Plants and Society Exam 1
In her essay "Globalizing the Routes of Breadfruit and Other Bounties" ElizabethDeLoughrey (Cornell University) writes that this expensive transplantation (i.e.,movement of breadfruit from Polynesia to the West Indies) was a___________
"drastic act" of [these] planters to avert a growing critique of slavery through a "benevolent" and "humanitarian" use of colonial science to improve the diet of their slaves in years of famine.
eukaryotic animal cells vs eukaryotic plant cells
- plastids are in plants but not animals - plants are protected by cell wall
Vacuolar Inclusions
-Needle-like raphide or diamond- like druse crystals composed of calcium oxalate -Anthocyanin inclusion bodies -Protein bodies
all living organisms share certain features in common
-ability to grow -capacity to replicate/ reproduce -active primary metabolism -ability to respond to the local environment
plants are also dependent on people:
-domestication/ cultivation (we can do this to make certain crops more useful to us) -conservation, maintenance, and restoration of natural diversity and habitats (we have physically changed the distribution of plants) -genetic improvement and modification (we use tools to genetically improve plants for different qualities)
breadfruit male inflorescence: breadfruit female inflorescence:
-has thousands of tiny, creamy yellow individual flowers in a club shape (~ 10 -45 cm long) - has 1500 - 2000 minute flowers attached to a spongy core or fruit axis.
rate of differentiation determined by 2 factors:
-how much water is coming in (that could increase size of vacuole) -If there is stream of auxin coming from meristem downward, it is giving u more signals to change so balance between auxin from meristem and water from roots determine how fast cell will expand and differentiate
phase of rapid cell division
-involves all growing parts of the fruit -number of fertilized ovules correlates w initial rate of cell division and final fruit size -an uneven distribution of seeds causes lopsided fruits
nutrient availability phytohormones
-preferential transport of sugars and other nutritive materials to primary growing points -availability and level of auxin; ratio of auxin (AUX) to cytokinin (CYT)
plants w secondary growth (woody plants) also have
-vascular cambium -cork cambium
spirulina as a superfood
1 gram of Spirulina is healthier than 100 gm of carrots or spinach. High protein content, with 60-70% of its dry weight consisting of a balanced mixture of essential amino acids. Rich in B-carotene, Vitamin B12, and other nutrients. Can be consumed directly or combined with numerous food products Can be used in pharmaceutical / therapeutic preparations. There is not enough scientific data to provide a recommended daily dose.
different growing point options
1 growth point 2 growth point multiple growth points
if u have a single carpel it is equivalent to the pistol, they are interchangeable think origin of carpel: if I have a single blade of leaf, I could have either ovule sitting on edge of leaf, or on center, and if I close that leaf up, I create a carpel.. carpel is evolutionary structure that evolved into the pistol, it encloses the ovules within this ovary structure... but if I take multiple leaves and fuse them together I would have
1 pistol and multiple carpels
Recent studies support two alternative topologies for which organisms might have been the precursors to mitochondria:
1) grouping with the free-living Rhodospirillales order 2) grouping with the Rickettsiales order.
Examples of cell polarity and cell fate determination
1- Rhizhoid development in the brown alga Fucus 2- Three-dimensional growth of moss protonema 3- Embryonic development in vascular plants
floral evocation is the result of
1- alterations in endogenous or exogenous signals that trigger the cessation of indetermination growth and initiation of determinate growth 2- changes in cell division, cell growth and differentiation at the main shoot apical meristem, the axillary (lateral ) meristems, or both
to achieve a developmental endpoint 3 processes are key:
1- competency 2- determination 3- differentiation
fusion of floral parts changes flower structure examples (If u r competing for pollinators and want to be attractive)
1- conniption 2- agnation
phases of fruit development
1- fruit set 2- phase of rapid cell division 3- cell expansion phase 4- fruit ripening
the prokaryotic cell wall was composed of murein, very different set of compounds for plant cell wall, the two major components of the eukaryotic plant cell wall are:
1- long cellulose microfibrils 2- gel-like matrix sealing microfibrils together
as seed matures two things take place
1- seed loses water, as more proteins carbs or lipids fill up it loses its moisture so seeds undergo period of dessecation, might produce proteins within seeds that help buffer cells within developing seed to tolerate that descecaiton.. part of reason for desiccation is bc seed is storage organ by which u protect embryo for long period of time. if u dehydrate seed and put it into dormancy, the seed can last for a very long time. at full maturity, seeds crib lose about 95% of moisture.. also know when seeds go into dormancy, increase in ABA increase in ABA and loss of water put seed in dormancy, a dormant seed cannot grow bc it has no water and high levels of ABA
today we know that all living organisms are composed of cells:
1- the smallest organisms are composed of only a single cell, the largest may contains billions of cells 2- both plants and humans have 100s of different cell types recognizable; all cell types share certain features and functions in common 3- comparisons of diverse organisms, even those w vastly different, complex organizations, reveal remarkable similarity at the cellular level
fruit is unique to angiosperms (flowering plants) and serves two basic functions
1- to protect the embryo (within the seed) during development 2- assist in the dispersal of the seeds following maturation
five requirements for the formation of a micro-fibril based cell wall:
1- vesicle based system (from the Golgi) to deliver components used to the cell surface (surface of plasma membrane) 2- an intracellular guidance system (microfilaments and microtubules) to deliver the vesicles to the right location 3- temporal regulation of precursor formation (coordinate so if u r delivering glucose, u r also delivering enzymes that work w vesicles to move the glucose) 4- a surface-localized cellulose synthetase enzyme for cellulose formation (takes all precursors and puts them together to form cellulose microfibril) 5- integration of the cellulose microfibril formation w deposition of the gel-like matrix. cross-weaving pattern, want to build inside-out, coordination of degradation and synthetic processes to allow for cellular expansion
breadfruits are found in clusters of ______ with a single tree producing up to ______
1-3 200 or more fruits per year
breadfruits typically mature and are ready to harvest and eat in
15-19 weeks
in ____, _____ used a microscopic to discover a honey-comb like structure in a piece of cork. he only saw _____ as this was dead tissue. he coined the term _____ for the compartments he observed.
1665, Robert Hooke, cell walls, cell
breadfruit story:
1769, Captain Willam Bligh and the HMS Bounty sail from Spithead, England w the goal of collecting breadfruit (artocarpus altilis) plants from Polynesia to bring back to the West Indies breadfruit was a recently discovered crop that was thought to be a potential high-energy food source that could be grown inexpensively to feed the rapidly expanding population of enslaved workers on sugar cane plantations in the Caribbean and South America. On way home, Master's Mate Fletcher Christian and part of the crew mutinied putting Captain Bligh and his crew in a lifeboat, the mutineers then sailed to and established a colony on Pitcairn Island, Bligh and his crew members navigated back to Tahiti years later. Bligh mounted a second, successful voyage on the HMS Providence brought breadfruit from Tahiti to Timor, St Helena, St Vincent, Jamaica, Grand Caymans and eventually back to England where it was grown in the Kew Botanical Gardens (1793).
in dicots after u get double fertilization occurring, u get very small amount of endosperm growth (fusion gives u 3n endosperm) but what happens is they decided the endosperm was not that best way to ensure your developing embryo would be fed, but rather put the energy that it used to develop the seed directly into supporting embryo growth by putting nutrition not into the endosperm but in the
2 cotyledonary leaves, they release endosperm, and full up seed w tissue that is directly attached to embryo in order to deef it
approx ___ of the earth's surface is a dynamic land mass with many ecological niches, the remaining ___ is water offering equally diverse ecological niches
25, 75 (fun fact: there is plastic in the ocean and plants have adapted to grow there)
microspropogensis
2n microsporocyte/ mother cell undergoes two meiotic divisions--> 4 haploid nuclei --> microspores released within anther then mature into pollen.. that switch to mature pollen involves some meiotic divisions meiosis creates tetrads. each of those individual microspores gets released and undergoes 2 meiotic division that gives rise to mature pollen. divide 1n nucleus twice. mature pollen has two nuclei- one vegetative, controls function, one is generative- gives rise to two sperm cells that get transferred to egg for fertilization when u reach tetrad stage u have reached stage where u r microgametophyte.. just mature that microgametophyte to wind up w mature pollen/ vegetative and sperm nuclei
researchers have identified ______ that convert meristematic cells within the flower, specific the floral whorls
3 major genes and 2 minor genes
how to compose cell wall: start w basic structure of cellulose microfibrils and gel like matrix, then add components to reinforce break down of components of eukaryotic plant cell wall:
35-50% cellulose 20-35% hemicellulose 10-25% lignin 5-30% arabinogalactan, rhamnogalacturonan, etc.
NAM, N-acetylmuramic acid, has a ___ for ____
5 amino acid chain (a penta-glycine side chain) for stability
model is called
ABC model
gene that controls leaf width
ANGUSTIFOLIA (AN) mutation in this gene gives narrow leaves
Possible toxic effects of Spirulina?
Although few adverse effects are associated with the use of spirulina, consuming spirulina may cause headaches, allergic reactions, muscle pain, sweating, and insomnia in some cases. People with allergies to seafood, seaweed, and other sea vegetables should avoid spirulina. It's possible that Spirulina grown in the wild can absorb toxins from water, such as microcystins (known to cause severe liver damage), pollutants, and heavy metals. Spirulina sold in the United States is grown in many differnet locations and under many different standards. Choose your brands carefully!
Embryonic development in vascular plants
Apart from meristematic cells, as the embryo develops positional location define cell destiny and the potential of individual cells decreases until their fate is fully determined.
spirulina scientific name higher classification rank class order phylum
Arthrospira platensis Spirulinaceae Genus Cyanophyceae Spirulinales Cyanobacteria
____ allows us to understand how development occurs
Cell fate mapping
rib zone
Division and elongation of rib meristem cells gives rise to the stem of the plant.
parthenocarpy can be stimulated by the application of
GA, AUX, or synthetic growth promoting hormones
Endosymbiotic Theory of the Origins of Eukaryotic cells
Hypothesized that mitochondria and chloroplasts were separate organisms that originally entered into a symbiotic relationship with eukaryotic cells through endosymbiosis. It also proposed that eukaryotic flagella and cilia derived from endosymbiotic spirochetes. The theory is largely attributed to Dr. LynnMargulis (University of Massachusetts, Amherst) based upon her findings in her work "Symbiosis in Cell
The historical backstory!
In 1883, Andreas Schimper first suggested the potential endosymbiotic nature of cells.In 1905, Konstantin Mereschkowsky proposed that plastids originated as endosymbionts and argued that "symbiogenesis" is the main driving force of evolution.In 1926, Mereschkowsky and Ivan Wallin extended this idea to mitochondria in their book "Symbiogenesis and the Origin of Species." Their theories were originally rejected due to the assumption that mitochondria and chloroplasts do not contain DNA. However, the discovery of DNA in these organelles by Hans Ris in 1962 revived the theory.
corpus
In the center where divisions are in various directions, thus adding to the width of the apex as well as its length
the ________ were optics people who created the microscopic
Jansen Brothers
genes for up and down polarity have been identified ____ is expressed primarily on the underside of leaves _____ is active in cells closer to leaves' upper surfaces
KANADI PHABULOSA
some plants have realized u don't need to destroy 3/4 of the initial haploid megaspores, you can use them ex:
LILIUM once you make haploid nuclei, fuses three of them together and retains the one, then only goes through 2 rounds of mitosis to end with 8 nuclei that make up the egg apparatus the difference is the number of chromosomes because you started with a 3n fused cell so the antipodal cells and one of the central nuclei are 3n
after Hooke, _____, ______, and ________ and others applied similarly primitive optics to recognize the existence of microbes (bacteria, protozoa) and uncover the cellular composition of living tissue
Leeuwenhoek, Grew, Malpighi
Plasmodesmata
Maintaining intercellular communication is important even with only primary cell walls, if u want to ensure connections between cells, leave these little gaps or tunnels, might also put down proteins to make sure they stay open as you lay down secondary cell wall, these tunnels become thinner and thinner but you have to be able to maintain them, might become more restrictive w what can get through... but might actually become more prominent bc they have thickened around the openings
meristems
Meristems are sites of active cell division and meristematic cells are typically small, densely cytoplasmic, with little or no vacuolization evident. The intervals between cell divisions are relatively short. At shoot and root apex, meristems give rise to the rest of the plant body. additional meristems contribute to lateral growth of plants, branching etc. meristems give rise to cells that will differentiate
Some of the largest natural concentrations of Spirulina can be found at
Myanmar's Twin Taung Lake, Lake Chad in Central Africa, and Lake Texcoco in Mexico.
tunica
One or more layer of cells (usually 2 layers) covering the corpus in which cell divisions are principally anticlinal (along the long axis) thus increasing the surface of the apex.
option 2 for chloroplast origin:
Ponce-Toledo and colleagues (2017) suggest an early-branching freshwater Cyanobacterium at the origin of plastids with the closest present-day relative being Gloeomargarita lithophora.
gene that controls leaf length
ROTUNDIFOLIA (mutation results in shorter leaves)
radial zonation model
Recognizes three main zones
Zhang Wang and Martin Wu (2015) (UVA Department of Biology) using an integrated phylogenomic approach showed that mitochondria most likely originated from a
Rickettsiales endosymbiont already residing in the host
biotechnological spirulina approaches
Spirulina can be genetically engineered for many practical purposes. However, the biggest limitations are the lack of an effective stable gene transfer system (gene transfer is currently done by biolistic transformation and electroporation), a poor understanding of the restriction modification system of the cyanbacterium, the high polysaccharide content and excessive methylation of its genomic DNA
vacuole
Store various ions (e.g., Ca, Na, Fe) to help maintain turgor; wastes to protect cytoplasm, photosynthetic byproducts (e.g., malic acid in CAM plants) and proteins in seeds but note that salts can eventually accumulate out of vacuole when saturated
what is cellulose?
UDP-glucose subunit precursors combined into long chains by beta 1,4 linkage, this linkage holds the cellulose together in a way that makes it flexible, but difficult to break down, very few organisms have enzymes that can beta 1-4 linkages, , we can't break down cellulose, that is why it is fiber
harvesting and processing of spirulina
When the water becomes heavy with Spirulina, the biomass is scooped up, and passed through a set of fine filters ( 50 microns in diameter or less). It is drained and cleansed with fresh water until the water seeping through the filter stays fully transparent. Fresh, moist Spirulina is pressed into fine 'spaghettini', sun-dried, and then either broken into small "crumbs" or ground into fine powders for blending and consumption.
hemicellulose:
a branched sugar polymer composed of mostly pentoses (5 carbon sugars) and some hexoses (6 carbon sugars)
1- Rhizhoid development in the brown alga Fucus
a combination of light and Ca+2 levels determine polarity of the cell so when light hits from one side, the Ca+2 moves through, u get polarity, when meristematic cell divides, the bottom cell is the rhizoid and the top cell is vegetative
asparagus grows from
a crown, or a mass of rhizomes... grows best in sandy soils each crown as multiple meristems and gives rise to new shoots or "spears" up for 6-7 weeks during spring and early summer perennial: crowns can produce for 15 years without being replanted mass of roots that organizes multiple apical meristems that give rise to spears we see growing, so if look at crowns of rhizoids, each crown gives rise to multiple meristems, what we are actually growing is that growing apical meristem
plants are also important beneficial because they provide:
a diverse environment (the earth's landscape) products used for clothing, shelter, and energy production (e..g., cotton, hemp, fossil fuels are plants from a BYA) food and nutrition for humans and animals therapeutic and medicinal compounds (profligate metabolism)
fibrous root
a main root and multiple well branched lateral roots
seed development and maturation has distinct phases most cell division is complete by the beginning of the maturation phase of embryo development during cell expansion the embryo can increase in size up to 100-fold cell expansion is accompanied by
a massive accumulation of storage compounds. the endosperm in monocots and cotyledons in dicots store nutrients to feed the young embryo-- carbohydrates, proteins and lipids each genus of plants accumulates unique seed storage proteins in the vacuole or protein bodies (membrane bound vesicles) that are important sources of amino aids, nitrogen and carbon for the germinating seedling
xylem and phloem production one thing to keep in mind
a meristematic cell is always maintained, cambial meristematic cells are maintained to keep enlarging 3d structure of the root
Solitary inflorescence
a single flower is produced, pedicel and peduncle are synonymous
spiral/ helical
a specialized form of alternate in which the leaves arise from a generative spiral, youngest leaves at the top of the spiral
collenchyma cells
a specialized form of parenchyma containing primary cell walls thickened at the margins, might be found in regions where the plant needs extra cellular support
for ex, in a biennial plant u might only see whereas long lived perennial might see
a v small amount of secondary growth vascular cambium giving rise to many many cells over longevity of that plan
along filament is
a vascular tissue can see midrib running up filament that is remanent of leaf from which this stamen originated anther at top is very tip of leaf where there were sporophylls concentrated
Central Zone
a zone of self-renewing undifferentiated meristematic cells; cells that are at the very top of the SAM divide infrequently and above the central Organizing Center
cell wall also confers:
a- extensibility b- adhesiveness c- digestibility
flowering plants first appeared in the fossil record
about 127 million years ago (Cretaceous Era) becoming dominant within 20-30 million years, and remaining so ever since
what allows for secondary growth in woody perennial dicots and gymnosperms?
activation of meristematic tissues present in the vascular cambium and cork cambium (think that is why girth of stem so large)
the relationship of the initials with the SAM defines the axis of the leaf. ____ side toward the meristem and _____ side away from the meristem axis.
adaxial (dorsal) abaxial (ventral)
have to begin to control which will be which surface of the leaf.
adaxial (dorsal) or abaxial (ventral)
primary way to make lateral root is w pericycle tissue. but on occasion, within that cortex, sometimes you will get cells that remain meristematic and give rise to
adventitious roots -Initiate from cells in the stem cortex grow along stem often... can become very thickened and expansive
aerial roots
adventitious roots adapted in plants living on the branches of trees and to drought conditions, not absorbing nutrition and water from soil, but from air
prop root
adventitious roots that have become thickened and used as stabilizers for growth, maybe around tree
distichous
aka "two ranked" where are are single leaves at each node on opposite side
complete
all 4 whorls are present
Rudolf Virchow (1858)
all cells come from preexisting cells (Omnis cellula ecelula)
Jean Baptiste de Lamark (1809)
all living things are composed of cells
apical mersitem---> floral meristem
all of genes on to get right combo of whorl identity
during growth and expansion in dicots
all of that cell expansion takes place in codalnerary leaves, filling them w seed proteins and lipids...
umbel
all pedicels arise from a common point
the stem in the potato might have parenchyma that fill w
amyoplasts, plastids that store large amounts of starch
Growth
an irreversible increase in size, weight, height, or some other measurable parameter
differentiation
an ordered process or series of events toward a higher, more complex state and implies change.
shoot apical meristem controls the degree of branching by exerting
apical dominance
the major meristematic tissues of the primary plant body:
apical meristems (shoot and root) intercalary meristems lateral mersitems
growth occurs both in an axial and radical direction
apical meristems at root and shoot and vascular meristems toward inside
types of meristematic tissue
apical, lateral, intercalary
as u break dormancy scales
are removed, apical tissues below it begin to divide again give rise to new tissue
phyllotaxy
arrangement of leaves on a stem
composite flower plant of the day
artichoke
secondary cell wall is considered a more terminal step in differentiation because
as you begin to deposit it, you constrain the ability of the cell to grow, and communication between it and other cells becomes more limited, if the pores close up, these cells will be closed off from other cells
plant of the day: giant meristem
asparagus, originated in Middle East, likely cultivated as early 200 BCE, cultivated and sold commercially in England by the 17th century
artichokes are member of
asteraceae, sunflower family
all monocots have _____ in shoot tissue and _____ in root tissue
atactostele siphonostele
close to the apical meristem:
auxin concentrations are highest and water availability is low, cell expansion is slow and cell differentiation is rapid-- higher density of small tracheas and vessels
receptacle
basal portion of the flower where the different whorls or floral organs are attached
everything he has said so far about meristems could apply just to vegetative growth. could grow vegetatively year after year after year. plants can keep growing vegetatively as long as they want but something tells them to switch from juvenile growth to
being reproductive, giving rise to flowers that will form gametes, new plants, meristems control that transition from vegetative meristem to floral, that transition determines whether that meristem will be determinate or indeterminate. if u remain vegetative u remain indeterminate, but if u makes that transition from a juvenile vegetative meristem to a reproductive meristem, u stop growing indeterminacy and u grow determinately
both of those meristems will be active in everything from a
biennial to a perennial dicot and gymnosperm if u have secondary growth u have both vascular cambium and cork cambium activity
perfect
both "sporphyllous" whorls are present (stamen, carpel) could be incomplete (missing other whorls, like sepals or petals)
glumes structure
bracts covering flower, glumes sitting to outside, then lemma and palea and then carpels and stamens to inside
all of sepals together that is
calyx
interfascicular cambium
cambium that develops between the vascular bundles, eventually links up w same vascular cambium in the bundles in order to keep uniform growth of the stem, as long as u r dividing the cells between the bundles at the same rate that u divide cells within bundles u will get a uniform layer of activity
indeterminate plant
capacity for growth over more than one, or many growing seasons simplest type: biennial (complete life cycle in two growing seasons, apical initials only have to last one dormant period, then transition to floral, plant flowers and dies) perennial: long lived, meristems over many growing seasons... plant grows over many seasons. can't not flower tho- could continue to grow vegetatively but on occasion what we see is two types of meristems in perennial- one set of long-lived that grow season after season, then have short-lived set that lasts one season bc gives rise to flower and dies... indeterminate planet has to decide which of its apical meristems are long lived and which are short lived and give rise to flowering structures.. can't be involve din both types of growth
shoot apical meristem determines
capacity of plant for unlimited growth persistence of meristematic tissue at apical system will determine how long plant lives
C alone
carpel
typical biennial pants
carrots, thistle, cabbage, beats first growing season- grow but dont flower, produce storage material first season... next season begin to flower and produce flower. notice we haven't seen beat or carrot flowers or cabbage flowers. bc humans have learned to disrupt biennial growth habit! rather than letting them go through two year cycle, when they have begin to produce undergroud stem like structures full of nturuion, we harvest them and eat them.. great food sources bc put reserves in to allow apical meristem to grow second year..
secondary cells that arise come from
cell division within vascular cambium
how cellulose is laid down controls _____ therefore, cellulose biosynthesis and deposition are
cell shape and differentiation highly regulated processes
can modify a parenchyma by changing the nature of the _______
cell wall
differential rates of cell growth and differentiation can be observed in radial orientations--
cells are bigger in spring when more water is available than later in the direr summer
Theodor Schwann (1839)
cells are fundamental living unit of all animals
cell theory
cells are the fundamental units that compose all living organisms and the chemical reactions of life take place within cells
Differentiation Zone
cells begin to adopt their cellular fate - either remaining parenchyma cells, or becoming procambial cells - cells of the primary xylem and primary phloem. The Differentiation Zone is recognizable because in this region root hairs begin to appear on the epidermis or outermost layer.
Root and shoot developmental programs start with__________ When _____________occurs, meristematic tissues at the root and shoot apices become activated. Further growth of the root and shoot involves three processes:______________
cellular activities at the meristems germination cell division, enlargement, and differentiation
_________ creates the non-meristematic, or permanent, tissue and organs of the plant body
cellular differentiation
zones recognized in radial zonation model
central zone, peripheral zone, rib zone
meristems not only give rise to general structure of plant body but also control
change from juvenility or vegetative growth to mature or reproductive growth
how do u break dormancy?
change in temperature many woody plants require prolonged cold or chilling temperatures to break true dormancy (might count number of days below certain temp), between 500 and 2000 hours of chilling (2 to 4 degrees C is best) may be responsible for break down ABA also increase in promotive phytohormones, as temps rise cells begin to release higher levels of gibberellins (GAs) and cytokinins (CYTS) signals to buds to resume growth
could life on earth exist without plants? no! Plants are important _____ 1-____ 2-____ 3-____
chemical factories 1- they produce oxygen that is crucial to our existence through the process of photosynthesis 2- they convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids (primary metabolites) that are essential to life in major, or primary, metabolic pathways driven by photosynthesis-derived energy 3-produce an array of compounds called secondary compounds (or secondary metabolites) that are produced among secondary pathways and have diverse functions in plants and effects of uses by people (perfumes, toxins, attractants, medicines, etc.)
some seedless fruits developed bc___ other ones it is bc ________
chemically stimulated fertilization mutation has naturally occurred to arrest seed development
root system in carrots might have parenchyma that fill with
chromoplasts bc they want to attract pollinators
in the genus Asparagus, foliage leaves are reduced in size and function -- called _____ or _____ -- shoot systems in which leaves do not develop. what look like scales on the asparagus spears are the true leaves
cladodes, cladophylls
2 models of shoot apical meristem organization
clonal zonation model radial zonation model
multiple fruit
cluster of flowers on an inflorescence each w a pistil develop and fuse to form a single fruit body figs, mulberries, pineapple
disk flower
clustered in the center of the floral receptacle-- generally perfect flowers
fruit of the day that arises from secondary growth in monocot species
coconut palm
interesting facts coconut palm:
coconuts can float in the ocean for months and still germinate when they reach land, which makes their exact place of origin difficult to determine
when u have reached competency, beginning to understand cues, u begin determination
commitment to a certain developmental fate; involves progressive restrictions in their developmental potentials; as determination progresses options become more limited until process is irreversible.
photosynthetic eukaryotic cells are ___ and contain ______
compartmentalized, membrane-bound organelles like a nucleus, plastids, mitochondria, ER, vacuole
lignin
complex, highly cross-linked aromatic polymers covalently linked to hemicellulose, thus stabilizing the mature cell wall
next type of adaptation you see :
composite formation- different types of floral structures coming together to form something that looks like one flower, sunflower, aster etc
raceme
contains flowers with pedicels on an unbranched peduncle
very dominant apical meristems:
control levels of nutrient and phytohormones that might control growth of meristems below it. may see more conical shape of tree bc degree of branching controlled strongly. weak apical dominance might be more lollipop shape bc degree of lateral branching is much greater bc dominance of apical meristem is not very strong. further u get form apical meristem, less dominance that occurs.
where do bottle corks come from?
cork is the bark of the cork oak cork cambium in this tree grows very fast! much more active than the vascular cambium! cork oak found growing primarily in the mediterranean regions takes 25 years until a cork oak reaches a suitable maturity for harvest first harvesting or stripping produces "virgin cork" very irregular structure which is hard to handle and not suitable for use as cork shoppers ,used as flooring and insulation the harvesting (or stripping) is carried out during the most active annual growth stage from mid-May to early June to th end of August it takes about 9 years before the next harvest, and cork w the best properties is obtained from the 3rd and subsequent harvests since its structure is regular w a smooth outside and inside this is known as reproduction cork from then on, the cork oak will supply good quality cork every 9 years for about 1150 years
periderm or bark consists of 3 parts
cork or phellum to the outside cork cambium or phellogen phelloderm (parenchyma) to the inside
different types of stem and leaf arrangements:
corm, bulb, tendril, cladophyll
all of petals
corolla
2 regions recognized by clonal zonation model
corpus and tunica
stolon
creeping horizontal plant stem or runner that takes root at points along its length to form new plants
dioecious plants can only ____ and this ensures ________ ex
cross-pollinate greater genetic diversity holly
outline of ordering of how plants on earth evolved
cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria--> green algae-->( land plants)--> liver worts--> mosses-->(vascular plants)--> club mosses--> ferns-->(seed plants)--> cone-bearing plants--> (flowering plants)-->grass--> broad-leafed plants
a typical prokaryotic cell consists of:
cytoplasm (liquid matrix) a delimiting cytoplasmic membrane surrounded by a peptidoglycan cell wall (doesn't restrict growth, allows reactions to occur in a more concentrated manner)t no organelles but numerous ribosomes, internal membranes, light harvesting complexes for photosynthesis (in cyanobacteria) a nucleoid or single circular DNA chromosome w no or few associated proteins (no true nucleus) various external structures (flagella, cilia) cell division occurring by fission, not mitosis
mutations or alterations in tapetum structure ends up w
death of microsporphtyes or microgametephytes so u end up w sterile plants, male sterile, unviable pollen
Louis Pasteur (1864)
debunked once and for all the widely accepted myth of "spontaneous generation"; described the scientific basis for fermentation, wine-making, and the brewing of beer.
desiccation would be lethal to most plant tissues, but in seed proteins called _____ expressed late in maturation protect cells from high ionic concentrations and membrane stress
dehydrins
the flower, a set of organs that have originated out of a whirl of leaves, along a stem, in some cases those leaves have spores that become modified into structures that assist in reproduction, can be considered a specialized shoot having
determinate growth pattern, short or compressed internodes, and specialized organs lacking lateral meristem development
Sprulina cultivation is spiking world wide, especially in ________, where _____ make it a profitable enterprise
developing nations low production costs and an assured market
how does the multicellular plant body arise from a single embryonic cell?
development is the result of cell division, cell enlargement, cell differentiation
from evolutionary POV it is dead end like no seeds how to reproduce but for commercial production it is fine
development of fruits has been heavily manipulated by man bc we don't like eating seeds
vascular cambium and cork cambium are really present in dicots and gymnosperms but there are some long lived monocots monocots growth pattern involve
different meristems (think palm trees) they have wood but origin of that wood is not from same vascular and cork cambium it is from several other meristematic tissues giving rise to this structure
asparagus is
dioecious separate male and female plants start out as perfect, but begin to either lose male parts or female parts, so at maturity they lose either the male or the female parts
the angiosperm life cycle involves an alternation of____ and ___
diploid (2n, sprophyllic ) ans haploid (1n, gametophytic) generations
KNOX-1
directs establishment and maintiencenc of the SAM
composites usually contain two distinct flower types arranged in a tight cluster that mimic in appearance a single flower:
disk flower and ray flower
primary xylem has lots of cell types with heavy secondary walls, primary phloem cells
do not develop secondary walls! need living tissues!!
tap root
dominant primary root, not as many lateral roots (carrot, beat, other thick dichotomous plants)
when the pollen tube reaches the micropyle it releases the two non-motile sperm and the process of
double fertilization occurs 2 sperm nuclei
cell wall of a bacterium is meant to be: ______
easily breakable because fission needs to occur, and they replicate every 60-90 minutes, if you have a relatively simple coating you don't need to do a lot of biological synthesis
imperfect
either one or both male (stamen) / female (carpels) reproductive structures are missing; imperfect flowers are also incomplete flowers
in monocots the
endosperm is retained and continues to grow, majority of monocot seed is endosperm then u have a small monocotyledonsedonary embryo or zygote that forms endosperm is important tissue that will contribute energy to developing embryo when it begins to grow and develop early on
with exception of egg and pollen the
entire flower structure of a plant is at least 2n, it is sporophyllous
____ and _____ are special examples of simple non-meristematic permanent tissues
epidermal hairs, trichomes codings of long hairs, simple single hairs, sometimes with globular heads on them, sometimes highly branched hairs, can be used for protection
sometimes parenchyma can differentiate into very specific non-meristematic cells that have a joint function, like in the _______ you will find parenchyma cells differentiated into cells w small groups or clusters with a uniform function, like the _______ of the _______
epidermis guard cells stomata
all dicots have____ in shoot tissue and ____ in root tissue
eustele protostele
siphonostele can be further dissected so u break up cambium into individual bundles that move throughout stem of plant. 2 organizations that arise from siphonostele
eustele (break core up into individual bundles, always xylem central, phloem to outside) atactostele (break those bundles up and disperse them throughout the cortex)
lemma and palea are the
evolutionary derived product of fusion of sepals and petals, been reduced down and look really similar to each other form two surrounding structures that surround inner sprorophyllosu whorls
mitochondria
external membrane, soluble inside, internal membranes which carry out reactions that generate ATP for cell, oxidative reductive reactions. numerous Christae run throughout the inner part of the mitochondrial matrix, which enlarges the surface area and thus the working space of the mitochondrion
vivipary
failure to increase ABA levels causes a failure to impose dormancy on the seed ovary is nutritional place to be, a lot fo water around.. without losing water and without building up ABA, seeds don't know to go dormant, will begin to germinate and grow right away, seeds that germinate and begin to develop while still in the fruit
Megagametogenesis
female reproductive structures
coconut palm
fibrous root system
stamen, or androecium, composed of two parts
filament (long stalk) and anther (where microsporocyte cells undergo meiosis and give rise to 4 haploid microspores that develop into pollen)
if cork cambial activity didn't keep pace w vascular cambial acidity u might get
fissures or breaks w epidermis or cork .. bc cork couldn't keep up w how fast the vascular cambium is growing
variations in fruit types based on pericarp and accessory tissue texture
fleshy v dry
when u have multiple flowers the peduncle is the pedicel
floral head, major stalk of inflroecne short stall upon which each flower is borne
dicots
floral parts are usually produce in whorls containing multiples of 4 or 5
monocots
floral parts are usually produced in whorls containing multiples of 3
spike
flowers arranged on an unbranched peduncle (as in a raceme) but the flowers lack pedicles
panicle
flowers with pedicels are produced on branches of the main axis of the peduncle
endodermis and the pericycle
form cylinder in center that delineates the cortical tissue from the vascular tissue
differentiation
formation of cell types that have clear-cut identities (sclerenchyma, epidermal cells, etc) as a result of implementing a specific developmental program.
vascular steel
forms in center of the root (or stem) bound to the outside by the endodermis, primary phloem first form at outer edges of the stele, primary xylem forms centrally derived from the procambium
parthenocarpy
fruit development in the absence of fertilization trick plant into thinking it has been fertilized end up w seedless fruit
aggregate fruit
fruit that develops from one flower w multiple pistols (moat often unfused simple pistils) develops into a cluster off rutis raspberries and strawberries
ovule sits on inside of ovary (sits in pistil/ carpel) and ovule is connected to the inner wall of the ovary by structure called _________
funiculus (stalk) connects ovule to the placenta
adnation
fusion between parts in different whorls
connation
fusion of parts in the same whorl (ex: the sepals of Bauhinia)
turns out there is some______
genetic programming that takes place so organization of leaves is always put out in same manner every time it goes around 360 degrees it is exactly the same number of leaves
since a plant's final phenotype (outward appearance) results from the interaction of the _______ X ________ (both internal and external stimuli) changes in genetic makeup (mutations) and environment affect embryo growth
genotype, environment
which factors will go into how meristem grows/ branching pattern?
genotype, metabolic factors (e.g., nutritional gradients and phytohormones), environmental influences
under ideal circumstances, (proper nutrition, environment and genetics) the pollen will _____ and a _____ will emerge in the tip of the pollen tube is the ______ the other nucleus, the generative nucleus, devidies forming the two sperm
germinate pollen tube tube nucleus,
cork cambium
gives rise to new cells that will build up outer surface of that perennial plant sometimes referred to as phellogen series of cells that undergo division on inside gives rise to phelloderm (parenchyma) on outside gives rise to cork or phellem, that cover surface of developing trunk how active the cork cambium is determines whether u will have very think or thick bark
differentiation along the axial system is controlled by
gradients of auxins, sugars, and water moving in polar orientations through the stem
why did this occur
grasses want to out-compete other plants reduced flower structure down to basic minimum, want to reproduce as fast as they can don't want to be showy attract pollinators, make pollen and collect as much of it as u can so grass is about as evolutionary advanced as you can get
at the bottom, toward base of plant see more water, less auxin so so overtime we see
greater expansion differential growth from top of plant to base of plant
within the corpus, the ground meristem gives rise to tissue that will fill up internal plant. two types of cells:
ground tissue (parenchyma undergoing enlargement and elongation) and cells that will become part the procambium
true dormancy
growth will not resume even if plant is trturned to favorable growing conditions; plant is often defoliated; prolonged chilling required before growth resumes
simple pistil--
has one carpel, will have one locule (cavity or compartment in the ovary), one placenta (region of attachment of ovules to the ovary), one stigma, and one style
plastids
has origin in photosynthetic microbe stacked grana are the site of photosynthetic light reactions, whereas the soluble stroma contains reactions of carbon metabolism, amino acid and lipid biosynthesis
compared to xylem cells, phloem cells______
have many more areas of exchange, lots more plasmodesmata, never really lose their cytoplasm, may lose nucleus and still remain functional . when mature, may be associated w companion cells to remain functional, parenchyma cells and fibers
plants can be dangerous as well:
have physical structures (spines, allergens, pollens) that can cause energy contain noxious compounds (toxins, psychotropic agents, poisons) that can disorient and/or kill us
In a leaf parenchyma cell, there may be a
higher number of chloroplasts because that leaf functions in photosynthesis
secondary cell wall
highly lignified, which reinforces the wall to add strength;contains different layers (called S1, S2, S3) in which the orientation of the microfibrils is different such that it provides more strength.
siphonostele
hollow cylinder of xylem and phloem, has pith, has leaf gap in stems
ABC mutations are actually ____ mutations
homeotic making right type of structure just putting it in the wrong place, maybe put sepals where carpels should be
what will determine how much secondary growth occurs?
how fast those meristematic cells divide
_______ controls the shape of the leaf
how many cells u put down, how fast
variations in ovary position sometimes affects
how u make food structure hypogynous/ supriopr perigynous epigynous/ inferior
vascular cambium
in any perennial or biennial dicot (bc if it has more than a year's growth it will have more than just primary xylem and primary phloem...primary xylem and phloem are derived from procambial cells at root and shoot meristem) secondary xylem and phloem arise from vascular cambrium ,a layer of meristematic cells that sits between primary xylem to inside and primary phloem to the outside arise and defined after first year of growth
megasporophylls
in the carpel produce female gametes
The Columbian Exchange
in the decades following 1492, there was an era of European overseas expansion, which led to unprecedented intercontinental exchange of plant and animal species term coined by Alfred W.Crosby
microsporophyll
in the stamen produce male gametes
degradative activities at the leaf-stem junction caused by _____________
increased levels of abscissic acid (ABA) and ethylene (ETH) decreased levels of the generally growth promotive phytohormones auxin (AUX) and cytokinin (CYT)
______ are thought to have evolved from _______
inferior ovaries, superior ovaries
carpels
innermost
surrounding egg apparatus are
integuments, maternal tissue protection seed coat
cell potency
is the range of cell types a meristem-derived cell CAN become.
Elongation zone
isodiametric cells begin to enlarge and take on a more rectangular shape co typical parenchyma cells. These cells are being programmed for their future fate largely by their position in the root.
endodermis is layer of tissue organized such that
it has a thick secondary cell wall to try to keep the water and nutrients within the vascular Steele, so organization of vascular steel becomes really important in terms of how you allow lateral growth and then secondary growth to take place
differential rates of vascular differentiation gives rise to growth rings fast growing trees have
larger rings and softer woods
post-dormancy
late winter, early spring the bud is capable of growing, but is still suppressed by adverse growing conditions
flowers have evolved from
lateral shoots and floral organs from modified leaves
pericycle
layer of tissue sitting just below endodermis, outermost layer of cells that delimit vascular steel cells that remain meristematic and continue to give rise to new cells, as they organize, a lateral root will begin to develop and push way through cortex to give rise to a new type of root structure, a lateral root structure
how are leaves formed at apical meristems? apical meristem controls degree of outgrowths that occur at meristems and at nodes below meristems
leaf initials form as a result of a change in the orientation of cell divisions in the "protoderm" epidermal layer. A switch from anticlinal to periclinal cell division marks the leaf initial. In anticlinal divisions, the new cell walls form perpendicular to the surface of the organ, whereas in periclinal divisions the new cell walls are parallel to the surface of the organ. periclinal division gives rise to cells goring in outward direction
where the funiculus was attached
leaves a scar on the seed when it breaks off this is called the hilum the micropyle remains as a tiny pore in the seed coats
there are different variations in stems, in structure and leaf structure
like rhizomes and tubers, stems that exist below ground, not roots bc their origin is from the stem apical meristem, not the root apical meristem, and organxiaiton is more stem like than root like
secondary thickening meristems (STM)
limited to a few genera of Liliiflorae morphologically similar to the PTM but largely contributes to the body of the stem gives rise to new cells increasing diameter fo plant, but not at positions sitting just behind apical shoot or root meristem PTM and STM-> dynamic relationship PTM can't be very thick or dense layer bc it will rapidly give rise to the secondary thickening meristem where it increases girth of tree.. monocots-cells and meristematic tissues that mimic cork cambium and vascular cambium, but do not give rise to same secondary xylem and secondary phloem
growing spirulina is relatively simple: it requires
little economic inputs, does well in most warmer climates, and can be grown commercially in indoor /outdoor tanks, pools, or basins with the size of the growing area determined by your needs and business plan.
protoplast
living contents of cell (cytoplasm and nucleus)
ray flower
located at the periphery of the floral receptacle-- generally imperfect flowers
primary thickening meristem (PTM)
located just below apical regions present in virtually all monocotyledons examples: coconut palm (nit) banana and ki responsible for primary stem thickening, adventitious root production, and formation of vascular linkages between stem, root and leaf the meristematic cells in the PTM divide anticlinally near the SAM and periclinally as they are displaced from the SAM cells in the PTM do not elongate much so they contribute more to stem thickening than stem elongation PTM give rise to new cells that are basically increasing the length and width of the monocot and the intercalary meristems sit here and give rise to new stem tissues at base of leaves, intercalary meristems and primary thickening meristems work together to give rise to upward and outward growth of monocots
usually the _____ a cell arises from determines its fate
location
node
location along the stem where an outgrowth occurs
sieve cells
long and narrow
tracheids
long, narrow ends pointed primary cell walls lots of bordered pits to exchange water
as flowers evolve, want to compete against each other in their communities, there was a tendency to __________
lose floral parts altering the number of whorls
evergreens
loss of leaves occurs, but doesn't happen all at once, at random times during growing season exceptions: some more gymnosperm like trees that lose needles all at one time
deciduous
loss of leaves of bulbs at end of a growing season in perennial trees, shrubs and plants ... begin to go dormant so that apical meristems that are going to remain till next season are protected..
middle lamella:
made up of pectics and galacturonic acids (polysaccharides)
Microgametogenesis
male reproductive structures -within the anther tissue, where u find the 2n microsporophytes that will give rise to gametophytic tissue... microspore cells sit in anther and undergo meiotic divisions that will then give rise to microgametophytes... sits right under the tapetum, which gives rise to the microspore mother cells and provides nutrition to the developing microgametophytes
primitive flowers are believed to have ______ more advanced flowers have ________
many separate parts fewer parts w more fusions
2 most important components of egg apparatus
mature egg and 2 nuclei that sit in center
going from 2n to 1n gen it is process of
meiosis
plastids and mitochondrion
membrane delimited organelles with delimiting outer membrane, folded inner membranes, and a soluble matrix
multicellular plants use a ______ growth plan
meristematic
peripheral zone
meristematic cells that give rise to the organ primordia that for the leaves, inflorescence meristems, and floral meristems. Has a higher rate of cell division than that of the central zone.
pro cambium are:
meristematic cells that give rise to the primary xylem and primary phloem, the vascular tissues that will be present within the stem does it in root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem, at some point both root and shoot procambrium cells will align from root to shoot to transfer water and nutrients to the growing plant
two main branches of plant tissue type tree
meristematic tissue and permanent tissue
spirulina grows naturally in
mineral-rich, alkaline lakes
a typical flower consist of 4 whorls:
modified leaves that have become floral organs
rhizomes
modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes, gives rise to new lateral buds that give rise to new shoots
grasses are ____, so they should have things in groups of 3 if u look at grass flower notice they don't have groups of 3 see they have
monocots lost some of their floral structures have converted what would be whorls into single structures, lemma and palea
variation in floral morphology defines different lineages of flowering plants division angiosperms contains two classes
monocotyldonae (monocot) dicotyledonae (dicots)
plants in which imperfect flowers are found may be divided into two groups
monoecious dioecious
breadfruit: monoecious or dioecious?
monoecious (separate male and female flowers on the same plant)
coconut palm is a _____ plant
monoecious, has both male and female flowers on same plant is a stone fruit, exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp has liquid endosperm and liquid fruit on inside
breadfruit family, origin, and closely related to:
moraceae (mulberry) origin: New Guinea, Indonesia and the Philippines jackfruit
tube nucleus responsible for
moving stem nucleus through stigma down style, down eventually through the microphyl to reach the egg apparatus (to get size difference think mcdonalds in CA analogy, equivalent of 3000 mi journey)
shoot apical meristems (SAM)
much like RAP, will be concentration of highly dense isodiametric cells that will lead to vegetative or above ground portions of plant body. can be very simple or very complex.
breadfruit is a________, meaning
multiple fruit multiple flowers each w single pistil fuse together to make a single fruit
complex shoot apical meristems
multiple meristematic cells ex: arabidopsis thaliana, about 100 cells in the SAM
increasing the size of a cylindrical structure like a root or stem requires two types of cell division
multiplicative divisions (anticlinal, perpendicular to long axis)-- adds to the number of existing cells in a row, but the number of rows around an organ (root or stem) remains the same additive divisions (periclinal to surface) --increases the number of cell rows around an organ
the prokaryotic cell wall is composed of_______, a vast ______
murein peptidoglycan polymer formed by interlocking chains of identical peptidoglycan monomers
dicot plant:
net vein-action organization more random, not so planned out maybe major midrib but then organization of vascular traces within leaf seems more random organization of the parenchyma cells present within leaf filling up body are more structured, layer of palisades tissue at top and mesophyll tissue at the bottom genes at ventral or dorsal surface know which kinds of parenchyma cells to make
some plants divide apical meristems to give rise to branching structure. divide apical meristems into halves...so you get branching without outgrowths. dichotomous branching of apical meristems can give branch like structure. in higher plant u can get branching and outgrowths.. in more advanced plant: not only do apical meristems begin to branch but u can get
new lateral meristems at positions below the apical meristem- can organize new meristematic tissues
white cauliflower is mutation in which active chloroplast meristem is if u have chromoplast, b-carotene accumulate u get large amounts of anthocyanin will give you
no longer have active chloroplast in meristem green orange cauliflowers purple
sclerenchyma
non-meristematic cells that contain secondary cell walls (so think of it as terminally dead, part of structural component of cell, thick secondary cell wall w lignins)
perianth parts are
non-sporophylls and have only an accessory role in reproduction
inner part of the ovule in which the embryo sac develops is the
nucellus (a megasporangium) w a central mass of diploid 2n sporogenous tissue a megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis in the megaspoangium giving rise to 1 large functional haploid (1N) megaspore + 3 degenerated megaspores
several layers surrounding what is tissue that is mitotic-- what we refer to as
nucellus, mass of diploid cells undergo meiosis to give rise to those haploid megagametophytes
which factors will determine the degree of branching?
nutrient availability phytohormones
not all cells have equal access to _______ so
nutrition or internal/ external cues there are different types of growth phases, and only some cells are dividing, others undergoing growth and differentiation
Mathias Schleiden (1838)
observes nucleolus; cells are fundamental living unit of all plants
Robert Brown (1831)
observes presence of a nucleus in the cell
fruit ripening
occurs synchronously with seed and embryo maturation involves loss of chlorophyll, increasingly in carotenoids (color) conversion of starch to sugar (juiciness and sweetness) cell wall breakdown (softening) ethylene is important
sclerenchyma sclerids
odd, non-uniform shape, branched, fill in space, give texture to plant tissues
guard cells
of the stomata on the leaf epidermis, special examples of simple non-meristematic, permanent tissue stomata are pores on leaf that allow gas exchange guard cells are still considered simple even tho they are groups of cells bc it is really only one or two cell types forming structure
carpel is
often synonymous w pistil is the innermost whole containing the female reproductive structure or gynoecium
simple fruit
one flower w just one pistil develops the pistil can be simple or compound cherries apples tomatoes-- the true fruits and some accessory fruits are going to be super fruits.. one pistol or carpel sitting on top of flower
annual plant
one growing season, meristems used up in one growing season
what occurs:
one of sperm nuclei will fuse w egg to form 2n embryo, and the other sperm nuclei will fuse w the two central or polar nuclei to form the endosperm 2 haploid nuclei, third sperm nuclei, so end up w polyploid or 3n endosperm 2 iprotant compoentns: formation of embryo/ zygote formation of endosperm think about LILY-- end up w 2n zygote and 5n endosperm in some plants the zygote never changes but he ploidy in the endosperm can change, doesnt seem to cause any difficult for subsequent development
simple shoot apical meristems
one or few meristematic cells ex: equisetum
incomplete
one or more whorls of the flower is missing (could also be imperfect)
parthenocropy in fruit crops can occur naturally or, may result from wide genetic crosses, but evidently benefited form human selection-- selecting genes that play both positive and negative regulatory roles in fruit development. parthenocarpic spceices have altered phytohormone levels that can bypass the fertilization cue.
one way to think about it: suppose you mad embryo that was triploid rather than diploid, and as a triploid it didn't know how to properly segregate chromosomes so didn't know how to make a seed. like banana- doesn't have seeds bc triploid fruits where seeds don't know how to develop but fruit knows how to develop or seedless watermelon or pineapple
megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis so u get 4 haploid megaspores that will convert to haploid megagametophyte normally in plants -->
only 1 of those megaspores continues to grow, other 3 die off
true fruits
only derived from ovary wall cherry peach pepper tomato
micropyle is the
opening at very end of ovule, entry point for fertilization to occur
goal of membranes
organize biochemical reactions to become more efficient, specialize to increase energy output, and to be able to carry out novel biochemical activities
Rene J.H. Dutrochet (1824)
osmosis, respiration, light sensitivity
ABC control identity of whorls D and E do
other sub functions if u get E mutant u get only a lot of sepals
ovary wall itself can be divided into 3 layers:
outer layer, middle layer, inner layer
sepals
outermost
secondary cell wall is put down:
outside of PM and interior of primary cell wall
note: the primary cell wall is on the
outside of the membrane
accessory fruit
ovary plus one or more adjacent floral parts fused to the ovary (most commonly the receptacle especially in flowers with inferior (perigynous) ovaries apples and strawberries
in some cases fruit not just ovary wall but
ovary wall ad other tissues that fuse w ovary wall in order to make the fruit could be receptacle, and other flower parts (sepals, petals, stamens, etc)
categories of simple tissue
parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma (fibres and sclereids)
all of sepals and petals
perianth
perigynous ovary
perianth and stamens are borne intermediate on a concave depression along the pistil
epigynous or inferior ovary
perianth arises from attachment above the ovary
hypogynous or superior ovary
perianth is attached to the receptacle below the pistil, ovary in superior position
ovary wall transforms into the _______ which surrounds the seed or seeds. the pericarp has 3 layers: the layers may be clearly separated or tightly fused and difficult to distinguish from each other variation in pericarp structure distinguishes fruit types reflects adaptations for dispersal (e.e.g, paper pericarps for wind, fleshly for animal cosntumptiom)
pericarp exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp
dry
pericarp becomes dry, leathery or woody at maturity
fleshy
pericarp remains soft at maturity
A and B
petal
what are major factors that induce dormancy?
photoperiod: day length, the main stimulus for the onset of dormancy phytohormones; ABA build up in high levels in the fall temperature: needed in some cases to enter true dormancy water and nutrition: high levels of nitrogen and mineral can deploy dormancy
factors controlling the juvenile to mature growth transition
phytohormones (auxin and cytokinins) increase cytokinins matinain actively growing leaves, high CUT?AUX promotes vegetative growth, gibberellin acid nutrition (high nitrogen for ex promotes vegetative growth) resource allocation (energy can either be put into juvenile or mature growth) photoperiod (specific chemical signals are sent from the leaves to the apical meristem to promote flowering (florin) temperature: temp changes can induce floral evocation if u nitrogen stress a plant says oh no I cannot keep growing maybe I should protect my genetics and will flower to reproduce
3 of most important organelles
plastids, mitochondria, vacuole
nature and structure of _____ will vary more among cells, ____ are more stable
plastids, mitochondrion
as embryo develops there is
polarization that occurs developing embryo knows where apical meristems will develop as u go through stages, begin to develop polar oriented tissues that will lead to formation of mature embryo that is present within the seed
so true microgameotyphye is
pollen grain w 3 nuclei (1 vegetative, 2 sperm)
fruit set
pollination releases signals triggering decision to abort the ovary or proceed w fruit development
protosteele
possibly most primitive, could extend from shoot to roots
stages of dormancy
pre-dormancy true dormancy post-dormancy
intercalary meristems
present in most monocots intercalate means insert between; in this case it is a meristematic layer occurring just above the nodes (between the node and the apical meristem) functions only for a limited period (determinate) gives rise to new cells that increase length of stem and leaf similar to the basal meristem which produces the strap like leaves of monocots
breadfruit cultivation and uses:
primarily cultivated throughout the pacific islands (Hawaii, Fiji, Samoa, Guam), Southeast Asia, Caribbean, South Florida a fresh or cooked fruit 200 varieties (seeded or seedless, green, yellow, pink, orange etc) secondary uses include lightweight wood for houses, canoes, pulp for paper
Root cap
primarily parenchyma cells; functions to protect the emerging radicle; root cap cells are metabolically active producing a large of amount of mucilagenous material (primarily complex carbohydrate) which lodges in the walls of the cells, and lubricates the radicles passage through the soil. As the radicle grows cells slough off from the most distal portion and are replaced by cell division occurring at the proximal end of the cap.
also two internal meristems that give to growth of apical regions and to increase girth of tree, referred to as
primary thickening meristem (PTM) secondary thickening meristem (STM)
complex, non-meristematic permanent tissues contain multiple cell types that function together to carry out a single activity:
primary xylem and phloem in central core of dicot stems primary and secondary xylem and phloem in vascular bundles of dicot stems
process of gametogensos is
process of meiosis when 2n goes to 1n individuals 2 fold reasons for this: 1- if u had gametes that were diploid then union of gametes would double chromosome them 2- meiosis also allows for the recombination of alleles
2 fundamentally distinct groups of cells alive on earth today:
prokaryote: first cells, 3.5 - 4.0 billion years eukaryote: complex, 0.5 - 1.5 billion years ago
major groups
protostele and siphonostele
typical annuals
pumpkins, tomatoes, peppers, some of the composites
as cells differentiate, sometimes they take on more reinforced walls so plant cells will often
put down the secondary cell wall as they specialize
cyme
raceme w oldest flowers in center
corymb
raceme w youngest flowers on indie and oldest outside
rates of cell division have to be adjusted w
rates of cell differentiation
clonal zonation model
recognizes two regions by location and direction of their cell divisions
cell fate
refers to the cell-type a cell WILL become in the course of normal development.
production of the secondary cell wall will
reinforce and prevent cell growth and expansion, as you differentiate the cell wall becomes more impermeable, limits the spread of info to and from the cell, may restrict nutrition
we know it is both apical meristem and degree of auxin that is important in controlling 3d growth of plant very active apical meristem producing a lot of auxin u get v dominant effect in which lateral meristems cannot grow out, they are surpassed by apical bud. but if I cut off apical meristem and remove auxin produced by that apical meristem, u would _______
release that plant and allow lateral meristems to grow out dominant apical meristems- no growth out of lateral buds, if u cut off apical meristem u get that branching
when u break seed out of dormancy u r
removing ABA and adding water to break dormancy
only when we begin to convert to gametophyllic that we generate gameotyphytic generation. alternation of diploid and haploid generations that occurs when we go through the process fo _______
reproduction
carpels and stamens
reproductive tissues within the flower, two inner most whirls,
megasproogenesis and megagametogenesis
require point in time when 2n sporophyte becomes 1n gametophyte occurs in female gamete within ovule-- where egg will be produced
pre-dormancy
reversible, the fighter it develops, the more difficult it becomes to reverse
Cell division occurs predominantly at the _________ just behind the root cap in a region known as the ___________
root apex meristematic zone/ zone of cell division
as cells continue to adopt different functions within a plant, they go from meristem, to a transitional stage where they probably start out as parenchyma cells, then there is a secondary round of differentiation-- see development of cells with ________
secondary cell walls
both tracheids and vessel elements have ____ as tracheids and vessel elements reach maturity, ________
secondary cell walls they lose all cytoplasmic contents, clear out, they become large open spaces in the center of the cell that allow water movement
some groups of cells are exceptions within the simple, non-meristematic permanent tissue
secretary cells--laticifers (opium poppy, hevea Brasiliensis) mucilage cells (Arabidopsis seed coat) resin canals in pine needles
cytoplasm
semifluid (roughly 70% water) ground substance of the cell contains organelles, several membrane systems, cytoskeleton and ribosomes is delimited from the cell wall by the plasma membrane, a semifluid, permeable lipid bilayer, embedded w proteins, carbohydrates and other molecules that regulate the flow of materials in and out of the cell
if u express A alone it specifies
sepal identity
dioecious
separate male and female unisexual flowers are present on different plants
monoecious
separate male and female unisexual flowers occur on the same plant
what leads to leaf drop or leaf abscission?
set of signals that come from stamen, from leaves that turn on degradative activities that begin to consume nutrition present in leaf, so leaf changes growth habit so rather than continuing to photosynthesize it slows down, transfers some of nutrition to stem.... then actually turns on phytohormones that build up layer of cells that will seal off where leaf is present, so you have absission zone between leaf and stem so u get protection of stem at position where leaf was present
if you don't get active meristem, wind up with STM (shoot meristemless mutation) controls the initiation of the SAM during embryogenesis; stm mutants lose their meristems
shoot meristemless mutation, apical meristem fails to grow, terminal
bulb
short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases that function as food storage organs during dormancy (onion)
sclerenchyma stone cells
short, fat, thickened cells gritty pieces in pear
sieve tube members
shorter and wider
vessel elements
shorter, wider piping
_____ and _____ comprise the cells of the primary phloem
sieve cells, sieve tube members
two categories of permanent tissue
simple and complex
fruit types based on floral origin
simple fruit aggregate fruit multiple fruit
parenchyma cells
simple, non-meristematic cells that comprise much of the permanent tissue. they contain only primary cell walls. first types of cells that originate from meristematic cells, through elongation. mostly cytoplasmic, isodiametric type cell, rectangular/ more long than wide.. major portion filled up w cytoplasm to outside and large vacuole to inside.. .parenchyma cell makes up most of plant body
quiescence
slow down activities but I don't completely shut them off resting state in response to adverse environmental conditions when a plant is in quiescence, growth will resume once conditions are favorable. roots are never dormant, but ar quiescent, and can continue to grow if the soil is warm enough.
glumes
small dry membranous bracts to the outside; usually two in number
internode
space along the stem between nodes or outgrowths (i.e., leaves)
tendril
specialized stem, leaves or petiole with threadlike shape that is used by climbing plants for support. makes it easier to grab on to things.
plant of the day that is a cyanobacterium (blue-green algae) and one of the oldest inhabitant of the earth, appearing 3.6 BYA
spirulina
the cell wall of a mature pollen has two epidermal cell layers collectively known as the
sporoderm
the outermost exine layer contains ____ and ____-- glycoproteins capable of eliciting "allergenic" reactions in people
sporopollenin glycocalyx
monoecious example
squash (cucurbita pepo) cucumber corn pistillate or "female flowers" staminate or "male flowers {
B and C
stamen
what is difference between starch and cellulose?
starch connects UDP-glucose subunit precursors with alpha 1,4 linkages, lots of enzymes can break that down
organization of vascular tissue is a distinguishing feature of a plant. is it organized in singular region of plant or multiple regions of plant? think simplest organization
steele
cladophyll
stem structure flattened out to make it look like a leaf- leaf structures are thorns that remain on surface. photosynthetic branch or portion of a stem that resembles and functions as a leaf
to reinforce the cell wall you could:
stick proteins and carbohydrates on the murein coat, which could be dangerous to other organisms (difference between a benign microbe and a pathogenic microbe stems from which carbs and proteins are on the murein coat)
carpel divided into 3 parts
stigma- located at the tip of the style; receives the pollen during sexual reproduction style- long slender neck of the pistil above the ovary ovary- enlarged or swollen basal portion containing the ovules (female gametophyte)
monocot growth and expansion
still have a small embryo but not making codalenary leaves very big, all of developmental activity put into expanding the endosperm endosperm would have high amounts of protein and carbodhydrates bc that is where u store energy to provide nutrition for developing embryo
spirulina's popularity as a ______ has lead to _____
superfood its increased commercial cultivation
peduncle or stalk
supports the flower
lemma and palea
surrounding the sporophyllous whorls
corm
swollen stem base that is modified into a mass of storage tissue. it has scaly outer leaves and does not have visible storage rings when cut in half. (leaves reduced, fattened stems)
the egg (female gamete) is located near the micropyle end with the two _______, two __________ are in the center; and three _______ sit at the opposite the egg apparatus
synergids polar nuclei antipodals
vegetation optical depth map (VOD), a measure of the density of plants on the earth's surface differing vegetation across land masses is determined by: __ and ___ low density correlates with _____, like in ____ climate change puts pressure on plants because
temperature, amount of water low water, (desert Sahara, Australian plains, central Middle East) desert regions are growing
dormancy
temporary suspension in visible growth in any plant tissue containing a meristem; quiescent period between growing seasons in perennials and biennials, often accompanied by dramatic morphological changes
if sepals and petals look very closely to each other
tepals
competency
the ability of a cell to respond to a series of cues (simple or complex). These cues can arise internally (endogenously) or externally (exogenously) and can be biotic (hormones, chemicals) or abiotic (light, temperature) in nature. How a cell responds to these signals determines how and when it will differentiate. (cell competency changes w time, think move car ex from class)
apple
the cartilaginous core is the true fruit, the white tissue is the accessory (receptacle)
In his painting "The Great Nutrition Expedition" John Prezioso depicts
the concept of transplantation a Bligh-like figure that is a strange mixture of tropical/equatorial tree products such as coconut, banana, mango, nutmeg, and breadfruit (his forehead, eyebrow, upper cheeks, buttons, and jowls, respectively) and northern/temperate crops such as apple and peach (his eyelid and upper lip, respectively).
Three-dimensional growth of moss protonema
the decision to grow 2d or 3d depends on cues received-- protonema are composed of chloronema cells, they will continue to grow linearly, producing new parenchyma cells from the meristem in a straight line, until cue is received- cue is the addition of the phytohormone auxin, apical cell gives rise to caulonema cells- a second phytohormone, cytokinin, the second caulonemal cell differentiates in three dimensions growth these cues allow the plant to become a lead moss gametophyte
the further downward you move from the apical meristem:
the lower the concentration of auxins and the greater the water availability- so cell expansion greater and cell differentiation slower the lower in the sam u r form the apical meristem
if u cut the tree in transverse section u might not see growth rings but u will see
the nature of the system that builds up of fibers and vessels that give the straition to the wood... wood workers know that grains fo woods change a d nature fo woods change by how fast trees grow
parenchyma cells can be distinguished by
the nature of their plastid forms
fruits are classified based on
the parts of the flower that contribute to their formation
cell expansion phase
the rate and duration of cell expansion varies GA may be involved in regulating fruit expansion
the fertilized egg within the ovule becomes the seed
the seed coat (or testa) is derived form the two integuments that surround the ovule. the seed coat is derived from maternal tissue and, therefore, the genotype of the mother not the embryo determines the shape of the seed. Aberrant testa shape (ATS) mutants produce one instead of the two integuments embryo and seed derived from fusion of egg and sperm, fertilxiaiton process... little bit of endosperm also derived from fertilization- so if u have mutations in maternal tissues affecting integuments, it would affect nature of seed coat....
a fruit is different from a seed. a fruit ______
the tissue that develops from the ovary or group of ovaries that are present within the flower. seed is what develops from ovule but it is the disposition of that ovary wall or walls that form the fruits... not only ovary wall but could be ovary wall and other tissues that fuse w ovary wall to make fruit
strawberry
the true fruit is a dry achene, the fleshy tissue is the accessory (receptacle)
monocot plant: as u develop that leaf,
the vascular tissue that gets laid down gets put down in parallel organization main mid-rib that has vascular tissue present, and then coming off of that main mid-rib, each of the different vascular traces are evenly spaced giving rise to parallel vein-action bundle-sheath and mesophyll layers
cabbage, broccoli, brussel sprouts are cold crops bc
they will flower at high temps
tuber
thickened underground part of a stem or rhizome "eyes" are actually lateral buds. meristems
sclerenchyma fibers
thin, long, narrow plants used for making cotton or hemp celery
Clavata (CLV)
this mutation you would have fast-gowing, very large meristems (broccoli, cauli-flower-- these mutations have been selected for as part of food chain)
micropyle
tiny opening between the two inner integuments, which along with the two outer integuments form the outer covering of the ovule
within ovule are
tissues that will undergo meiosis to give rise to megagametophytes
one of key processes and activities of the apical meristem is
to give rise to procambial tissue
vascular cambium from this year's growth would be
toward outside of trunk here-- as vascular cambium grows it moves outward, xylem is pushed on inside.. on very outer surface u have to keep up w activities on what would be equivalent of epidermis on plant... notice bark covering surface of tree-- second cambial layer! cork cambium!!
______ and _____ comprise the cells of the primary xylem
tracheids, vessel elements
all of the pollen tubes are competing to get to the egg apparatus so evolutionary what has happened is there is some signaling that occurs that helps to orient the pollen tubes as it grows toward micrpjyl and eventually egg apparatus: there is a
transaminase that degrades gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) that the pollen tubes secret ; the pollen tubes follow a gradient of GABA that lead them to the micropyle
pollination
transfer pollen (mature microgametophyte) to stigmatic surface to begin process by which fertilization will occur. pollination can occur without fertilization, but fertilization can't occur without pollination
phloem special function
transport of nutrients
xylem special function
transport of water
two main categories of fruits:
true fruits, accessory fruit
chloroplast origins are more complex: proposal 1:
two independent, secondary endosymbioses events with red algae. 1) One on the root of the SAR (= Stramenopila, Alveolata, Rhizaria) group 2) The other responsible for an independent lineage of Cryptophytes-- further supported by the presence of the nucleomorph, a remnant nucleus of the endosymbiotic alga in cryptophytes.
a peptidoglycan monomer consists of ______
two joined amino sugars: N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
decusate
two opposite leaves at one node, a reduced form of whorled
compound pistil--
two or more carpels that have become fused, two or more locals and placentas. it may display only one style and stigma or may have split stigmas (reflecting number of carpels) depending on how well fused that tissue is
that 1 megaspore then
undergoes 3 mitotic divisions, without cytokinesis to produce 8 haploid (1n) nuclei to create the egg apparatus
SAM also determines whether plant has determinate or indeterminate growth determinant plant
undergoes limited amount of growth before flowering and senescence, before apical meristem no longer gives rise to vegetative tissue, but to flowering tissue, then flowers and the plant dies lack permanent or persistent apical initials rather than those meristematic tissues remaining for long periods of time, they only last for one year...
woody perennial dicots and gymnosperms have additional meristematic tissues present not at the shoot or root:
vascular cambium cork cambium
how does procambial tissue get organized in stem and roots?
vascular steele
spinach at cool temps is _____ at high temps spinach is ______
vegetative flowering
the change from vegetative (juvenile) growth to reproductive (mature) growth is marked by floral evocation at the shoot meristems juvenile mature
vegetative growth period reproductive stages spanning floral evocation, flowering, pollination, fertilization and seed'fruit formation
inflorescence
way in which flowers are arranged on a plant
big difference between what occurs in monocot and dicot is what happens after fertilxiaiton takes place. has to do with
way seed develops and how much contribution there is from endosperm in mature seed double fertilization occurs in both monocots and dicots
position of the cell determines_______
whether u will be xylem tissue or phloem tissue if u r positioned to outside u will be differentiated into a sieve or sieve element, to inside u will be tracheid or vessel
when fruit begins to mature the style and stigma
will disappear, either fall off or be completely disintegrated what will remain is ovule to inside and ovary wall to outside
whorled
with 3 or more leaves 3 or more at one node
categories of complex tissue
xylem and phloem
steele types
xylem in center, phloem surrounding it only give rise to one set of procambial tissues, and they will differentiate into primary xylem and phloem in single central coulumn in plant
when vascular cambium differentiates it is ___ to inside and ____ to outside xylem cells are heavily lignified, can hold up after growth pressure.. the phloem usually gets compressed. so usually see remnants of secondary xylem, so growth rings u see are due to growth of secondary xylem more so than remanence of secondary phloem
xylem, phloem
as that zygote begins to develop, in a typical dicot plant (dicot as ex here) that zygote will undergo rounds of mitotic division that will give rise to developing embryo that is going to occur within the seed process by which u go from single cell, 2 cell pro-embryo to mature seed
zygote, globular stage, heart-shaped stage, torpedo stage, bending cotyledons