Next Step FL3 P/S

Weber's Law

law postulates that there is a linear relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its detection.

Meritocracy

a system in which promotion is based on individual ability or achievement

Parkinson's disease

A disorder of the central nervous system that affects movement, often including tremors. caused by insufficient dopamine transmission in the substantia nigra

57. A woman visits her doctor to receive medical test results. While the patient anxiously waits, the doctor stops in to shake hands before going to analyze the results. The patient mistakes the handshake as a cold dismissal rather than a warm greeting. This is an example of which sociological theory? A. Symbolic interactionism B. Social constructionism C. Exchange-rational D. Feminist theory

A is correct. According to symbolic interactionsim, there are 3 core principles to communication: meaning, language and thought. These core principles lead to conclusions about the creation of a person's self and socialization into a larger community. Meaning states that humans act toward people and things according to the meanings that give to those people or things. Symbolic interactionism holds the principal of meaning to be the central aspect of human behavior. Language gives humans a means by which to negotiate meaning through symbols. Humans identify meaning in speech acts with others. Thought modifies each individual's interpretation of symbols. Thought is a mental conversation that requires different points of view. This scenario is an example of symbolic interactionism. B: Social constructionism examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world. It assumes that understanding, significance, and meaning are developed not separately within the individual, but in coordination with other human beings. C: Exchange-rational theory posits that patterns of behavior in societies reflect the choices made by individuals as they try to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs. D: Feminist theory is a branch of feminism that seeks to explain the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's social roles, experience, interests, and politics in a variety of fields such as education, medicine, and business.

54. Which of the following terms best describes the experience of student C? A. Learned helplessness B. Internal locus of control C. Social loafing D. Identity moratorium

A is correct. Learned helplessness describes a situation in which a person makes many attempts to solve a problem and they are not effective. Over time, this leads to a feeling of helplessness. Learned helplessness is also associated with depression. B: An internal locus of control describes how a person interprets what happens to them. If they believe that they have control over their lives and the things that happen to them, they have an internal locus of control. Student C's experience is more indicative of an external locus of control. C: Social loafing is a phenomenon in groups in which group members don't pull their weight (often an issue in group projects!). This was not the case for student C. D: An identity moratorium describes a person who is in the midst of an identity crisis, considering changing their identity, and is actively seeking alternative identities. That is not the best description for what happened to student C.

Meyers-Briggs

An objective personality assessment measures specific personality characteristics based on a set of discrete options, such as in the Meyers-Briggs personality assessment.

44. A principal of a high school seeks to establish rules and systems in the school that reflect a meritocracy. Which of the following goals must these systems achieve if the principal is to successfully establish a meritocracy? I. Outcome equality II. Skill equality III. Opportunity equality A. I only B. III only C. II and III only D. I and III only

B is correct. A meritocracy is a society of people whose progress within the society is based on ability and talent rather than on class privilege or wealth. This requires that everyone be afforded the same opportunities to advance yet only be rewarded based upon individual outcomes due to their individual talents and/or abilities, which can vary between persons. I: Outcome equality, or "equality of outcome," refers to a state in which the lives of individuals in the society are of a similar quality. Outcome equality is often discussed with regard to goods and their distribution in an equal fashion. A meritocracy does not require outcome equality. II: Members of a meritocracy can vary with regard to their skills, so skill equality is not required for such a society.

39. According to French and Raven's bases of power model, when compared to a high motivation high knowledge individual, someone with low motivation and low knowledge is more likely to be influenced by a person with: A. expert power. B. referent power. C. legitimate power. D. coercive power.

B is correct. According to the bases of power model, an individual with referent power exerts control by appealing to others' desire to belong to a group. This type of control is most likely to appeal to individuals through external factors, such as appearing desirable or feeling included and not knowledge or logic or evidence. Thus, a low-motivation, low-knowledge individual would most likely be motivated by this type of persuasion. A: An expert tends to motivate through using his knowledge of subject matter, which would likely appeal to high-motivation and high-knowledge people. C: Those with legitimate power, such as a president, exert power through the legitimacy of their role. There is no indication that this would lead either group to be more persuaded. D: Those with coercive power exert control through force or its threat. It is likely that both high and low groups would be persuaded by this.

53. According to the reported responses, which of the following changed for Student E? A. Implicit attitudes towards study pills B. Explicit attitudes toward study pills C. Covert drug use behavior D. Attitude polarization

B is correct. Explicit attitudes are conscious attitudes. Student E was aware of his attitudes towards study pills and how they changed over time. He once viewed study pills as a negative habit; now he sees them as a means to an end. A: Implicit attitudes towards study pills are unconscious attitudes. C: Covert behavior is unobservable behavior. Student E made changes in his overt (observable) behavior. D: Attitude polarization describes changes in attitudes among people in groups - tendency to go to the extreme.

48. What is the most reasonable conclusion for the researchers to draw from the results of the habituation experiment? A. Response magnitude significantly drops as odor duration is increased from 2 seconds to 20 seconds. B. Mice habituate when inter-trial intervals are at least 2 minutes. C. Mice habituate faster when odor stimulus durations are less than 30 seconds. D. The response magnitude ratios would drop if ITI durations of 10 minutes were used.

B is correct. In the ITI varying experiment (Fig 1A), as explained in the passage, the odor pulse duration remains constant at five two-second pulses. However, the inter-trial interval duration is modified. The recordings are only taking place during the time the mice are presented with the odor stimulus, and the results in Figure 1A indicate that spike count drops dramatically within the recording time. Therefore, the mice must be habituating faster when inter-trial intervals are extended.

40. In a third test, patients are given sentences that contain content that relate to their lives (such information having been gained through prior interviews with family members). Moreover, these sentences state facts that are either wrong (e.g. "Your niece is named Juliana" when in fact her name is "Julia") or distorted somehow. Using such sentences would likely show: A. increased recall but significantly lower recognition. B. proactive interference in the normal patients but not in the Korsakoff's patients. C. proactive interference in the Korsakoff's patients but not in the normal patients. D. proactive interference in both groups in the experiment.

B is correct. Proactive interference refers to the fact that currently existing long-term memories can interfere with the process of forming new long-term memories. This is unlikely to affect patients with Korsakoff's syndrome, as they are already unable to form new long-term memories. C: This choice may be tempting, since we might expect the Korsakoff's patients to be more likely to display a memory problem (here, proactive interference) than the normal patients. However, normal individuals are absolutely subject to proactive interference. In contrast, Korsakoff's patients already have such impaired memory formation (as evidenced by the results in Figure 1) that they are unlikely to display additional impairment as a result of previously formed memories. After all, if memory formation is already so impaired that it is nonexistent or almost nonexistent, there is little room for more impairment due to proactive interference.

11. Which of the following forms of bias could best explain the relationship seen between MHAs and welfare distribution? A. Egocentric bias B. Attributional bias C. Framing bias D. Automation bias

B is correct. The study showed that MHAs significantly increased during weeks of welfare distribution. The cops could be assuming that welfare recipients are more prone to mental diseases due to their low social standing and thus more deserving of an MHA. In psychology, attributional bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors. People constantly make attributions regarding the cause of behaviors; however, attributions do not always accurately mirror reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, people are prone to perceptual errors that lead to biased interpretations of their social world. If police know the welfare schedule and they make harsher judgements based on their perceptions of those on welfare, this would be attributional bias.

13. According to the research findings, who is most likely to have had the experience of one year of poverty? A. A 30-year-old woman who had never married B. A 30-year-old man with a disability C. A 60-year-old woman who had never married D. A 60-year-old man with a disability

C is correct. To arrive at the correct answer, we need to recognize that these answers contain variations in two parameters: (1) age and (2) having a disability versus never having married. To assess age we need to consult Figure 1, which provides us direct information about the parameter we are interested in — i.e. whether an individual has ever experienced poverty. Figure 1 clearly shows that an older person is more likely to have experienced a year of poverty than a younger person, if for no other reason than because they've lived longer. As a result, a 60-year-old person would be more likely to experience a year of poverty than a 30-year-old person, so we can eliminate answer choices A and B.

reward power

Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable

6. Which of the following represents a limitation to the design of this study? A. The age of the participants B. Lack of knowledge about OCD C. Ethical implications of delivering shocks to participants D. Using a non-clinical patient sample

D is correct. Any findings during this study would be more valid if the researchers could have gathered patients who had been diagnosed with OCD, instead of having participants that simply had obsessive-compulsive traits. An important note here is that this limitation specifically pertains to the goal of the study, which was conducted to investigate overgeneralization. In turn, paragraph 1 tells us that overgeneralization is linked to OCD. Therefore, conducting a study among participants with OCD, perhaps in addition to those with only obsessive-compulsive traits, would have strengthened the findings of the study. A, B: When answering questions that ask for limitations, it is important to be careful of answers that reflect a knee-jerk impulse to say that the researchers should have gathered more data or that a subject is insufficiently understood. While this may be the case, to some extent, from a practical standpoint all studies have constraints in terms of sample size, and if a topic was perfectly understood, there would be no need to study it further. The passage gives us no reason to think that age is a specific limitation, since none of the issues being investigated are strictly age-dependent (choice A). Additionally, it is safe to conclude that OCD has been widely studied in order to be recognized as a disorder, and in any case, gaps in the understanding of OCD would motivate further research.

41. What can be concluded about normal patients based on the results in Figure 1? A. Patients with normal memory have better recall but worse recognition than patients with Korsakoff's syndrome. B. Patients with normal memory perform better on recall tasks than on recognition tasks. C. Figure 1 provides no information relevant to evaluating normal patients. D. Patients with normal memory perform better on recognition tasks than on recall tasks.

D is correct. We see that normal patients were able to recall approximately 8 sentences from the list of 15. By contrast, on the recognition task, they were only incorrect on 3 sentences (meaning they were correct on the other 12). Thus, we see that they perform better on recognition tasks than on recall tasks. These results are unsurprising, as this is generally true of people with normal memories.

Framing Bias

Framing involves social construction of a social phenomenon - by mass media sources, political or social movements, political leaders, or other actors and organizations. It is an inevitable process of selective influence over the individual's perception of the meanings attributed to words or phrases.

informational versus expert power

More recently, theorists have distinguished informational power as distinct from expert power. Informational power refers to the ability to deploy relevant information to bring about change or influence others' behavior, while expert power refers to the power conferred by the socially symbolic status of being a credentialed expert in a field. The conflict between these two approaches is exemplified by debates about alternative medicine. Informational power is deployed when someone who may not have formal training in a field cites studies in support of their opinion, while expert power is often used by physicians to counteract such claims that may be incorrect. Power is an aspect of socioeconomic status, and is also a major focus of the sociological framework of conflict theory.

Confabulation

One of the symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome is confabulation - making up memories to fill in gaps and then believing that those memories are true.

correlation coefficient

The correlation coefficient ranges from −1 to 1. A value of 1 implies that a linear equation describes the relationship between X and Y perfectly, with all data points lying on a line for which Y increases as X increases. A value of −1 implies that all data points lie on a line for which Y decreases as X increases. A value of 0 implies that there is no linear correlation between the variables.

Korsakoff's syndrome

an alcohol related disorder marked by extreme confusion, memory impairment, and other neurological symptoms Korsakoff's syndrome is a neurological disorder that is most often seen in people who have severe prolonged alcoholism, as a result of which they experience severe thiamine deficiency.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

egocentric bias

he tendency to overstress changes between the past and present in order to make oneself appear more worthy or competent than one actually is. According to the results from several conducted studies, individuals are also more likely to favor circumstances that are beneficial to themselves compared to those that favor the people around them.

compliance

induced in groups that view themselves as similiar Compliance is when an individual changes his or her behavior in response to a direct request, usually from a person or group that does not actually have authority to enforce that change. Techniques of persuasion are often used by advertisers to achieve compliance from consumers, which in this context means for the consumers to buy a product.

Ways to increase self-efficacy

social modeling, social persuasion, and modifying psychological responses, as well as mastery of tasks.

status quo bias

tendency to avoid situations or actions that may produce change, instead preferring to choose action that will keep normalcy, or the status quo.

inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots -subjective personality and projective personality assessment

social reproduction

the phenomenon whereby social and class relations of prestige or lack of prestige are passed from one generation to the next

Automation bias

the tendency to excessively depend on automated systems, which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.

convergence theory

theory of collective action stating that collective action happens when people with similar ideas and tendencies gather in the same place Convergence theory has its roots in the functionalist perspective, which assumes that societies have certain requirements that must be met if they are to survive and operate effectively.

differential association theory

theory that individuals learn deviance in proportion to number of deviant acts they are exposed to individuals engage in criminal choices because they are exposed to it, while individuals who don't commit crimes have not been exposed to this type of behavior.