, actions, and possibilities - Value System: One's relative preferences regarding the outcomes (personal likes, dislikes, and preferences) - Decision System: Provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome (personal rules)
Reactive effect
Refers to the effect that a researcher has on that person which he or she is trying to study Subjects behave less naturally due to the fact that they are being studied
Glass Escalator
Refers to the way men, namely heterosexual white men, are put on a fast track to higher up positions when entering women dominated sex-segregated professions
Internal Validity
Refers to whether the DVs were truly influenced by the IVs or whether other factors had an impact (Can we conclude that it is a casual relationship?)
External Validity / Population Validity
Refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations
Paradoxical Interventions
Reframing (aka relabeling or redefining), restraining, positioning, prescribing the symptom techniques These paradoxical interventions defy common sense
Anorexia
Refuses to eat enough to maintain a healthy body weight Low body weight (lower than a normal healthy weight)
Fixed (Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules)
Reinforcement always takes place after a fixed time or number of responses
Intermittent Schedule of Reinforcement (Thinning / Partial Reinforcement)
Reinforcement is delivered after some behaviors or responses but never after each one Advantage - it is more resistant to extinction Disadvantage - learned behaviors take longer to be acquired
Extinction (operant conditioning)
Reinforcement is withheld and eventually the behavior will be eliminated Methods of extinction such as ignoring or time-out
Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement
Reinforcing every desired behavior. A reinforcer is given every time a desired response occurs Not necessarily the most practical or effective Continuous schedule is used during the first stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Overtime, if the association is strong, the reinforcement schedule is switched to a partial reinforcement schedule
Concerned
Related to; be about
DSM-5
Released May 18, 2013
Second most important factor in the construction of a test is ___
Reliability
Subjective Test
Relies mainly on the scorer's opinion, thoughts, and feelings; If the rater knows the test taker's attributes, the rater's personal bias can significantly impact upon the rating Eg. an essay test, free choice test
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
Relies on 4 modes: - skills training - phone counseling - therapist consultation team - individual treatment
RS
Religious, Spiritual
Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms
Repression Denial Displacement Projection Reaction Formation Rationalization Compensation Regression Fantasy
Suppression (denial) vs. Repression
Repression: Involuntarily/Unconscious withholding Suppression: Intentionally/conscious withholding
Correlational Research
Research that examines the relationships between variables IV is not necessarily introduced experimentally (eg. random assignment)
Ethnographic Research
Research that is collected via interviews, observations, and inspection of documents
Idiographic (aka Single-Subject Research)
Research that studies a single individual/subject
John Crites
Researched the phenomenon of "career maturity" or "vocational maturity" Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) - measure attitudes and competencies related to the career choice process
Quasi-Experiment
Researcher uses preexisting groups, so IV cannot be altered (eg. gender or ethnicity) Cannot randomly assign the subjects You cannot state with any degree of statistical confidence that the IV caused DV Unlike experimental research, Quasi-experiment doesn't have experimental control (participants may experience differences other than the effect of IV), doesn't gave randomization (participants usually all assigned to the same conditions. Eg. cannot randomly assign gender to particiapnts)participants, and doesn't contain control group (eg. pretest-posttest model doesn't required control group) A type of Quasi-Experiment is: Ex Post Facto Study (aka "after the fact"), implying a correlational study in which intact preexisting groups are utilized. The IV was administered before the research begins
Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect
Responses followed by a pleasant outcome will increase in occurrence, whereas those followed by an unpleasant outcome will decrease in occurrence.
Parroting
Restates the client's message back word by word
After Script
Result in a way a person believes they will behave after a certain event occurs
Incomplete Parent State
Result of the death or absence of a parent
Relationship Behavior (Maintenance Action Leadership)
Result of two way communication Eg. Leader provides emotional support for members
Experts Who Don't Like Formal Diagnosis
Rogerians, Jay Haley, Carl Rogers
Career Construction Postmodern Theory (Mark Savickas)
Rooted in narrative therapy, in which the client's life is viewed as a story they has constructed, and intervention focuses on recurring themes to re-author the story
Variance = S^2
SD(squared)
Family Therapy Movement
Satir and Minuchin
Taxonomy分类
Science of classification
Second and Middle Children (Adler)
Second-born child - someone who has a "pacemaker." Since there is always someone who was there first, this child may grow to be more competitive, rebellious and consistent in attempting to be best. Middle children may struggle with figuring out their place in the family and, later, in the world. They are eager for parental praise and thus tend to develop gifts in the arts or academia in order to accomplish this goal. Due to their "middle" status, they also may be the most flexible and diplomatic members of the family
Systematic Sampling
Select some starting point and then select every nth element in the population Eg. You have a list of 10,000 folks, you want 1,000 in your study. You pick the first person between 1 and 10 at random, then use every 10th person This results could (maybe) be virtually the same as the results from standard random sampling
Masochistic自虐 Personality
Self-abusive person
Self-concept and Developmental Stage Theory (Donald Super)
Self-concept and career/vocational maturity influences one's career throughout life span Life rainbow helps clients conceptualize their roles as a child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, and pensioner Created a five-stage life-span theory emphasizing that career choice is a developmental process based on the individual's self-concept
Frank Parsons
Set up community centers to help individuals on search of work Father of guidance Some historians insist that the profession of counseling officially began when Parsons founded the Vocational Guidance Bureau of Boston and published the book "Choosing a Vocation" in 1909
Inter-Rater / Inter-Observer Reliability (aka Scorer Reliability)
Several raters assess the same performance Used when assessing subjective test performance (eg. essay) Will two different persons who grade the same response produce roughly the same score?
Superordinate Goals
Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
Free Choice / Free Response Items
Short answer format, allows the responder to answer in manner they wish; Can yield more information; Take more time to score; Increase subjectivity Eg. Short answer, projective measures
Increasing a test's length raises reliability;
Shortening a test lowers reliability.
The Interpretation of Dreams
Sigmund Freud Manifest and Latent Content
If Confidence Level = 95%
Significance Level (alpha) = 1 minus(-) confidence level = 1 - 95% = 1 - 0.95 = 0.05 = p = 0.05
Process Consultation Model (Edgar Schein)
Similar to the "doctor-patient" model Consultant is paid to diagnose the problem and prescribe a solution. The focus is on the agency or organization, not the individual client Focus is not on the content of the problem, but rather the process used to solve the problems
Survey
Simplest form of descriptive research Ideal sample size is at least 100 Requires 50-75% completion rate to be accurate Problems: poor construction of the instrument, low return rate, often subjects are not picked at random and thus are not representative of the population
Contingent Reinforcement
Situation in which a certain response must be made before a reinforcer is obtained; that is, no response, no reinforcer (think dependent) Eg. give a treat to your dog when she comes to the door after you call her
Foot-in-the-Door
Small to large Tendency for people to comply with some LARGE request AFTER first agreeing to a SMALL request. The technique is used to get compliance from others in which a small request is made first in order to get compliance for a larger request. For example, someone might want you to give 5 hours of your time a week for the three months as a volunteer to a charity (a big request). But to get you to agree to this big request, they first ask you to volunteer for 1 hour one time and one time only. After hearing this small request, which you are willing to agree to, they then work their way up asking you to volunteer time until you are willing to agree to the big request. You are more likely to agree to this when you have already said yes to the small request.
SCCT
Social Cognitive Career Theory States that self-efficacy beliefs impacts one's career decisions Self-efficacy: "Can I really do this and what will happen if I try to do this?"
DSM-5 Code
Someitmes a single code can truly represent multiple conditions, therefore you need to list the name of the condition in the client's record Eg. 300.3 - Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Blue-Collar Worker
Someone who performs manual labor, often in a manufacturing job, and who earns an hourly wage
Quid Pro Quo
Something given in exchange or return for something else Uses a behavioral contingency contract -- one person in the family will do something as long as the other member agrees to do something comparable
T-Group (Training Group)
Sometimes called the laboratory training groups or sensitivity groups
Trait-and-Factor Model
Sometimes classified as a "Structural" theory because it emphasizes individual differences / structural differences Also grounded in "Differential Psychology" because it is the study of individual differences
Career
Sometimes defined as the total work one does in a lifetime plus leisure
Stratum / Strata
Special characteristic required to be presented in a research Eg. gender, age, race, educational degree The stratification variable in the sample should mimic the population at large -- If 20% of all Rogerian counselors are AA, then your study on Rogerian counselors should have 20% AA counselors in your sample Cannot be achieve via simple random sampling
Decrement
Speed, skills, and retention would decrease as one entered old age
All humans have a five-stage sleep cycle and all cycle through the stages in the same order
Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3, Stage 4, Stage 3, Stage 2, Stage 5 Sleep does not progress through all of these stages in sequence, however. Sleep begins in Stage One and progresses into stages Two, Three, and Four. Then, after Stage Four sleep, Stages Three, then Two are repeated before going into REM sleep (Stage 5). Once REM is over, we usually return to Stage Two sleep. Sleep cycles through these stages approximately 4 or 5 times throughout the night.
Standard deviation = √variance
Standard deviation = Square root of the variance
Ethics
Standards of behavior set forth by organizations and certification bodies Ethics are not state or federally mandated laws Do not spell out penalties for violations Ethics are not universal (eg. might varies across different organizations) However, if your state sends you ethical guidelines that are state statutes法规 after you secure your license, then in this case your guidelines will be the law
Wechsler's Intelligence Tests is a better test for those who fall in the average range;
Stanford-Binet test is more accurate for assessing extremes of intellect
PL 94-142 Education for All Handicapped Children Act
States that: -- all children between ages 5 and 21 are assured free education -- handicapped persons are places in the least-restrictive environment (LRE) -- an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is developed for each child The Act was passed in 1975
Trend Analysis
Statistical method that examines data at different points in time to determine if a variance is an isolated event or if it is part of a longer trend
Two-Tailed t Test (aka Nondirectional experimental hypothesis)
Statistical test places the rejection area at both ends of the distribution curve Eg. The average patient who has completed psychoanalysis will have a statistically DIFFERENT IQ from the average patient who has not received analysis
One-Tailed t Test (aka Directional experimental hypothesis)
Statistical test places the rejection area at one end of the distribution The hypothesis specifies that one average mean is larger than another Eg. The average patient who has completed psychoanalysis will gave a statistically significantly HIGHER IQ than the average patient who has not received analysis
Strategic Family Therapy
Strategic therapists are problem-solvers and solution-finders. They are the referees and coaches, not the spectators passively observing the action played out before them. They aren't concerned with where or how the problem started, only how to address it and solve it at this point in time Therapist guides the therapy sessions and develops treatment plans for each family member for specific problems that can addressed in a short amount of time Strategic therapist are directive (tells client what to do), actively involved and responsible in helping clients turn their lives around, in helping them strategically plan, execute, and measure "game winning" outcomes Strategic therapy is not a person laying on a couch describing what kind of inner turmoil or thoughts he or she is having or experiencing, what past childhood experiences contributed to a sense of self, or how a particular psychological issue could have arisen from past experiences Rely on reframing (aka relabeling or redefining), restraining, positioning, prescribing the symptom techniques (all of these are paradoxical interventions since they defy common sense)
Vertical Interventions (Intrapersonal Leadership)
Strategies that focus on an individual member of the group
Donald Meichenbaum
Stress Inoculation Treatment
Constructivist Theories of Intervention
Stress that it is imperative that we as helpers understand the client's view to explain his or her problems (eg. brief therapy and narrative therapy)
John Holland
Stressed a person's occupational environment should be congruent with his personality type
Constructivism
Stresses that therapy should be less hierarchical A helper does not treat a client, instead, the client and therapist have a conversation to work together in a collaborative effort
Salvador Minuchin
Structural Family Therapy Felt that family therapy was a science requiring therapeutic interventions well beyond warmth Uses joining, enactment, boundary making, and mimesis techniques
Personality Theory also referred to as ___
Structural Theory
Neuroscience
Studies how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences Is being used to help guide diagnostic and treatment procedures
Nomothetic
Studies using groups of individuals to discover general principles
Muzafer Sherif's Robbers Cave Study / Realistic conflict theory
Study concluded that the most effective way to reduce hostility between groups was to give them an alternative, a superordinate goal, which required a joint effort and could not be accomplished by a single group
Psychometrics
Study of psychological measurement / A branch of counseling or psychology which focuses on testing
Factorial Notation (e.g. 2x2, 2x3)
Study using two independent variables Eg. 2 x 3 = first variable has two levels (eg. male or female); second variable has three levels (eg. Caucasian, Asian, or African American)
Single-Blind Study
Subject would not know whether they are a member of the control group or the experimental group To eliminate demand characteristics
Matched Design
Subjects are literally 'matched' in regard to any variable that could be correlated with the DV, which is really the post-experimental performance Termed "Matched Sampling" Eg. Repeated-measures or within-subjects: the theory is that subject is best matched by himself or herself, assuming that counterbalancing is implemented
Biofeedback Devices
Such as a scale or mirror, are used primarily to teach clients to relax or to control autonomic nervous system functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate, or hand temperature Provides the client and helper with biological information so that client can master self-regulation
Global Measures
Such as standardized tests, that may well assess traits and factors not specifically addressed in the group EX: giving members of a Weight Watchers group a pre- and post-MMPI-2 would constitute a global measurement
Glass Ceiling Phenomenon
Suggest that women are limited in terms of how far they can advance in the world of work Is a form of occupational sex-role stereotyping that can limit women's careers Invisible barrier that keeps a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy
John Holland
Suggested that a person's personality needs to be congruent with the work environment
Robert R. Carkhuff
Suggests a "scale for measurement" in regard to "empathic understanding in interpersonal processes." Level 1: not attending or detracting significantly from the client's verbal and behavioral expressions. Level 2: subtracts noticeable affect from the communication. Level 3: feelings expressed by the client are basically interchangeable with the client's meaning and affect. Level 4: counselor adds noticeably to the client's affect. Level 5: counselor adds significantly to the client's feeling, meaning even in the client's deepest moments. 1969 book: "Helping and Human Relations"
Supervisors & Supervisees
Supervisors should not supervise relatives (by NBCC Ethics) Supervisors do not provide counseling services to supervisees
Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Support Anne Roe's theory because they are projective test (Memory: Roe and Rorschach both begin with "R")
Using deductive reasoning to gain knowledge has been called:
Syllogism A syllogism is a systematic representation of a single logical inference
Ludwig von Bertalanffy
Systems Theory Model Popularized the notion of the connectedness of all living things Family is more than merely the separate persons but rather a system with rules, patterns that connect members, and so on
Implosive Therapy
T. G. Stampfl
Midlife Career Change
Takes place generally between 35-45, additional training is often needed Factors: divorce, childbirth, caring for a disabled child, empty nest syndrome, job dissatisfaction
Introjection
Taking in and "swallowing" the values and standards of others
introjects (Ackerman - psychoanalytic family therapy)
Taking in personality attributes of others that become apart of your own self-images Unconsciously internalizes the positive and negative characteristics of the objects within themselves Eventually these introjects determine how the individual will relate to others
Back-up Reinforcers
Tangible objects, activities, or privileges that serve as reinforcers and that can be purchased with tokens
Back-up Reinforcer
Tangible objects, activities, or privileges that serve as reinforcers and that can be purchased with tokens Back-up reinforcers are often unconditioned
Classification of Roles (Group)
Task Roles - helps the group carry out a task. Eg. An information giver or clarifier Maintenance Roles - helps to maintain or even strengthen group process. Eg. The follower, or an encourager Self-Serving Roles / Individual Roles - is seen as negative. The person meets their own individual needs at the expense of the group. They work against the group. Eg. Someone who refuses to participate or someone who criticizes or disagrees with others
Timed test
Technically is a type of speed test; has time limit but more difficult and with a higher percentage of individuals completing it Eg. NCE
Halo Effect
Tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements (positive characteristic, higher rating)
Social Loafing
Tendency of certain members of a group to get by with less effort than what they would have put when working alone
Group Polarization
Tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group
Risky Shift Phenomenon
Tendency of people to increase their willingness to take risks as a result of group discussions
Parsimony / Parsimonious 简约
Tendency to be miserly and not overspend
Wilhelm Wundt
Termed "structuralism" because he was interested in the structure of consciousness He was convinced that psychology could be accepted as a science if consciousness could be measure
Practice Rational Self-talk/Thinking
Terms associated with cognitive therapists, especially rational-emotive behavior psychotherapy
Factor-Analytic Test / Inventory
Test that analyze data outside of a given theory / test isn't based on a theory Eg. 16 PF (by Raymond Cattell)
Tarasoff in Texas (Duty to Warn)
Texas physicians do not have a statutory duty to warn potential victims of their patients' violent conduct but may warn medical or law enforcement authorities if the patient is a danger to himself, to the treating physician, or to others The issue is whether a practitioner has a duty to protect not only the patient but also other persons from acts performed by a patient or client, emerging as a duty to warn. Texas firmly says "no." Such a duty must be established by statute. As will be seen, the Tarasoff rule does not apply in Texas because of the specific language of the statutes
TA: Adult Ego State
The Adult ego state is the 'grown up' rational person who talks reasonably and assertively, neither trying to control nor reacting aggressively towards others. The Adult is comfortable with him/herself and is, for many of us, our 'ideal self'. The Adult ego state deals with the here and now reality. It is the processing center and important because it is the only ego state that is not connected to the past. The Adult ego state is able to deal with current things in ways that are not unhealthily influenced by our past.
TA: Child Ego State
The Child ego state is rooted in the past and plays back thoughts, feelings and behaviors that we experienced as a child. Natural Child - what the person would be naturally - spontaneous, impulsive, and untrained Little Professor - acts on hunches, often without the necessary information - creative and intuitive Adaptive Child - learns how to comply to avoid a parental slap on the hand
Harry B. Gelatt
The Gelatt Decision Model
O*NET
The Occupational Information Network (O*Net) is an online database which replaced the DOT, developed by the US Department of Labor to identify and describe important information about occupations, worker characteristics, work skills and training requirements O*NET lists fewer occupations than DOT
Morphostasis (Stability)
The ability of the family to balance stability
Internal Validity
The ability to draw conclusion about causal relationship from the data Higher internal validity in experimental study compared to non experimental study because we have more control over the variables
Empathy
The ability to understand the client's world and to communicate this to the client Able to experience the client's subjective world
Cognitive Disputation (REBT)
The act of changing the client's mode of thinking
Awfulizing / Catastrophizing (used in REBT)
The act of telling yourself how difficult, terrible, and horrendous a given situation really is
Positive Punishment
The addition of something unpleasant to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior Eg. scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class)
Mean (abbreviated by an X with a bar over it)
The arithmetic average of a distribution Obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Rational-Emotive Imagery
The client imagines s/he is in a situation which has traditionally caused emotional disturbance; then imagines changing the feelings via rational, logic, scientific thought
Behavioral Disputation (REBT)
The client tries to behave in a way that is markedly different than his/her normal, though undesirable pattern
Occupational Sex Segregation
The concentration of women in certain occupations and men in other occupations Suggests that female occupations generally pay less and hold lower status than male occupations
Underemployment
The condition when people work at jobs for which they are overqualified or that do not utilize their skills
Subtractive Empathy
The counselor's behavior does not completely convey an understanding of what has been communicated
Familism
The degree to which a client is attached to and identifies with his or her family
Face Validity
The degree to which an assessment or test subjectively appears to measure the variable or construct that it is supposed to measure When an assessment or test appears to do what it claims to do
Content Validity (aka Rational or Logical Validity)
The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover Does the test examine or sample the behavior under scrutiny? (Does the test cover all the areas (subareas) that it supposed to test?) Eg. An IQ test that only sampled human's memory but not vocabulary or problem solving, is said to not sample the entire range of intelligence, which would have poor content validity
Rosenthal Effect (aka Experimenter Expectancy Effect)
The experimenter's beliefs about the individual may cause the experimenter to treat them in a special way so that the individual begin to fulfill the experimenter's expectations.
External Reliability
The extent to which a measure varies from one use to another The test or measure can be generalized beyond what you're using it for Eg. Test-retest method, Inter-rater method
External Validity (aka Population Validity)
The extent to which the results can be generalized to other populations and settings Higher external validity in non experimental study because we can study people in their nature environment
E. G. Williamson (1930's)
The father of the Minnesota Viewpoint. Popular some years ago, especially with career counselors, this approach attempts to match the client's traits with a career. Also called the "trait factor" approach Trait-factor counseling approaches assume that career choice may be facilitated and career outcomes optimized through a fairly straightforward process of matching an individual's most relevant work-relevant characteristics (abilities, interests, values, etc.) with information regarding job activities, demands, rewards, and availability
E. G. Williamson
The father of the so-called Minnesota Viewpoint. Popular some years ago, especially with career counselors, this approach attempts to match the client's traits with a career Many exams will bill this as the "trait factor" approach
Bystander Effect
The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma
The first developmental appreaoch to occupational choice Developmental stages are: - Age 11 and under - Fantasy - Early adolescence (ages 11 - 17) - Tentative - Age 17 into early adulthood - Realistic Original hypothesis was that career choice was irreversible - this hypothesis was later dropped
Neurogenesis
The growth and development of nervous tissue Suggests that new neurons can be formed Hence, the notion that we always go downhill with age is flawed
Spiral Test
The items get progressively more difficult (Memory: A spiral staircase get more difficult to climb as you walk up higher)
Situational Leadership Style
The leader tells members what to do and does not emphasize relationships among members
Confidence Level
The level of certainty (only consist of one number, usually a high number like 90% or 95%) that a population parameter exists in the calculated confidence interval Eg. If we conducted many confidence intervals the same way, we expect 95% of those intervals to contain the true mean.
Group Process
The manner in which discussions and transactions occur Refers to analyzing the communications, interactions, and transactions
For a Z-Score,
The mean is 0 Standard deviation is 1.0 Range for standard deviation of a z-score is -3.0 to +3.0
Median (abbreviated by Md. or Mdn.)
The middle score in a distribution Half the scores are above it and half are below it (Memory: Median is in the middle of the highway)
Mode (Modal Score; abbreviated by Mo.)
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution Least important measure of central tendency
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus Eg. Bell before pairing with meat
Supply and Demand Curve (Career)
The number of employees that employers want to hire goes down as salary goes up The number of employees willing to work for an employer goes up as the salary increases
Needs-Press Theory
The occupation (job/work) is used to meet a person's current need
Choice Theory
The only person whose behavior we can control is our own Our behavior is our best attempt to control our world to satisfy our wants and needs
True Experiment
The only research strategy that can determine that something causes something else; involves randomly assigning people to different treatments and then looking at the outcome
Enmeshment
The over-involvement of family members with each other and thus lose their autonomy
Percentile Rank
The percentage of scores that fall below a specific score in a distribution of scores
Josef Breuer
The person Freud credited with the founding of psychoanalysis. He discovered that when the memory of a traumatic event is recalled under deep relaxation or hypnosis, there is a release of emotional energy (catharsis) and the symptoms caused by the repressed memory are relieved
Common archetypes include
The persona—the mask or role we present to others to hide our true self Animus, anima, and self Shadow—the mask behind the persona, which contains id-like material, denied, yet desired
Placebo Effect
The phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma
The pioneer theorists that view career choice as an ongoing so-called longitudinal process rather than a single decision; abandon matching models
Cross-Validation
The process by which a second sample group is given a test to ensure it is applicable to more than one group To ensure that the original validity coefficient is applicable to others who will take the exam Takes place when a researcher further examines the criterion validity of a test by administering the test to a new sample
Job-Netting
The process of finding a job on the internet
Experimental Research
The process of gathering data in order to make evaluative comparisons regarding different situations An experiment must have the conditions of treatment controlled via the experimenter and random assignment (aka randomization) used in the groups Attempts to eliminate all extraneous variables Eg. True experiment
Ecological Planning
The process of obtaining information to determine whether a group is the most desirable form of treatment and, if it is, to decide the exact nature of the group experience The counselor needs to look at demographics, community needs, and social considerations
Homogeneity
The quality of being similar Also known as Inter-Item Consistency
Confidence Interval
The range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to lie It has a low number, high number, and include all the numbers in between Eg. We are 95% confident/sure that the interval (Eg. 60 inch, 65 inch) captures/contains the true/population mean height of 8th graders.
Harmonic Mean
The reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals Reciprocals: reciprocal of a fraction is the fraction turned upside-down Eg. Find the harmonic mean for these numbers: 2, 2, 4 -- 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/4 = 1.25/3 = .4166 (arithmetic mean of the reciprocals) -- 1/.4166 (reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals) Sometimes it is used if measurements were not made on an appropriate scale Cannot be use with negative numbers or if it has a score of zero
Positive Reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response / increase the probability that a behavior will occur by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus Something is added Following / After an operant (behavior) In positive reinforcement, a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with positive reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
The reinforcement of a response / increase the probability that a behavior will occur by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus Something is taken away Following / After an operant (behavior) In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior
Negative Punishment
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. Eg. when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.
Confederate同盟 or Stooge
The researcher has an accomplice pose as the client Social psychology studies routinely employ "confederates" or "stooges" who are not real subjects but in reality work with the researcher
In determining an alpha level,
The researcher needs to decide which error (type I or II) results in the most serious consequences. Researcher can set alpha at a very stringent level and then use a large sample size. If this can be accomplished, it is possible to make the correct decision (eg. accept or reject null) for majority of the time
Interquartile Range (IQR)
The score difference between the first (25th percentile) and third quartiles (75th percentile)
Standardized Measure
The scoring and administration procedures are formal and well delineated
Two-Groups / Two-Randomized-Groups Research Design
The simplest experimental design, used when only two treatment conditions are needed
Cybernetics
The study of information processing, feedback, and control in communication systems A concept used by family therapists Pioneered in early 1940s by Norbert Wiener Suggests that family has feedback oops to self-correct a family system
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors Eg. Positive event occurred because you are wonderful; negative event occurred because of the external circumstances *A depressed individual will typically do the opposite of the person who is not depressed - where depressed individual will blame himself (internal factor) for failure. Self serving attribution bias would not apply in situation like this
WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)
The test is based on neurocognitive research and the Cattell-Horn-Carroll leading theory of human intelligence Can be administered and scored online Takes 60 -90 minutes to complete 10 subject areas/subtest (each with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3) 10 subject areas make up 4 index scores: verbal comprehensive index (VCI), perceptual reasoning index (PRI), working memory index (WMI), and processing speed index (SPI) Full scale IQ (FSIQ - total) has a mean of 100, with a standard deviation of 15
Nathan Ackerman
The theory of psychodynamic family counseling Recommended studying the family, not just the child who was brought into treatment as the identified patient Some experts consider this the true beginning of the family therapy movement Was concerned with the internal feelings and thoughts of each individual as well as the dynamics between them (analytical) Prior to Ackerman, it was considered inappropriate to include family members in analytic treatment sessions
Acquisition获得 Period
The time it takes to learn or acquire获得 a given behavior
Independent Group Comparison Design (aka Between-Subjects Design)
The two groups in an experiment are independent of each other, the change (or lack of it) in one group did not influence the change in the other group
Psychometric Data
The use of test results in counseling
Y Axis
The vertical line on a graph Used to plot the frequency of the DVs Ordinate
Circular / Reciprocal Causality (E.g., Dynamics of Family Members)
The view that causality is nonlinear, occurring instead within a relationship context and through a network of interacting loops; any cause is thus seen as an effect of a prior cause, as in the interactions within families Everybody is influencing everybody else. the problem resides in the family rather than a given individual
Group Norms
The written or unwritten do's and don'ts of the group
Linda Gottfredson
Theory of Circumscription and Compromise, and Self-creation Circumscription 界限 - phase one: rule out certain jobs not acceptable for gender, stereotypes, and social class Compromise - phase two: change mind, major etc. if career path is not truly realistic People do restrict choices (Circumscription) and when people do compromise in regard to picking a job they will often sacrifice the field of work before they sacrifice sex-typed behavior or prestige This is developmental approach that takes one's childhood into account Social space refers to the zone or territory of jobs where he or she fits into society
"Didactic" Models of Treatment
Therapies that basically "teach" the client (e.g., REBT)
Psychodynamic Theory
Therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight
Gestalt Therapy
Therapy that aims to integrate different and sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self
Social Exchange Theory
There are many different theories about why we help each other. According to social exchange theory people help each other when there is a positive cost-benefit analysis; when the benefits outweigh the costs.The benefits can be tangible or intangible, physical or psychological. All that really matters is that the person perceives the benefits to be greater than the costs.
Ratio
There is an absolute zero that is meaningful Have equal intervals between values In applied social research most "count" variables are ratio Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division all can be use Eg. The number of clients in past six months. Because you can have zero clients and because it is meaningful to say that "...we had twice as many clients in the past six months as we did in the previous six months." Eg. A person who weighs 100 kilos is twice as heavy as a person who weighs 50 kilos, and a measure of zero kilos is meaningful Eg. time, height, weight, temperature on the Kelvin scale, volume, distance
Null Hypothesis (H0)
There isn't a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group The IV does not affect the DV p = 0
5 Layers of Neurosis (Gestalt)
These layers must be peeled away to reach emotional stability Phony layer - people resist seeing the real them Phobic layer - fear that others will reject their uniqueness Impasse layer - person feels stuck Implosive layer - willingness to expose the true self Explosive layer - person has relief due to authenticity
I'm Not Ok--You're Not Ok
These people have a poor self image and harbor hostility and anger toward outside world
I'm Ok--You're Not Ok
These people have a positive self-image, but see everyone else as the enemy; paranoid position
I'm Ok, You're Ok
These people have formed a self-concept, are acknowledged as individuals, and have positive self-identity as well as positive image of others
Humanistic Psychology can also be called
Third force psychology Because it was a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, the two initial forces at the time
Larry P. v. Wilson Riles (1979) (Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of California: The Wechsler and Binet on Trail)
This case was brought by plaintiffs on behalf of African-American children who were overly represented in EMR (educable mentally retarded) classes in San Francisco school system based on IQ scores Initially ruled that IQ tests were racially biased against African American children
TA: Parent Ego State
This is a set of feelings, thinking and behavior that we have copied from our parents and significant others. Nurturing parent/critical parent
Leisure Time
Time away from work which individual has the freedom to choose what they would like to do
Applied Research (aka Action Research or Experience-Near Research)
To advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application
Kuder-Richardson Coefficients of Equivalence / Kuder-Richardson Reliability/Item Consistency Estimates (aka KR-20 or KR-21 formulas)
To find out of each item on the test is measuring the same thing as every other item Can used to test dichotomous items (eg. true-false)
Densensitization
To make one less sensitive
Primary purpose of aptitude test
To predict future performance
Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972
To prohibit discrimination in educational agencies and institutions that accept federal assistance
Main Purpose of a Career Group
To provide information to participants, help folks explore vacations, and to enhance their decision-making skills
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
To reduce dissonance, people will look for things / evidence which are consistent with his or her behavior
Token Reinforcement
Tokens earned for positive behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward / exchanged for the primary (actual) reinforcer Token given after a desirable behavior
Games of Dialogue (Gestalt)
Top dog, underdog, empty chair technique
T-Group
Training group
Transactional Analysis
Transactional Analysis is an approach to psychology and psychotherapy that was introduced by Canadian psychiatrist Eric Berne in the 1950s. It is considered an integrative form of therapy because it combines psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive approaches to therapy. The basic theory of TA theorizes that within every adult exists three states, the "Parent," the "Adult," and the "Child" and that these three parts of the personality interact with each other, and with other people in various and alternating ways to create interpersonal interactions and relationships. These interactions are generally composed of "strokes" (reactions) and "transactions" (communications) under the theory that people use communications to seek "positive" strokes.
James O. Prochaska
Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM)
Transactional Analysis
Treatment that focuses on patterns of interaction with others, especially patterns that indicate personal problems
Consequential Validity
Tries to ascertain (find out) the social implications of using tests Refers to the positive or negative social consequences of a particular test
Multimodal Distribution
Two or more peaks in a distribution curve
Classical (respondent) Conditioning
Two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal
Existentialists speaks of 4 worlds:
Umwelt - The physical (physical and biological system) world (Memory: "U" - universe - physical environment - physical) Mitwelt - The relationship world (Memory: Mi - my - "my mom" - relationship) Eigenwelt - The identity world (Memory: "e" "i" at the beginning of both terms) Uberwelt - Spiritual beliefs about the ideal world
Sour Grapes Rationalization
Underrates a reward (because they didn't get it)
Axiom公理
Unlike a theory, Axiom is a universally recognized principle Eg. REBT (Theory), Gravity exists on planet earth (axiom)
Rackets
Unpleasant feelings after a person creates a game When a client manipulates others to experience a childhood feeling, the result is called a "racket"
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (aka Pearson's correlation / correlation coefficient / Pearson's r)
Used for interval or ratio data (Memory: Pearson r uses I and R (interval and ratio data) as in "Information and Referral")
Spearman Rho Correlation
Used for ordinal data (Memory: Rho ends in "o" as in ordinal)
Spearman Correlation / Spearman's rho (also known as Kendall's Tau)
Used in place of the Pearson r when data are nonparametric
Kruskal-Wallis One-Way ANOVA H test
Used instead of one-way ANOVA when data are nonparametric Used when there are three or more groups
Downward Arrow Technique
Used ti ferret out what the client is truly upset about and make the client aware of this issue Find out the client's core belief Created by David D. Burns
summative evaluation
Used to assess a final product Determine if you have met learning objectives Determine how well the goal has been met
Spearman-Brown Formula
Used to estimate the impact that lengthening or shortening a test will have on the test's reliability coefficient
EMG (Electromyography) Feedback
Used to measure muscle tension
EEG (electroencephalogram) Neurofeedback
Used to monitor brain waves Focuses on the production of alpha waves, which is 8-12 cycles per second An individual in alpha state is awake but extremely relaxed
Linking (Group)
Used to promote cohesion and attempt to bring together common patterns or themes within the group
Noncounselor Interventions
Uses a computer or a software program Counselor is not present for the session
Active therapy (aka 'active-directive' therapy)
Uses a directive paradigm
T-scores (aka Transformed scores)
Uses a mean of 50 with each SD as 10 Eg. A z-score of -1.0 would be a t-score of 40 and a z-score of -1.5 would be a t-score of 35 and so on Never expressed as a negative number unlike z-scores
Inferential Statistics
Uses a random sample of data taken from a population to describe and make inferences about the population Inferential statistics are valuable when examination of each member of an entire population is not convenient or possible
Test of Significance
Uses to determine whether a difference in the groups' scores is "significant" or just due to chance factors
Cohen's d Effect Size (ES)
Uses to gauge how strong a relationship exists Small 0.2; Medium 0.5; Large 0.8
NS vs. CS (Neutral stimulus vs. Conditioned stimulus)
Usually used interchangeable Sometimes - NS is only used until (before) a CR occurs, then NS becomes CS. When the bell without the meat (US) produce a CR (salivating), then the dog is conditioned and the bell is now technically a CS. At the same time, UR (salivate) also becomes a CR because it is learned. If the dog had not yet learned the response to salivate, then the bell would be a NS
Most Effective to Least Effective (Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules)
VR, VI, FR, FI
Number one factor in the construction of a test is ___
Validity
Which is more important, validity or reliability?
Validity
Most Critical Factors in Test Selection are
Validity and Reliability
Most difficult for intermittent schedule to extinguish (most effective) is the ...
Variable ratio Variable Ratio (VR: memory device - vocational rehabilitation agency) is better than Fixed Interval (FI)
Developmental Theory (Career Counseling)
Views career decisions as longitudinal and reversible Emphasizes on stages or view vocational choice as a process which can change throughout the lifespan
In 1976, ___ became the first state to institute a professional counseling licensure law
Virginia Virginia was first and later became the home base for several important organizations for the counseling profession California was the last state to institute a professional counseling licensure law (2009)
Early Childhood Needs-Theory Approach (Anne Roe)
Vocational choice is related to personality development at a young age Is the child person-oriented (teaching) or nonperson-oriented (computer programming)? Roe was influenced by Freudian psychoanalytic doctrines (the importance of the parent-child relationship) and Maslow Vocational Interest Inventory (VII) and Career Occupational Preference System use Roe's ideas
C. F. Patterson
Was another major supporter of trait-and-factor approach
Universality (Group Therapy) / Mutuality
We are not the only ones in the world with a given problem
Types of Wechsler assessment
Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) - 2-7 years Wechsler Intelligence scale for Children (WISC) - 6-16 years Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - 16 years and over
Acquiescence 默认
When a client always agrees with something Agreement without protest
Reluctant不情愿的 Client
When a client is referred for treatment and is not enthusiastic about the intervention
Copayment
When a client pays for a portion of the service, and the other portion is paid by insurance payments
Negligence
When a counselor "neglects" or fails to perform a required behavior
Second-order Structural Analysis
When a counselor analyzes an ego state within an ego state (e.g. Critical Parent or Nurturing Parent)
Structural Analysis
When a counselor analyzes out of which ego state (Parent, Adult, Child) a client is primarily operating Describing the client using the P-A-C conceptualization
Ulterior别有用心 Transaction (game)
When a disguised message is sent Two or more ego states are operating at the same time
Fragmented支离破碎
When a group displays little or no cohesiveness
Blocking (Group / Individual)
When a leader uses an intervention to stop or block a negative or counter productive behavior which could hurt another member of the group
Thirteenth Stepping
When a more experienced member of a 12-Step group - man or woman - pursues a romantic relationship with a new group member who have under 1 year of clean time.
Theory-Based Test / Inventory
When a test is guided via a theory Eg. MBTI
Covary Negatively
When one variable increases while the other decreases
Abstractive Behavior
When the counselor is thinking about his or her own concerns
Interpretation
When the counselor uncovers a deeper meaning regarding a client's situation
Task-facilitative behavior
When the counselor's thoughts are in relation to the client
Aptitude-Achievement Tests
When the distinction is unclear Eg. GRE, MAT, MCAT, SAT These test predict future school performance but they also test your current level of knowledge If "aptitude-achievement" isn't in the answer choice, then pick "aptitude" *Does IQ test count as Aptitude-Achievement Test?
Covary Positively
When two variables vary together
Response Burst / Extinction Burst
When using extinction, the behavior will get worse before it gets better; temporary increase in the frequency of the behavior
Validity
Whether the test measures what it is intended to measure
Reality Therapy
William Glasser
Social Psychology
William McDougall Edward Alsworth Ross
Solution-Oriented Therapy
William O'Hanlon, Insoo Kim Berg, Steve de Shazer, Michelle Weiner Davis
SIGI & CHOICES are based on the career theory of
Williamson
Reentry Women
Women who go from working within the home (homemaker) to working outside the home
Segmentation
Work and family are kept separate
Alfred Adler and Jesse B. Davis
Work has been classified as a preface to the group movement
Counseling became popular after the 1931 publication of ___
Workbook in Vocations" by William Proctor, Glidden Ross Benefield, and Gilbert Wrenn It set the stage for the popularization of the word "counseling" Prior to 1931, the word "guidance" was used for educational and vocational gudance This book and William Proctor's book "Educational and Vocational Guidance" in 1925, began to conceptualize counseling as a psychological process
John Krumboltz (Social Learning Theory - Career)
World generalization - generalizations regarding a given occupation and how successful the client would be in the occupation Self-observation generalizations - in career counseling, your primary concern is the manner in which people view themselves and their ability to perform in an occupation
Richard Nelson Bolles
Wrote "What Color Is Your Parachute" Promoted the idea of securing a network of people who can help you with your job search He doesn't identify with a specific career theory
William McDougall
Wrote Intro to Social Psychology, 'hormic psychology' (individual and group behavior is result of inherited tendencies to seek goals)
Pre-experimental Designs
X - treatment O - observation, measurement, score - DV E - experimental group C - control group R - random sampling NR - no random sampling
Sleeper Effect
a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it. After a period of time, one forgets the communicator but remembers the message.
Adlerians stress that clients long for ...
a feeling of belonging and strive for perfection
A group has
a membership which can be defined, some degree of unity and interaction & a shared purpose. # or more people who meet with
Reality Therapy
a method of analysis developed by Glasser to help clients focus on the present (here and now) rather than past experiences
Secondary Reinforcer
a neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer Primary reinforcer: Food, water Secondary reinforcer: Money (used to buy food and water)
Descriptive Statistic
a number that describes certain characteristics or properties of a batch of numbers (merely describes data) Eg. Mean, median, mode
A reliability coefficient of 1.00 indicates ___
a perfect score with no error (generally only occurs in physical measurement)
Higher-order Conditioning / Second-order Conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. Also called second-order conditioning
Social Distance Scale
a rating of the degree to which a person would be willing to have contact with a member of another group
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
a statistical procedure for testing the differences between two or more means
Test Bias primarily results from ___
a test being normed solely on White middle-class clients
Gestalt and Existential Psychotherapy are ...
affective paradigms as they urge clients to purge emotions in order to feel better about themselves
Freud's Slips of the Tongue
also called "parapraxis"
The word "dynamic" means the group is ___
always changing
Confounding occurs when ___
an undesirable variable which is not controlled by the researcher is introduced in the experiment Undesirable variable can be called Contaminating Variable
Cognitive Dissonance不和谐
an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs. Thus, the person will be motivated to reduce the dissonance
Behaviorists is the rivals of the ...
analysts
School selection tests assess ___
aptitude
Existentialism is to logotherapy as ____ is to behaviorism
associationism
Anne Roe's personality approach to career choice ___
based on the premise that a job satisfies an unconscious need Some text refer Roe's work as the "person-environment" theory Roe's theory is primarily psychoanalytic and draws on Maslow's hierarchy of needs Roe believes that needs which are satisfied do not become unconscious motivators; higher order needs will disappear even if they are rarely satisfied but lower-order needs (eg. safety) will be the major concern; needs that are satisfied after a long delay will become unconscious motivators Emphasized that early child rearing practices influence later career choices since a job is a major source of gratification for an unconscious need
Glasser's Choice Theory postulates that...
behavior is really an attempt to control our perceptions to satisfy our genetic needs - survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun
Counselor should always attempt to use the recommended wording when conducting assessment/testing because,
change the wording could alter the impact of the rest question, possibly confounding the results
Cognitive dissonance research deals mainly with ...
cognition and attitude formation
Leon Festinger
cognitive dissonance theory
Undesirable variables ___ the expeirement
confound or flaw
All correlational research is said to be ___
confounded
(Example) During a counseling session a 42-year-old male client threatens suicide. You should ___
contact his wife and advise her of possible suicide precautions (Ethical guideline: When a client's condition indicates that there is a clear and imminent danger or serious and foreseeable harm to the client and others, the counselor must take reasonable personal action or inform responsible authorities)
Primarily due to the work of Carl R. Rogers,
counseling rather than testing became the major tasks for professionals
First counselors in the US were not called counselors. They were ___
deans and advisors employed after the Civil War in college settings to watch over young women
The 1950s was the age of tremendous strides in ___
developmental psychology Piaget, Erickson, and Havinghurst were very influential
Glasser's position on mental illness is that...
diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick Rejected traditional medical mode of disease (DSM and ICD)
p-value = .05 indicates ___
differences would occur via chance only 5 times in 100 there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100
Behaviorists ...
do strive for symptom reduction but Do Not believe in the concept of symptom substitution
Ideally, informed consent occurs ___
during screening before the initial group session
In the 1960s C. Gilbert Wrenn's book, "The Counselor in a Changing World" (1962), urged counselors to ___
emphasize developmental concerns rather than merely focusing on crises and curing emotional illness Attempt to steer counseling away from merely providing remedial补救 services to student
Roger's approach is characterized as a(n) ...
existential or humanistic approach
The fastest growing clientele for professional counselors are persons ___
experiencing marriage and family problems
Most ineffective for intermittent schedule is ...
fixed interval
Experts predict that in the future ___
group leaders will be more like life-skills trainers (Because in the past, groups have emphasized on a narrow focus and in the future, groups should begin to deal with a broad spectrum of issues or take on a comprehensive model of group work. A comprehensive educational life-skills model could stress preventive mental health skills)
Gestalt has been a popular modality for ...
group work
Raising the size of a sample,
helps to lower the risk of chance / error factors (Differences revealed via large samples are more likely to be genuine than differences revealed using small sample size)
Directive techniques and concreate treatment objectives have ...
high degree of structure
ANOCA can be use to see___
if performance on one variable mimics the same trend on a second variable Eg. trend analysis
Prior to the 1960s, most counseling took place...
in a dyadic relationship
The major trend that impacted upon the counseling movement in the 1980s ___
included an emphasis on professionalism, certification, and licensing
Interest inventories work best with ___
individuals who are high school or above Interests become quite stable around age 25
One of the primary problem of counseling in the early 1960s, was that it wrongly emphasized ___
intrapsychic processes
Baseline Measures
is a behaviorist term
Symptom Substitution (eg. replace sucking thumb to biting nails)
is a psychoanalytic concept Psychoanalytic theory believes that if you merely deal with the symptom, another symptom will manifest itself since the real problem is in the unconscious mind
A Meaningful Reliability Coefficient
is between 0 to 1 Generally, if the reliability of a standardized test is above .80, it is said to have very good reliability; if it is below .50, it would not be considered a very reliable test .90 or higher - High reliability .80 to .89 - Good reliability .60 to .79 - Low/moderate reliability .40 to .59 - Doubtful reliability
If unconditioned stimulus (meat) comes before the conditioned stimulus (bell),
is called Backward Conditioning (ineffective and doesn't work) There will be no conditioning.
If conditioned (bell) and unconditioned (meat) stimuli are presented at the exact same time,
is called Simultaneous Conditioning. There will be no conditioning.
Sympathy
is compassion
Acceptable Reliability Coefficient of .70 and higher
is generally acceptable for most psychological attributes
Acceptable Reliability Coefficient of .80 and higher
is generally required by jobs and schools
Respondents
is the consequence of a known stimulus Eg. A dog salivating to food, or the pupil in your eye enlarging when you walk into a dark room
In a dual-career household, the woman ___
is typically secure in her career before she has children
Lowering the significance level (eg. from .01 to .001) will lower Type I errors,
it increases the risk of Type II or beta error (Type I and Type II error have a negative relationship - one increases, the other decreases)
Charismatic有魅力的 Leadership Style
leader uses his or her personal power, charisma, and attractiveness to foster facilitation
Level of Significance could be refer to as ___
level of confidence or confidence level
Nondirective group, Psychodynamic groups, and Existential groups have...
low degree of structure
The purpose of interpretation in counseling is to ...
make the clients aware of their unconscious processes
A group therapist must make ___
more decisions than an individual therapist
The number of people in an open group is generally ...
more stable than in a closed group (eg. open group would keep the number of members (6) more stable as you could replace each member who left with a new member)
A negative experience of taking a test (eg. client been hard by hearing about their IQ score), is likely to cause client to react to it and become a ___
negative and self-fulfilling prophecy
In a projective test, the client is shown
neutral stimuli
When ground rules become the standard of behavior, then it is known as a ___
norm
Folkways
norms for routine or casual interaction
Psychosexual stages of Development
oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
Internal verbalizations are to REBT as ___ ___ ___ are to Glasser's Choice Theory.
pictures in your mind (behavior is internally motivated and we choose our actions)
Oral Stage (0-18 months)
pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing
Anal Stage (18-36 months)
pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
Intervention can be ___
prevention, correction or enhancement oriented
The letter P (p-value) in relation to a test of significance means ___
probability
One impetus原动力 for counselor licensing was that ___
psychology licensure bodies sought to restrict the practice of counselors so counselors could not receive third party payments from insurance and managed care companies Many counselors were not able to be licensed as psychologists because one of the requirement is that the graduate program had to be "primarily psychological in nature"
Correlational research is
quasi-experimental. Thus, it doesn't yield cause-effect data
Coefficient of Determination
r^2 (correlation / reliability coefficient (squared)) A measure of the amount of variation in the dependent variable about its mean that is explained by the regression equation
Most measurements used in counseling studies do not qualify as ___
ratio scales (Most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a ratio scale)
Quartile
refers to the points that divide a distribution into fourths. 25th percentile is the 1st quartile, 2nd quartile is the median, 3rd quartile is at 75 percentile
Respondent behavior refers to ___
reflexes Pavlovian conditioning is respondent while Skinner's is instrumental/operant
According to Freudians, the most important defense mechanism is ...
repression
(REBT) Client is taught to change cognition with ...
self-talk and internal verbalizations
Genital Stage (puberty on)
sexual feelings re-emerge and are oriented toward others
Some evidence points to the fact that ___ means more than race in terms of group seating
social class
To demonstrate the variance of one factor accounted for by another (Coefficient of Determination),
square the correlation (reliability / correlation coefficient)
Z-scores are the same as ___
standard deviations Z-scores are often called standard scores
When the past is discussed in reality therapy, the focus is on ...
successful behaviors
The most valuable type of research is ___
the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships
The term "psychology" can only be used if ___
the helper is a licensed psychologist, even if the person specializes in counseling Hence, the education degree need to be from a program which is primarily psychological, a psychology rather than a counseling department
On any test, the lowest possible score is called the "floor";
the highest possible score is called the "ceiling"
Probability of committing a Type I error equals ___
the level of significance
The smaller the p-value,
the more stringent (precise) the level of significance the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis (means that there is a significant difference between the two variables)
Cultural Relativism
the practice of judging a culture by its own standards
One major difference between the psychology vs the counseling movement seems to be that ___
the psychologists are working to eliminate practitioners with less than a doctorate while the counselors are not
When utilizing materialistic observation,
the researcher does not intervene Researcher does not manipulate or control variables
For Freud, the dream was...
the royal road to knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind
Gerontology
the study of aging and the elderly
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
One major critics of interest inventories is that ___
they emphasize professional positions and minimize blue-collar jobs
Occupational aptitude tests like the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Test (ASVAB) grew out of the _____.
trait-and-factor movement related to career counseling
Reality Therapy
treatment that emphasizes personal responsibility for actions and their consequences
Stages of Psychosocial Development
trust vs mistrust autonomy vs shame and doubt initiative vs guilt industry vs inferiority identity vs role confusion intimacy vs isolation generativity vs stagnation integrity vs despair
Most important concept in Freud's theory is the ...
unconscious mind
Altruism
unselfish concern for the welfare of others
Rudolf Dreikurs
was the first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice
A counselor who sports NCC after her name ___
will need a 100 hours of continuing education contact hours / professional development during a 5-year period before she can be recertified, or she will need to take the NCE again.
The group IQ test movement began
with the Army Alpha and Army Beta in World War I (WWI started group testing movement, using the Army Alpha for literates识字 and Army Beta for illiterates文盲 and those from other countries)
(Example) If you discover your client is in imminent danger and you receive legal court order to turn over the test scores. You ___
you must turn over the test records complete with the test scores