Quiz 4

Types of information to analyze

Dismantling a dichotomy, exposing it as a false distinction Examining silences, what is not said Attending to disrutptions and contraindications Focusing on the element that is most alien or peculiar in the text Interpreting metaphors as a rich source of multiple meanings Analyzing double entendres that may point to an unconscious subtext Separating group specific and more general sources of bias by "reconstructing" the text with substitution of its main elements

Data analysis includes:

Preparing and organizing the data for analysis Reducing the data into themes by coding and condensing the codes Representing the data in figures, tables, or discussion

Grounded Theory Writing: Embedded Structures

Narrative report varies based on the extent of data analysis Might include one or more of the following: Description Generation of categories through open coding Linking categories around a core category in axial coding Developing a low-level theory Or developing a substantive theory linked to a formal theory Another structure is to: Present the "logic diagram" The "mini-framework" or the "integrative" diagram (theory reported in form of a visual model)

Coding occurs of collected data (interviews, observations, documents)

Aggregating text/visual data into small categories of information Development of short tentative list of codes Recommend final list of 25 to 30 categories and then reduce and combine them into 5 or 6 themes that will be used to write narrative

All steps in data analysis (collection, analysis, and reporting) are interrelated and occur simultaneously

Challenges Making analysis process explicit Qualitative researchers often "learn by doing" Leading critics to question qualitative research Researchers must rely on insight, intuition, and impression

Grounded Theory Analysis and Representation

Charmaz Differences Should avoid imposing a framework that is forced Analytic steps: Initial phase of coding is done by analyzing each line Initial codes are created to understand a process and larger theoretical categories Followed by focused coding—using initial codes to analyze syntheses and larger explanations Theoretical codes are then needed to have the grounded theory emerge

Describing and Classifying Codes into Themes

Finalizing codes and providing description creates codebook States distinctive boundaries for each code and helps with inter-rater reliability between multiple coders A codebook should include: Name for code and shortened label if needed Descriptions of code defining boundaries through inclusion and exclusion criteria Example(s) of code using data from the study Often is included as an appendix

Narrative Research Analysis and Representation

Several options to analyzing the story(ies) told Can take a literary orientation Analyzing for five elements of plot structure (characters, setting, problem, actions, and resolution) Can use three-dimensional space approach Analyzing interaction, continuity, and situation Can use a chronological approach Begin with biographical analysis Through analysis identifies four types of patterns for meaning making: similarities, differences, change, or coherence Closes with biographical reconstruction Can be how the narrative report is composed Thematic analysis is when analysis is focused on "what" is spoken/written Structural form is "how" a story is told Dialogic or performance is researcher and participant perform through poetry or play Using visual analysis of images or interpretation of images with words

Phenomenological Analysis and Representation

Specific, structured methods of analysis Describe personal experiences of phenomenon being studied Begins with full description of researchers experience Develop a list of significant statements Find statements on how individuals experienced the topic; listing in nonrepetitive, nonoverlapping statements Group significant statements into broader units of information Create description of "what" participants experienced with the phenomenon Textural description (including ver batim examples)

How to Choose Among the Computer Programs

All have similar features, some more features than others Some have guiding resources Other researchers can be approached to ask which programs they have used How easy is the program to integrate into your research? What diversity of data file format will the program accept? What reading and searching features does the program offer? What memo writing and retrieval features does the program offer? What coding and reviewing features does the program offer? What sorting and categorizing features does the program offer? What diagramming features does the program offer? What importing or exporting features does the program offer? What merging, storing, and security features does the program offer?

Case Study Analysis and Representation

Consists of making detailed description of the case and its setting If case as series of events, should be presented in chronological order Analyze multiple sources of data (if available) to determine evidence for each step or phase of the case Four forms of data analysis and interpretation Categorical aggregation: researcher seeks to collect instances from data, looking for issue-relevant meanings Direct interpretation: researcher looks at a single instance and draws meaning from it without looking for multiple instances Researcher can also establish patterns and looks for correspondence between two or more categories Naturalistic generalizations: generalizations that people can learn from the case themselves, apply learnings to a population of cases, or transfer them to another similar context

Features for Evaluating a Grounded Theory Study

Does the grounded theory study do the following? Focus on the study of a process, an action, or an interaction as the key element in the theory? The author may focus on the steps that unfold when studying a central phenomenon as a process, action, or interaction among individuals. Integrate a coding process that works from the data to a large theoretical model? The author may describe the data collection as alternating with data analysis to build a theoretical model. Present the theoretical model in a figure or diagram? The author may use innovative means for presenting the theory in a creative and innovative manner. Advance a story line or proposition connected with the categories in the theoretical model that presents further questions to be answered? The author may refer to the overall picture emerging in the current study as a springboard for future directions of research. Use memoing throughout the process of research? The author may describe the different types of memos or ways of recording ongoing thought in the process of conducting the study. Embed evidence of reflexivity or self-disclosure by the researcher about his or her stance in the study? The author may describe how a researcher journal or notebook (or other form) documented their reflexive thinking during the study.

Reader's or Reviewer's Lens

Enabling external audits An audit is conducted by an external reviewer Generating a rick, thick description Enables readers to transfer information to other settings and to determine whether the findings can be transferred Provide details when describing case or when writing about theme Having a peer review or debriefing of the data and research process External check by someone who is familiar with the research Debriefer is plays 'devil's advocate'

Ways to assess intercoder agreement of QUAL research

Establish a common platform for coding, and develop a preliminary code list Each coder should code transcripts independently and develop preliminary list Develop and share the initial codebook among coders Develop shared understanding of codes and create a codebook Apply codebook to additional transcripts, and compare coding across multiple coders Coders apply shared codebook to transcripts and then compare coding to assess consistency Assess and report the intercoder agreement among researchers Recommendation is 80% agreement Revise and finalize the codebook to inform further coding Review and refine codebook to further differentiate code definitions

Ethnographic Research - Evaluation Criteria

Few resources identify criteria for quality ethnography, two will be presented Richardson (2000) described criteria as: Substantive Contribution Does research contribute to understanding of social life? Aesthetic Merit Does research use creative analytical practices open up the text and invite interpretive responses? Reflexivity How did the author come to write this text? Ethical issues? How has the author's subjectivity been both a producer and a product of this text? Impact Does this affect me? Expresses a Reality Does this research text embody a fleshed out, embodied sense of lived experience? Spindler & Spindler (1987) created nine criteria for a "good ethnography" Criterion 1: Observations are contextualized Criterion 2: Hypotheses emerge in situ as the study goes on Criterion 3: Observation is prolonged and repetitive Criterion 4: Through interviews, observations, and other eliciting procedures, the native view of reality is obtained Criterion 5: Ethnographers elicit knowledge from informant-participants in a systematic fashion Criterion 6: Instruments, codes, schedules, questionnaires, agenda for interviews, and so forth are generated in situ as a result of inquiry Criterion 7: A transcultural, comparative perspective is frequently an unstated assumption Criterion 8: The ethnographer makes explicit what is implicit and tacit to informants Criterion 9: The ethnographic interview must not predetermine responses by the kinds of questions asked

Qualitative Perspectives - Evaluation Criteria

Five criteria that good research must satisfy (Howe & Eisenhardt, 1990) Does the research questions drive the data collection and analysis? To what extent are the data collection and analysis techniques competently applied? Are the researcher's assumptions made explicit? Does the study have overall warrant? Does the study have value both in informing and improving practice and in protecting the confidentiality, privacy, and truth telling of participants conducting in an ethical manner? Another perspective thinks about quality issues in terms of emerging criteria (Guba & Lincoln, 1989) Fairness, sharing knowledge, and fostering social action Advancement to this identifies further standards (Lincoln, 1995): Standards set within inquiry community Standard of positionality guides interpretive or QUAL research Standard under the rubric of community Interpretive or QUAL research must give voice to participants Critical subjectivity as a standard—researcher needs to have heightened self-awareness High-quality interpretive/QUAL research includes reciprocity between the researcher and those being researched Researcher should respect sacredness of relationship Sharing of privileges acknowledges that good QUAL research, researchers share rewards with those they portray Final perspective is by Richardson and includes the following criteria: Substantive contribution: Does this research contribute to our understanding of social life? Aesthetic merit: Does this research succeed aesthetically? Reflexivity: How has the researcher's subjectivity been both a producer and product of this research? Impact: Does this research generate new questions?

Phenomenological Research - Evaluation Criteria

Five questions to ask to evaluate validation Did the interviewer influence the contents of the participants' descriptions in such a way that the descriptions do not truly reflect the participants' actual experience? Is the transcription accurate, and does it convey the meaning of the oral presentation in the interview? In the analysis of the transcriptions, were there conclusions other than those offered by the researcher that could have been derived? Has the researcher identified those alternatives? Is it possible to go from the general structural description to the transcriptions and to account for the specific contents and connections in the original examples of the experience? Is the structural description situation specific, or does it hold in general for the experience in other situations?

Developing and Assessing Interpretations

Involves making sense of the data, the "lessons learned" Must be creative and critical Questions to help think outside the obvious What surprising information did you not expect to find? What information is conceptually interesting or unusual to participants and audiences? What are the dominant interpretations and what are the alternative notions? Researcher should get feedback on early data interpretations or on their audit trail and procedures Researchers may use diagrams to visually look at relationships between concepts

Data Collection

Managing and organizing the data Reading and memoing emergent ideas Describing and classifying codes into themes Developing and assessing interpretations Representing and visualizing the data Account of Findings

Participant's Lens

Member checking or seeking participant feedback Gets participants' views of the credibility of findings and interpretations Most critical technique for establishing credibility Prolonged engagement and persistent observation in the field As much time as feasible to familiarize self with site and participants Collaborating with participants Involve participants throughout research process Can be to develop data collection protocols or to contribute to data analysis and interpretation

Ethnographic Writing: Overall Structures Continued

More structured outline created by Emerson, Fretz, and Shaw (2011) Introduction That engages readers, focuses the study, proceeding to link interpretation to wider issues of scholarly interest Introduces the setting and methods for learning about it Presentation of analytic claims Incorporates analytic point, orientation information about the point, presents quote, and advances analytic commentary about the quote Conclusion Reflects and elaborates on the thesis advanced at the beginning

Several Writing Strategies

Multiple forms of writing up qualitative research Narratives blur the lines between fiction, journalism, and scholarly studies A chronological approach can be used as events unfold slowly over time Going from narrow to expanding the focus Description of events Advancing a small number of "themes" or perspectives Qualitative writing requires researchers to disclose their role in the writing, the impact on participants, and how information conveyed is read by audiences

Validation and Reliability in Qualitative Research: Perspectives on Validation

Multiple perspectives regarding validation of QUAL research Some have found qualitative equivalents to quantitative approaches Using terms such as credibility, authenticity, transferability, dependability and confirmability Instead of using the word validation, others have been suggested Structural corroboration, consensual validation, referential adequacy Others have suggested four types of validation Triangulation, construct validation, face validation, and catalytic validation While even others have little use for validation or suggest it is just a judgment of trustworthiness of research Another group has come up with four criteria Credibility, authenticity, criticality, and integrity While there are many types, researchers should find ones that they are comfortable Should use multiple validation strategies regardless of which research approach is taken

Ethical Considerations for Writing

Must be aware of appropriate reporting strategies and comply with ethical publishing practices Good checklist: Ethical Compliance Checklist Have I obtained permission for use of unpublished instruments, procedures, or data that other researchers may consider theirs? Have I properly cited other published work presented in portions of the manuscript? Am I prepared to answer questions about IRB of my study/studies? Am I prepared to answer editorial questions about the informed consent and debriefing procedures used in the study? Have all authors reviewed the manuscript and agreed on the responsibility for its consent? Have I adequately protected the confidentiality of participants, organizations, third parties, etc? Have all authors agreed to the order of authorship? Have I obtained permission for use of any copyrighted material included?

Case Study Writing: Overall Structures

No standard format, but the following topics should be included: Opening with a vignette Identify the issue, purpose, and method, background of writer, and issues surrounding the case Extensive description of the case and its context Issues presented in a few key issues Issues selected are further probed (confirming and disconfirming evidence) Assertions are presented Summary of what writer understands about the case and whether generalizations and/or conclusions have changed conceptually or challenged Ends with closing vignette Some other ways to compose a case study report Substantive case report Linear-analytic approach Chronological structure Theories Suspense structure Unsequenced structure Substantive case report: Describe a need for the explication of the problem, a thorough description of the context or setting, a description of the transactions or processes observed in that context, saliences at the site, and outcomes of the inquiry Linear-analytic approach: researcher discusses the problem, the methods, and findings, and the conclusions (standard approach) Chronological structure: presents the case in a sequence, i.e. sections or chapters that address the early, middle, and late phase of the case history Theories: can be used to debate various hypotheses or propositions Suspense structure: "answer" or outcome of a case study and its significance is presented in an initial chapter or section, remaining sections are devoted to the development of an explanation for this outcome Unsequenced structure: author describes a case with no particular order to the sections or chapter

Ethnographic Writing: Overall Structures

Overall structure varies in ethnography Some are written as realist tale, confessional tale, impressionistic tale, critical tale, formalist tale, or literary tale Wolcott presents three components that should be included in a good ethnographic report Description of the culture What is going on here? Analyzes the data Highlighting findings, display findings, reporting fieldwork procedures, identifying patterned regularities, comparing case within a broader analytic framework, critiquing the research process, and proposing a redesign of the study Interpretation Make inferences from information Realist tale: reports that provide direct, matter-of-fact portraits of studied cultures without much information about how the ethnographers produced the portraits Confessional tale: researcher focuses more on his/her fieldwork experiences than on the culture Impressionistic tale: personalized account of "the fieldwork case in dramatic form"; it has elements of both realist and confessional writing and presents a compelling and persuasive story Critical tale: focus on the large social, political, symbolic, or economic issues Formalist tale: build, test, generalize, and exhibit theory Literary tale: ethnographers write like journalists, borrowing fiction-writing techniques from novelists

Computer Use in Qualitative Data Analysis

Programs have been available since the late 1980s Are now more refined and helpful Researcher still has to do the analysis More to manage data May be worthwhile, but also need to consider the limitations Advantages Provides an organized storage file system for ease of retrieval Helps locate material with ease for the purposes of sorting Encourages a researcher to look closely at the data Produces visual representations for codes and themes Links memos with codes, themes, or documents for ease of reviewing Enables collaborative analysis and sharing among team members Disadvantages Requires a time investment for learning how to set up and run the program Interferes with the analysis by creating distance and hindering creativity Makes implementing changes, for some individuals, a hindrance Offers, for the most part, limited guidance for analysis Places the onus on the researcher to select appropriate programs for their needs How to Decide Whether to Use a Computer Program Many different software programs available Guiding questions What expertise do I bring to qualitative data analysis? How proficient am I with any computer program in qualitative data analysis? How complex is my study database? What analyses features do I anticipate my study needing for addressing my study purpose? What is the anticipated researcher configuration for my study? A Sampling of Computer Programs and Features MAXQDA Helps to systematically evaluate and interpret qualitative texts Helps develop theories and test theoretical conclusions Uses hierarchical code system Allows for memos, visual mapping, exporting data, multiple coders on the same project, and has a mobile app ATLAS.ti Enables organization of text, graphic, audio, and visual data files Can code, memo, and findings Easy to retrieve, search, browse data, build visual networks, can export data, and multiple codes on same project A Sampling of Computer Programs and Features Nvivo Helps analyze, manage, shape, and analyze qualitative data (including social media data) Provides security, can use multiple languages, can merge team research, can manipulate data and conduct searches Can graphically display codes and categories HyperRESEARCH Easy-to-use that allows coding and retrieval, build theories, and conduct analysis of data Advanced multimedia and language features Can work with text, graphics, audio, and video sources

Reading and Memoing Emergent Ideas

Researchers should read through all transcripts to get a "whole" view of all data Write notes/memos in margins Memos are short phrases, ideas, or key concepts Memoing also creates a digital audit trail that can later be examined Audit trails are a validation strategy

Guidance on Choosing Type of Display

Search data and select level and type of data to be displayed Sketch and seek feedback on initial formatting ideas Assess completeness and readability and modify as needed Note patterns and possible comparisons and clusters in the display Revisit accompanying text and verify conclusions

Qualitative researchers need to practice reflexivity

Self-understanding of biases, values, experiences Making these "positions" explicit Need to do before the study and during Placement of these comments in the paper could be in the opening and closing passages, methods (role within the study), or personal comments throughout the study

Phenomenological Writing: Overall Structures

The analysis steps provide a clearly articulated procedure for organizing the report Three models of structuring a phenomenological structure Creating a research manuscript Chapter 1: Introduction and statement of topic and outline Chapter 2: Review of the relevant literature Chapter 3: Conceptual framework of the model Chapter 4: Methodology Chapter 5: Presentation of data Chapter 6: Summary, implications, and outcomes "Research report" that is not specific, but should review the data collection, analysis, theory, and implications/application of findings Working with the text transcripts for the final report May be organized thematically, analytically, or focused narrowly on the description of a specific life situation

Managing and Organizing the Data

Typically organize data in digital files with naming system Allows to locate data easily Searchable spreadsheet or database is useful Researchers must decide appropriate unit of text and digital representations of audiovisual materials Computer programs can assist with this step

Strategies for Exploring/Developing Themes

Use memoing to capture emerging thematic ideas Highlight noteworthy quotes during coding Create diagrams representing relationships among codes/emerging concepts Draft summary statements reflective of recurring or striking aspects of the data Prior to transitioning to focus on the process of interpreting, it is important to recognize that some present thematic analysis as an alternative to coding

Grounded Theory Analysis and Representation

Uses detailed procedures for analysis Consist of three phases of coding: open, axial, and selective (Corbin & Strauss) Open coding: examination of text for salient categories of information; researcher attempts to "saturate" all categories After initial set of codes are created, researcher identifies the central phenomenon of interest Axial coding: database is reviewed to provide insight into specific coding categories that relate/explain central phenomenon, strategies for addressing phenomenon, context, and consequences for using strategies From this, theory is generated selective coding

Reflexivity and Representations in Writing

Writing a qualitative text cannot be separated from the author/researcher, how it is read by the audience, and how it impacts participants Reflexive researchers was described by Pelias as "ethically and politically self-aware, make themselves part of their own inquiry" (as cited in Creswell & Poth, 2018, p. 228). All writing is "positioned" in a stance We all have our own interpretations based on cultural, social, gender, class, and personal politics

Case Study Writing: Embedded Structures

could approach the context and setting in a chronological form with a broader picture to a narrowing one Can also pose a series of questions and answers based on the case study Need to be cognizant of amount of description versus the amount of analysis and interpretation or assertions Proper balance might be 60% to 40% or 70% to 30% in favor of description

Grounded Theory - Evaluation Criteria

Corbin & Strauss (2015) created 16 checkpoints for guiding researchers and reviewers in evaluating methodological consistency of a grounded theory study (p. 274) They also created 17 checkpoints for researchers and reviewers to evaluate the quality and applicability of grounded theory studies (p. 275) Charmaz created her own set of questions to review the quality of the theory developed in a grounded theory study (p. 276)

Data analysis has two layers

Cover the processes in general spiral analysis Build on general analysis by using specific procedures for each of the five methods of inquiry

Moving beyond codes, a researcher then classifies the text into themes (5 to 7)

Includes multiple codes that are aggregated to form a common idea Challenging to leap from codes to themes

Phenomenological Analysis and Representation

Specific, structured methods of analysis Draft description of "how" experience happened Structural description Write composite description of phenomenon Includes both textural and structural descriptions Is the "essence" of the phenomenon Process involves: Attending to entire text Look for statements or phrases -examining every sentence Four guides for reflection: space felt by individuals, physical or bodily presence, time, and relationships with others

Ethnographic Analysis and Representation

Three aspects of data analysis: description, analysis, and interpretation of the culture-sharing group Begin with description of culture-sharing group in chronological order Analysis is a sorting procedure that includes highlighting specific material or display findings through tables, charts, diagrams, and figures Analysis also includes systematic procedures building taxonomies, generating comparison tables, and developing semantic tables Making an interpretation of the culture-sharing group includes drawing inferences, speculations regarding comparative interpretations Fetterman's analysis includes: (not a lockstep procedure) Triangulating data by testing one source against another Looking for patterns of thought and behavior Focusing on key events Ethnographers: Draw maps of setting, develop charts, design matrices, and may use statistical procedures to analyze frequency and magnitude

Phenomenological Writing: Embedded Structures

When a writer presents the "essence" of the experience for participants through a short paragraph about it in the narrative or with a figure Moustakas's (1994) recommends: "Write a brief creative close that speaks to the essence of the study and its inspiration to you in terms of the value of the knowledge and future directions of your professional-personal life" (as cited

Ethnographic Writing: Embedded Structures

Writers use rhetorical devises such as: Figures of speech or "tropes" Metaphors Synecdoche Storytelling tropes Irony Write "lushly" or "thickly" Present dialogue Use characterization Tell a "good story"

Grounded Theory Writing: Overall Structures

Need to present the theory in any narrative in a grounded theory study Research procedures: Research questions are broad Literature review shows gaps or biases in existing knowledge (not providing key concepts or hypotheses) Methodology develops during the course of the study Findings section discusses the theoretical scheme Final discussion explores relationship of the theory to other existing knowledge and implications for future research and practice Broad writing parameters: Develop a clear analytic story Write on a conceptual level, with description kept secondary to concepts and the analytic story Specify the relationships among categories Specify the variations and relevant conditions, consequences, etc. for relationships among categories Strauss and Corbin describe specific aspects of the final report containing: Section on open coding (ID various open codes that were discovered) Axial coding (includes diagram of theory and discussion of each component in diagram) Theory (advancing theoretical propositions tying together elements of categories in diagram) Charmaz describes less-structured approach: Importance for allowing ideas to emerge as theory develops Revise early drafts asking questions about the theory Construction of an argument about importance of the theory and examining categories of theory No specific template

A Comparison of Writing Structures Across Approaches

There is a wide variety of approaches for narrative structures The narrative tropes/literary strategies discussed by ethnographic and narrative researchers an be used regardless of the approach Writing structures are related to data analysis procedures Difficult to separate activities of data collection, analysis, and report writing Emphasis given when writing the narrative (especially embedded narrative structures) varies between approaches Narrative structure is clearly indicated in some approaches (grounded theory, phenomenology, and some case study) where others are more flexible and evolving (narrative, ethnography)

Audience and Our Writings

All writers write for an audience, so need to think about who is part of that audiences or multiple audiences Four potential audiences: colleagues, participants, policy makers, general public By identifying the audience, can help inform choices during the writing process For what audience(s) is this study being written? What informs these choices? What am I hoping to achieve with this report to my audience? What writing structures would by audience expect? Are there other audiences who could benefit from my learning and knowledge? How might I structure my writing to fit other audience' needs?

Narrative Research Evaluation Criteria

Guiding Aspects of a Good Narrative Study Does the narrative study do the following? Focus on an individual? The author may choose to focus on a single or two or three people. Collect stories about a significant issue? The author may focus on the stories told by the individual(s). Develop a chronology? The author may use a chronology to connect different phases or aspects of a story. Tell a story? The author may, through the story, report what was said (themes), how it was said (unfolding story), or how speakers interact or perform the narrative. Embed reflexivity? The author may use reflexive thinking and writing to bring himself or herself into the study.

Researcher's Lens

Role is to check the accuracy of a QUAL report, can use the following strategies: Corroborating evidence through triangulation of multiple data sources Researcher uses multiple sources, methods, investigators, and theories Discovering negative case analysis or disconfirming evidence Works on hypothesis as research progresses especially when negative or rival evidence appears Clarifying researcher bias or engaging in reflexivity Disclose understandings about biases, values, and experiences

Quotes in Our Writings

Should be as illustrative as possible, contextualized, interpreted, and incorporated within the text Three types of quotes are the most useful: Short, eye-catching quotations Easy to read, take up little space, stand out to signify different perspectives Embedded quotes, briefly quoted phrases within the analyst's narrative Used to prepare a reader for a shift in emphasis/displays a point and allows the writer to move on Longer quotations Used to convey more complex understandings Difficult to use because of space limitations and may be hard for readers to follow

Comparing the five Approaches

Through all approaches: Researcher must create and organize files Must then read and memo information to develop sense of data and making sense of them Then each approach looks at creating a description Presentation of data reflects data analysis steps Grounded theory: Begins to build a theory of the action or process Grounded theory and phenomenology: Have most detailed procedure for data analysis Ethnography and case studies: Use common data analysis procedures Narrative: Least structured procedure

Narrative Writing: Embedded Structures

Writing structure at more micro level relates to several components: Gives more space to voices, not to silence them Emphasize the "key events" or epiphany Four types: major event, cumulative/representative events, minor epiphany, episodes or relived epiphanies Themes Finding a theme to guide the development of the life to be written Use of dialogue Rhetorical devices Use of transitions such as chronological linkages, foreshadowing, or metaphors

Narrative Writing: Overall Structures

In narrative research, writers are unwilling to stick to a tightly prescribed writing structure Authors prefer maximum flexibility, but do emphasize core elements that might go into the narrative study Clandinin and Connelly (2000) have two different structures: Narratives of a chronology of the lives Can be organized by time or specific episodes More classical approach—introduction, literature, review, and methodology Close relationship between data collection, analysis, and form and structure of the writing In a more structured approach, elements are presented in six components: A summary or point of the story Orientation (time, place, situations) Complicating action (event sequence, plot) Evaluation (narrators comments on meaning/emotions) Resolution (outcome of the plot) Coda (ending the story and bringing it back to the present) Less structured approach focuses on interrogation between speakers (dialogue and direct speech)

Representing and Visualizing the Data

In the final stage, the researcher should represent the data—showing what was found in text, tabular or figure form Comparison table Matrix Hierarchical tree diagram Can be difficult to determine which type of display should be used due to variety available Hypotheses or prepositions that describe relationships can also be represented

Phenomenological Research Questions to test level of validity

Is the study based on valid phenomenological question? Is the analysis performed on experientially descriptive accounts, transcripts? Is the study properly rooted in primary and scholarly phenomenological literature—rather than mostly relying on questionable secondary and tertiary sources? Does the study avoid trying to legitimate itself with validation criteria derived from sources that are concerned with other methodologies?

Major points a qualitative researcher should consider about their writings:

Should I write about what people say or recognize that sometimes they cannot remember or choose not to remember? What are my political reflexivities that need to come into my report? Has my writing connected the voices and stories of the individuals back to the set of historic, structural, and economic relations in which they are situated? How far should I go in theorizing the words of participants? Have I considered how many words could be used for progressive, conservative, and repressive social policies? Have I backed into the passive voice and decoupled my responsibility from my interpretation? To what extent has my analysis (and writings) offered an alternative to common sense of the dominant discourse?

Issue within Coding Process

Should frequency of codes be counted? (often considered QUANT) Should preexisting or a prior codes be used? Where should the names of codes come from? In vivo codes: names are exact words of the participants Names from social or health sciences Names researcher thinks best describes the information Names from metaphors What type of information should be coded? Could be stories, individual experiences, processes, actions, or interactions, cultural themes, detailed descriptions of case(s)

Case Study Research - Evaluation Criteria

"Critique Checklist" (Stake, 1995) Is the report easy to read? Does it fit together, each sentence contributing to the whole? Does the report have a conceptual structure (i.e., themes or issues)? Is the case adequately defined? Is there a sense of a story to the presentation? Has the writer made sound assertions, neither over- nor misinterpreting? Were sufficient raw data presented? Are personal intentions examined? Is the role and point of view of the researcher nicely apparent? Yin (2014) provides characteristics that should be present in an exemplary case study: Significant Complete Consider alternative perspectives Display sufficient evidence Composed in an engaging manner

Use of Computer Software Programs with the Five Approaches

Assist with the following: Storing and organizing diverse forms of qualitative data Locating and sorting text or image segments associated with a code or theme Retrieving and reviewing common passages or segments that relate to two or more code labels Comparing and relating among code labels Supporting the researcher to conceptualize different levels of abstraction Assist with the following: Representing and visualizing codes and themes Documenting and managing memos into codes Creating and applying templates for coding data within each approach (Figures 8.5 to 8.9) Narrative: codes related to the story (chronology, plot, themes) Phenomenological: codes for bracketing, significant statements, meaning units, textural and structural descriptions Grounded theory: three major coding phases (open, axial, and selective) Ethnography: theoretical lens, description of culture and analysis of themes, field issues, interpretation Case study: context, description of case

Reliability in QUAL can be addressed in multiple ways

Can be enhanced by researcher obtaining detailed field notes by using a good quality recording device and doing verbatim transcription Intercoder agreement Use of multiple coders to analyze transcripts Develop codes and then assess the reliability between coders

Describing and Classifying Codes into Themes

Codes or categories are the heart of qualitative data analysis Researchers build detailed descriptions, apply codes, develop themes, and provide interpretation Detailed descriptions are accounts of what researchers see Within context and is a good place to start a qualitative study

Phenomenological Research Questions to appraise phenomenological studies

Heuristic questioning: Does the text include a sense of contemplative wonder and questioning attentiveness? Descriptive richness: Does the text contain rich and recognizable experiential material? Interpretive depth: Does the text offer reflective insights that go beyond the taken-for-granted understandings of everyday life? Distinctive rigor: Does the text remain constantly guided by a self-critical question of distinct meaning or the phenomenon/event? Strong and addressive meaning: Does the text "speak" to and address our sense of embodied meaning? Experiential awakening: Does the text awaken prereflective or primal experience through vocative and presentative language ? Inceptual epiphany: Does the study offer us the possibility of deeper and original insight, and perhaps, an intuitive or inspirited grasp of the ethic and ethos of life commitments and practices?

Recommendations for Memoing

Prioritize memoing throughout analysis process Individualize a system for memo organization Segment memos capture ideas from reading particular phrases in the data Document memos capture concepts develop from reviewing an individual file or as a way of documenting evolving ideas from the review across multiple files Project memos capture the integration of ideas across one concept or as a way of documenting how multiple concepts might fit together across the project Embed sorting strategies for memo retrieval

Encoding Our Writings

The words we use to encode our writing, reveals how we perceive the needs of our audiences How one might encode a qualitative research study, might include the following: An overall structure that does not conform to the standard six chapters A writing style that is personal, familiar, "up-close" highly readable, friendly—applicable for a wide audience A level of detail that makes the work come alive—transporting the reader directly into the world of the study